Particulate Science and Technology

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Erosion and flow visualization in centrifugal

slurry pumps: a comprehensive review of recent
developments and future outlook

Jagadeesh Banka & Anant Kumar Rai

To cite this article: Jagadeesh Banka & Anant Kumar Rai (28 Sep 2023): Erosion and flow
visualization in centrifugal slurry pumps: a comprehensive review of recent developments and
future outlook, Particulate Science and Technology, DOI: 10.1080/02726351.2023.2259336

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Published online: 28 Sep 2023.

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PARTICULATE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
https://doi.org/10.1080/02726351.2023.2259336

Erosion and flow visualization in centrifugal slurry pumps: a comprehensive

review of recent developments and future outlook
Jagadeesh Banka and Anant Kumar Rai
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Warangal, India

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Primary goal of this article is to present recent developments in erosion research and associated Centrifugal slurry pump;
particles in centrifugal slurry pumps. Solid particles in transported liquid cause severe erosion of PIV; particle; erosion;
components in centrifugal pumps causing poor performance and reduced lifespan. Erosion neces­ sediment; efficiency
sitates frequent repairs and maintenance replacements, resulting in significant financial losses. This
article summarizes the effect of slurry erosion on the performance characteristics of centrifugal
pumps handling different fluid and solid mixtures, as well as methods to reduce erosion.
According to the majority of the literature, particle properties, pump geometry, and operating
parameters have a paramount influence on pump characteristics. Recently, researchers attempted
to improve the performance characteristics of centrifugal pumps by employing various flow visual­
ization techniques, which also aid in understanding the solid particle interaction with various
pump components. Therefore, recent advancements in flow visualization technology inside the
centrifugal pump are also included. Further, specific studies on erosion in centrifugal slurry pumps
from different industries are also provided. This study is beneficial to designers, process managers
and researchers involved with slurry centrifugal pumps.

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

1. Introduction
Centrifugal pumps transport two-phase fluids at medium
heads and are widely used in refineries, agricultural irriga­
tion, power generation, dredging, and oil and petroleum
industries. The major issues caused by slurry flow in the
centrifugal pump are increased power consumption, vibra­
tions and loud noises, a longer time to reach stable condi­
tions, higher pressure fluctuations, and a less stable head
(Wang et al. 2012; Zhang et al. 2013). Due to the presence
of solid particles in the pumping fluid, centrifugal pump
components such as the casing and impeller are subjected to
significant abrasive erosion, resulting in a rapid decline in
performance and a significantly reduced operational life.
Erosion in pump components necessitates regular repairs
and replacements, costing the associated industries signifi­
cant financial and downtime losses. Thus, it is critical to

CONTACT Jagadeesh Banka banka.jagadeesh555@gmail.com Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Warangal, India.
� 2023 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
2 J. BANKA AND A. K. RAI
investigate the various factors associated with centrifugal
slurry pump erosion and the mitigation methods available
to deal with it.
Several researchers conducted extensive studies on ero­
sion in centrifugal slurry pumps to identify various parame­
ters influencing erosion and slurry pump performance
(Roco, Nair, and Addie 1986; Engin and Gur 2003; Wang
et al. 2012; Xiao et al. 2019). Engin and Gur (2003) discov­
ered that the characteristics of the solid particles present in
the slurry, such as size, shape, concentration etc., primarily
affect the performance of centrifugal slurry pumps. Among
all the characteristics, the concentration of solid particles has
the highest influence on the pump performance and erosion
behavior (Wang et al. 2012). Furthermore, Xiao et al. (2019)
discovered that pump geometry also has a significant effect
on erosion patterns and flow characteristics. Tian, Addie,
and Pagalthivarthi (2005) observed that erosion in slurry
centrifugal pumps is heavily influenced by the physical
properties of the solid particles, chemical properties, and
operating parameters. Though several findings agree with
the factors involved in pump component erosion, the inter­
dependence of the parameters is not fully explored (Engin
and Gur 2003; Wang et al. 2012; Xiao et al. 2019; Roco,
Nair, and Addie 1986; Tian, Addie, and Pagalthivarthi
2005).
The erosion rate increases as the particle size in the slurry
increases (Noon and Kim 2016; Tarodiya and Gandhi
2019a). In contrast to the general findings in the literature,
Zhao et al. (2021) discovered that increasing particle size
had not much effect on the rate of erosion in the volute
compared to the impeller. Major literature suggests that, as
particle size distribution (PSD) increases, the head ratio and
efficiency ratio decrease (Tarodiya and Gandhi 2019a;
Bajawi, Salim, and Suhibani 2014; Gandhi, Singh, and
Seshadri 2001). Zhang et al. (2013), on the other hand,
found no significant difference in head and efficiency for
very small particle sizes. However, in presence of larger par­
ticles, the performance characteristics of pump suffered a
significant drop. The shape of the particle, in addition to its
size, also impacts the erosion rate of a centrifugal slurry
pump with accelerated erosion by angular-shaped particles
in general (Shen and Chu 2018; Chen and Li 2003).
According to Zhao et al. (2021), even though the erosion
rate increases as the particle shape factor decreases, the
highest erosion cannot be attributed to the sharpest
particles.
According to Shen and Chu (2018), an increase in par­
ticle concentration leads to a higher wear rate. The effects of
concentration are most severe on the volute, followed by the
pressure and suction sides of the impeller. The rate of
reduction in head and efficiency increases linearly with sedi­
ment particle concentration, especially at low concentrations
(Gahlot, Seshadri, and Malhotra 1992; Zhang et al. 2013).
Many researchers, however, suggest a negative correlation
between concentration and the head produced by the centri­
fugal pump, even though the required pumping power
increases as concentration increases (Shen and Chu 2018;
Bajawi, Salim, and Suhibani 2014; Wang et al. 2012; Kumar,
Gandhi, and Mohapatra 2014; Tarodiya and Gandhi 2019a;
Gandhi, Singh, and Seshadri 2001; Chandel, Singh, and
Seshadri 2011).
Peng, Fan, et al. (2021) improved the design of a centri­
fugal slurry pump impeller and found that an optimized
pump design had a lower wear rate and a longer service life.
According to their findings, changing the blade outlet to a
straight profile resulted in a significant reduction in the
wear rate at the blade outlet near the rear cover. The impel­
ler diameter, number of blades, blade outlet width, and
wrap angle are the parameters that impacted the head devel­
oped in the order of their influence. Gandhi, Singh, and
Seshadri (1998) investigated the performance of a centrifugal
slurry pumps in erosive conditions and their relationship to
pump geometry. They observed leakage losses as the reason
for the significant drop in pump performance. Several
researchers attempted to improve the performance charac­
teristics of centrifugal pumps in erosive conditions by
improving the pump geometry (Peng, Fan, et al. 2021; Cai,
Zhou, and Li 2016; Gelfi et al. 2019; Tao, Bai, and Wu 2021;
Tian, Addie, and Pagalthivarthi 2005). However, centrifugal
pumps are used in a wide range of applications with various
types of liquids (density, viscosity, etc.) and solids (sediment,
rapeseed, etc.). As a result, specific studies are required to
address the differences in erosion and performance charac­
teristics of centrifugal pumps based on their application.
As the flow behavior and erosion inside a centrifugal
pump are complex, extensive experimentation is required in
various conditions to understand the flow behavior, per­
formance characteristics, and erosion characteristics in cen­
trifugal slurry pumps (Shi, Wei, and Zhang 2017). Recently
researchers used various flow visualization techniques to
observe flow patterns and solid-liquid flow separation inside
centrifugal slurry pumps (Wu et al. 2009; Shi, Wei, and
Zhang 2017; Kadambi et al. 2004; Perissinotto et al. 2020;
Keller et al. 2014). Kadambi et al. (2004) built an impeller
and pump casing using a transparent acrylic material and
used a Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) technique to cap­
ture images with laser light to study flow behavior. Keller
et al. (2014) investigated the flow of water in a six-channel
impeller rotating at 625 rpm using a standard 2D-2C PIV
system with a camera and a laser made of yttrium-alumi­
num garnet and a neodymium ion (Nd:YAG) projector. Li,
Chen, Chen, et al. (2020) visualized the flow of water in a
pump using a standard PIV approach. Shi, Wei, and Zhang
(2017) used optically acrylic resin to create the pump’s rotor
and casing. The PIV setup was created using an instrument
laser light charge-coupled device camera. Perissinotto et al.
(2020) used Particle Tracking Velocimetry (PTV) technology
in a centrifugal pump recently. These visualization techni­
ques allowed to study the difference between flow behaviors
of solid and liquid in a slurry.
The present study discusses the main parameters that
cause erosion, degradation in performance characteristics,
and conditioning these parameters to increase both the per­
formance and service life of centrifugal slurry pumps. The
review paper is divided into seven sections where the first
section details the literature on the erosion and performance

characteristics of centrifugal slurry pumps. The second sec­
tion discusses the effect of solid particle characteristics,
operating conditions and blade geometry on slurry pump
erosion as well as performance characteristics. The third sec­
tion discusses various methods for reducing the rate of ero­
sion in slurry pumps; whereas, the fourth section provides
the advancements in flow visualization techniques in centri­
fugal slurry pumps. The fifth section contains a brief discus­
sion of the type of industrial slurries studied. Sixth section
discuss about challenges in measuring and modeling of
slurry pump erosion. The seventh and eighth sections are a
discussion of the future outlook and major conclusions,
respectively.
2. Erosion in the centrifugal slurry pump
According to Xiao et al. (2019), particle erosion, cavitation
and corrosion are the factors that significantly degrade the
performance and shorten the life of centrifugal pumps.
Pump components are eroded by particles in the flowing
fluid leading to the loss of material from the surface. Figure
1(a–b) shows detailed nomenclature information for centri­
fugal pump components. This visual aid improves reader
comprehension by providing clear insights into the various
elements involved. As illustrated in Figure 1(c–f), the
Figure 1. (a) Erosion by cutting mechanism, (b) erosion by fatigue, (c) erosion by plastic deformation, (d) erosion by brittle fracture (Chitrakar, Neopane, and
Dahlhaug 2016).
PARTICULATE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 3
mechanism of such erosion caused by an abrasive particle
collision is cutting, fatigue, brittle fracture, and melting. The
metal disintegrated in the cutting erosion due to edge pene­
tration or plastic deformation. This phenomenon is mainly
observed in ductile materials at a low impingement angle.
The cyclic erosion mechanism of fatigue is different from
the non-cyclic erosion mechanism of brittle fracture.
Melting erosion occurs when the surface comes into contact
with a fluid hotter than the melting point of the metal. The
casing tongue of a centrifugal slurry pump is eroded by
deformation and cutting, whereas all other casing locations
are eroded by plowing and cutting mechanisms.
During off-design operations, pressure drops in pump
components result in cavitation, which causes vapor bubbles
to form in low-pressure regions and implode when they
reach high-pressure regions. Slurry particle erosion and cavi­
tation damages to metallic surfaces affect the geometry of
the blades and volute. The multifaceted challenge of corro­
sion emerges as a critical concern in the realm of pump per­
formance and longevity. Corrosion can have a significant
impact on operational efficiency and service life because of
chemical interactions between the fluid being pumped and
the pump’s components. The affected surfaces alter the flow
passages, which is critical in accelerating the erosion process.
Selim et al. (2009) performed several experiments at various
4 J. BANKA AND A. K. RAI
flow conditions using sand of different sizes and concentra­
tions to find their effect on the pump cavitation and Net
Positive Suction Head (NPSH) characteristics. With increas­
ing particle concentration and pump speed, the likelihood of
cavitation initiation increases. While particle size has a neg­
ligible effect, the pump NPSH increased with concentration
and speed whereas decreased with flow rate. Further, the
size and concentration of the particle had an inverse rela­
tionship with head and efficiency.
2.1. Parameters affecting abrasive erosion and
performance characteristics
In centrifugal slurry pumps, Noon and Kim (2016) exam­
ined parameters associated with erosion rate, operating con­
ditions, solid particle physicochemical properties, and
temperature to find major erosion in the impeller and cas­
ing. According to Tian, Addie, and Pagalthivarthi (2005),
solid particle characteristics such as geometry, particle size
distribution (PSD), and size have a huge influence on mater­
ial wear and energy coefficients. The material removal rate
increased with the operation time. In the beginning of oper­
ation, erosion started at the outlet, middle portion and the
inlet of the pressure side, suction and back shroud, respect­
ively. As the running time increased, the wear on the pres­
sure side tended to move toward the inlet, whereas it moved
toward the two extremes on the suction side. The erosion
area moved to outlet region of the blade on the back shroud
with time of operation as shown in Figure 2(a–e) (Wang, Li,
et al. 2022).
Figure 2. Erosion wears on the pump (a) impeller wear at actual site (Peng, Chen, et al. 2021). (b) Casing wear at the actual site (Kr€
and impeller wear under different duration conditions. (c) 1 h, (d) 3 h, (e) 5 h (Wang, Li, et al. 2022).
2.2. Influence of solid particle properties on wear and
performance characteristics
Several researchers like Cheng et al. (2017), Lai et al. (2019),
Shen and Chu (2018), Zhang, Yang, and Zhao (2017) and
Zhao et al. (2021) studied the influence of solid particle
properties on erosion and performance characteristics of
centrifugal slurry pumps. The impacts of various sediment
properties are discussed in detail below.
2.2.1. Effect of particle size
Particle size strongly influences the service life of a centrifu­
gal slurry pump by increasing the erosion rate with particle
size due to inertia (Bandi et al. 2023; Tarodiya and Gandhi
2019a; Shen et al. 2019; Lai et al. 2019; Tarodiya and
Gandhi 2021). From particle size increase, Zhao et al. (2021)
and Tarodiya and Gandhi (2019a) observed a non-linear
variation of erosion with scar or sliding erosion mechanism
(Noon and Kim 2016; Lai et al. 2019). At constant concen­
tration, the erosion rate first rises to a peak and decreases
thereafter (Wang, Tan, et al. 2022; Zhao et al. 2021).
Between the impeller and casing, the impeller undergoes a
maximum erosion rate for fixed particle size (Zhao et al.
2021; Lai et al. 2019). For small-sized particles, Tarodiya
and Gandhi (2021), Wang, Tan, et al. (2022) and Lai et al.
(2019) observed the maximum erosion at the leading edge
only. However, as the particle size increased, the trailing
edge underwent severe erosion and erosion distribution
moved toward the middle of the blade as shown in Figure
3(a–c). A similar observation was made by Shen et al.
uger, Martin, and Dupont 2010),

Figure 3. Blade wear under different particle sizes. (a) 0.125–0.212 mm, (b) 0.212–0.425 mm, and (c) 0.425–0.710 mm (Wang, Tan, et al. 2022).
Figure 4. Erosion rate of pump components for different particle sizes in a year
(Zhao et al. 2021).
(2019) in the case of a double-suction centrifugal pump. For
a given particle size, the maximum erosion rate is observed
in the blade followed by the hub and shroud as shown in
Figure 4 (Zhao et al. 2021). However, Shen et al. (2019) reg­
istered a maximum erosion rate in the hub followed by the
blade and shroud. This may be attributed to differences in
the particle sizes, concentration and flow rate considered.
Interestingly, Tarodiya and Gandhi (2021) observed the
maximum erosion rate in the casing (Figure 5(a–b)) mainly
due to low solid concentrations and part load conditions. As
smaller particles follow fluid streamlines whereas the bigger
particles tend to separate, the tongue and exit area are sub­
jected to the highest erosion rate in the casing as shown in
Figure 5(c–d) (Tarodiya and Gandhi 2021; Lai et al. 2019;
Noon and Kim 2016). As per literature, smaller particles
cause erosion at the leading edge of the impeller blade;
whereas, larger particles cause erosion at the trailing edge
and middle portion of the blade. However, comprehensive
descriptions of erosion mechanisms, evaluation of other par­
ticle properties such as surface roughness and hardness of
particle need to be explored. These studies only examined a
limited range of particle sizes and wear tests over a broader
size range is required.
PARTICULATE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 5
In a deteriorated centrifugal slurry pump, the drop in
efficiency is more compared to the drop in the head pro­
duced (Wang, Lu, et al. 2021; Zhang et al. 2013; Shen et al.
2019; Bajawi, Salim, and Suhibani 2014). Furthermore,
according to Zhang et al. (2013), Bajawi, Salim, and
Suhibani (2014), Cheng et al. (2017) and Shen et al. (2019),
the performance declines slowly in presence of small par­
ticles and rapidly as the particle size increases. It is due to
change in the flow pattern as shown in Figure 6(a). It is
interesting to note that Li et al. (2012), Cheng et al. (2017)
and Xiao et al. (2019) reported a slight increase in effi­
ciency with an increase in particle size for a pump is han­
dling slurry. However, this conclusion is limited to low
turbulence intensity conditions, i.e., at low particle sizes
and concentrations conditions as shown in Figure 6(b–c).
However, there is a need for an in-depth study of the
causes of performance degradation, particle size impacts
with other slurry characteristics, and gradual efficiency
trends with particle size.
2.2.2. Effect of particle size distribution
Slurry with graded particles affect wear rate of centrifugal
slurry pumps differently compared with the slurries contain­
ing only one particle size. Pagalthivarthi et al. (2013) consid­
ered broad particle size distribution (PSD) encountered in
industrial slurries with a characteristic diameter and found
that the changes to mono-size erosion estimates are required
to incorporate the effect of PSD (Chandel, Singh, and
Seshadri 2011). As PSD of the slurry changes from mono-
sized to broad-sized, the erosion behavior of pump blades
remains reasonably constant. However, when PSD gets
exceedingly broad, the erosion phenomenon changes notice­
ably (Bandi et al. 2023). Gahlot, Seshadri, and Malhotra
(1992) suggested the use of median diameter (d50) and
weighted mean diameter for narrow-sized and broad-sized
PSD, respectively. In contrast, Gandhi and Borse (2004)
stated that using median or weighted mean diameters as the
nominal particle size of a multi-sized slurry causes signifi­
cant mistakes in erosion wear predictions. For all particle
size classes, Pagalthivarthi et al. (2013) observed particles
mostly get concentrated at the leading edge of the blade
6 J. BANKA AND A. K. RAI

Figure 5. Variation of erosion rate of (a) volute and impeller with particle size (Tarodiya and Gandhi 2021), (b) volute and impeller with particle size (Zhao et al.
2021), (c) Mass loss of casing at different locations, marked locations of casing (Tarodiya and Gandhi 2019b), (d) rise in erosion rate against a rise in particle size,
wear a map for a different location on an angle basis (Noon and Kim 2016).

pressure surface. The concentration gradients were stronger
for bigger particles and reduced for smaller particles.
Further, Pagalthivarthi et al. (2017) found that the average
size (da) provided the closest results to multi-sized particle
analysis. For each size class, they performed three single-
sized (d50, dw and da) simulations as well as a multi-size
simulation to obtain the rates of overall wear, sliding wear,
and impact wear (Figure 7(a–c)). For PSD 3, the wear coeffi­
cients for impact and slide decreased with increasing particle
diameter. The larger particles inside the pump casing
extended centrifugally in the direction of the casing wall
increasing particle concentration and shear stress. On the
other hand, it has a sliding wear coefficient that decreased
exponentially with particle size.
The head and efficiency ratios decrease with an increase
in the spread of PSD with the same median diameter
(Tarodiya and Gandhi 2021; Bajawi, Salim, and Suhibani
2014; Gandhi, Singh, and Seshadri 2001). With an increase
in median particle size, Li et al. (2022) initially observed a
minor increase in specific power consumption (SPC) and
subsequently, it lowered to a certain value before increasing
again. The ideal particle size gradations (optimal uniformity
coefficients) of particles with varying median diameters cor­
responded to the lowest SPC. Gandhi, Singh, and Seshadri
(2001) found that the inclusion of smaller particles in larger
slurries significantly reduced the pump performance degrad­
ation. Tarodiya and Gandhi (2021) found linear variation in
performance characteristics with single-sized particles and

Figure 6. Effect of particle diameter on performance characteristics (Zhang et al. 2013), (b) Efficiency-flow curves at different particle sizes (Li et al. 2012), (c) Head-
flow curves at different particle sizes (Li et al. 2012).
non-linear variation with multi-sized particles. The weighted
mean size underestimated the drop in head ratio (HR) and
efficiency ratio (ER); while, the mean size overestimated the
drop in values. The performance characteristics of the cen­
trifugal slurry pump decreased with increase in weight frac­
tion of relatively bigger particles as shown in Figure 8(a–c).
For both 20% and 30% concentration of solid particles, a
similar trend was observed in HR and ER drop. But, from
PSD 1 to PSD 5, a higher drop in HR and ER was observed
in 30% concentration of solid particles.
2.2.3. Effect of particle shape
The blade erosion rate is dependent on the particle shape
and the erosion rate reduces as the shape factor of the par­
ticles reaches a value one corresponding to a spherical
shaped particle (Shen et al. 2019; Zhao et al. 2021; Chen
and Li 2003). The particle with a sphere-like shape diffuse
in the bulk fluid motion; whereas, particles with sharp edges
do not diffuse in the fluid stream and require high drag
forces to interact with the fluid stream (Shen and Chu 2018;
Zhao et al. 2021; Shen et al. 2019; Zhao et al. 2021). In case
of a centrifugal pump, Shen and Chu (2018) reported the
maximum value of erosion in the volute as shown in Figure
PARTICULATE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 7
9(a). Shen et al. (2019) reported that the suction side trailing
edge undergoes severe erosion subjected to a cutting erosion
mechanism. Contrastingly, Zhao et al. (2021) observed the
maximum erosion at the pressure side caused by a particle
with a shape factor 0.84. This abnormal variation is sub­
jected to the angle of impingement and the contact area
between the erodent and the substrate. Chen and Li (2003)
considered three differently shaped particles – a triangle,
square and sphere, with the same kinetic energy in each
case. For a single particle impingement, they found the max­
imum erosion with a triangle-shaped particle due to low
contact area and high contact stress. It was followed by
sphere and square shaped particles, which have high contact
area compared to triangle shaped particles. With multi-par­
ticles, the least erosion rate was observed with sphere-shaped
particles and the maximum erosion with triangle-shaped
particles as shown in Figure 9(c–d). The rise in erosion rate
with square particles was subjected to parameters like sur­
face roughness, plastic deformation, and shifts in the particle
orientation with respect to the target surface. According to
Figure 9(b), the blade pressure side experiences the most
erosion for a given form factor, followed by volute, the hub
and the shroud which practically erode at the same rate.
8 J. BANKA AND A. K. RAI
Figure 7. (a). Comparison of Total wear, (b) Comparison of sliding wear rate, (c) impact wear rates of single and multi-sized simulation for PSD 3 (Pagalthivarthi,
Furlan, and Visintainer 2017).
Hence, it is not conclusive that the sharpest particles cause
the most erosion for a given particle volume. The angle of
impingement, the rotation of the particle and the contact
area are significant parameters while estimating the erosion
rate related to particle shape. The effect of particle shape on
erosion rate under various conditions such as impingement
angle, particle rotation, and contact area are yet to be
explored completely in pumps, especially using experiments.
Although non-spherical particles caused higher erosion in
the research of Shen et al. (2019) and Zhao et al. (2021),
Chen and Li (2003) observed reduced erosion with non-
spherical particles.
2.2.4. Effect of particle density
At lower values of particle density, blade pressure side is
subjected to severe erosion; however, both blade pressure
and suction sides experience equal erosion rates for particle
density values near unity (Zhang, Yang, and Zhao 2017).
Furthermore, at higher values of particle density, the trailing
edge of the suction side is severely eroded and the density
has low impact on the degree of wear on both sides of
blade. In contrast, Chen et al. (2022) and Zhang et al.
(2013) stated that blade suction side undergoes severe ero­
sion than the pressure side for specific gravity less than 1.
The differences in particle concentration and size considered
in experiments is the major reason for discrepancy in the
findings. Additionally, Chen et al. (2022) revealed that
particles were very effectively guided by the fluid flow for
particle Stokes number values near zero. However, as the
Stokes number increased, particles moved in the direction of
the pressure side and caused erosion.
Due to the change in particle density, the pump suffers a
linear drop in performance (Barmaki and Ehghaghi 2019;
Gandhi, Singh, and Seshadri 2001). The drop in head is
more compared to the drop in efficiency of the pump; but,
the drop in performance characteristics due to density vari­
ation is not as significant as the size and concentration of
the particle (Zhang et al. 2013). While there are studies on
the impact of particle size and density separately, further
research is required to consider the combined effect of these
factors on erosion rates. Although recognized, the effects of
particle density on pump performance are not well explored
completely.
2.2.5. Effect of slurry concentration
In general, the increase in particle concentration increases
the erosion rate in a centrifugal pump (Wang, Tan, et al.
2022; Wang, Li, et al. 2022; Wang, Wang, et al. 2022; Zhao
et al. 2021; Peng, Luo, and Wang 2015; Chandel, Singh, and
Seshadri 2011). In contrast, Shen and Chu (2018), Noon and
Kim (2016), and Zhao et al. (2021) reported higher erosion
rate at low concentration values compared to high concen­
tration values due to formation of buffering layer at high
concentration values. For a fixed value of velocity and

Figure 8. (a) Different PSD classes, (b) variation of HR with PSD, (c) variation of ER with PSD (Tarodiya and Gandhi 2021).
diameter of the particles, Noon and Kim (2016) found an
increase in the rate of erosion for increase in concentration
value from 20% to 30% (Figure 10(c)). Further increase in
the concentration from 30% to 40%, the number of particles
accumulated near-wall increased and the role of impact and
sliding wear erosion reduced resulting in a damped cumula­
tive erosion rate. In contrast, due to a different particle sizes
and concentration range considered, Shen et al. (2019)
found a significant increase in erosion at high concentration
values. Wang, Tan, et al. (2022) observed non-linear erosion
rate in impeller with concentration; however, Bandi et al.
(2023) found a linear variation in erosion rates with concen­
tration. The trailing edge of the pressure side undergoes a
severe erosion for a given concentration (Wang, Tan, et al.
2022; Zhang, Yang, and Zhao 2017; Shen et al. 2019). At
higher concentration values, Wang, Tan, et al. (2022),
Wang, Li, et al. (2022) reported different erosion distribu­
tions and its movement toward the middle part of the blade
as shown in Figure 11(a–f). But, in closed impellers, Lai
et al. (2019) reported a maximum erosion rate in the hub
and shroud of the impeller. Further, the leading edge of the
blade undergoes maximum erosion at low concentration val­
ues. Wang, Wang, et al. (2022); Lai et al. (2019) and Zhao
and Zhao (2018) observed maximum erosion in the exit and
belly regions of the casing for a certain concentration value
as shown in Figure 10(a–b); whereas, Noon and Kim (2016)
reported maximum erosion in the tongue region as well as
at the exit (Figure 10(c)). Such variation in casing erosion is
PARTICULATE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 9
obtained due to differences in the flow rate and size of the
particle considered. However, the effect of different particle
properties, i.e., hardness, shape etc. on the erosion rate at
various concentration values need to be fully understood in
light of the contradicting erosion location findings. Another
potential research area is the development of hard coatings
to prevent erosion at high concentration values.
Slurry concentration strongly influences the pump per­
formance characteristics and the best efficiency point (BEP)
of the pump shifts to low flow rate conditions with increase
in concentration (Li et al. 2012). Furthermore, with an
increase in concentration, the pump performance character­
istics degrade and more input power is required as a result
(Shen and Chu 2018; Bajawi, Salim, and Suhibani 2014;
Kumar, Gandhi, and Mohapatra 2014; Tarodiya and Gandhi
2019a; Gandhi, Singh, and Seshadri 2001; Chandel, Singh,
and Seshadri 2011). Concentration causes a linear fluctu­
ation in the head drops (Shen and Chu 2018; Shen et al.
2019; Gahlot, Seshadri, and Malhotra 1992; Zhang et al.
2013); yet, at large concentrations, the efficiency decline
becomes significant as shown in Figure 12(b) (Shen and
Chu 2018; Shen et al. 2019; Peng et al. 2020). Interestingly,
Peng et al. (2020) discovered stability in the head generated
when concentration values increased. Nevertheless, as can be
seen in Figure 12(a), this discovery is limited to low flow
rates only. Likewise, Wang et al. (2012); Wang, Li, et al.
2022; Wang, Wang, 2022) noted an improvement in per­
formance characteristics with concentration for low slurry
10 J. BANKA AND A. K. RAI
Figure 9. (a) Erosion rate change at different particles shape factors (Shen and Chu 2018), (b) influence of particle shape on the erosion rate (Zhao et al. 2021),
(c) Erosion rate for triangle, square and circle with single particle impingement, (d) erosion rate for triangle, square and circle with multi-particle impingement
(Chen and Li 2003).
concentration values attributed to a delay in boundary layer
detachment with reduced friction losses as the sand particle
presence improves flow stability. At a high concentration
value, Gu et al. (2019) observed swift drop in efficiency even
for a reduced drag coefficient due to a non-smooth surface
for the impeller. More research is required to identify the
concentration levels at which pump performance degrades
for different types of slurries. It will lead to the root causes
behind the observed differences in efficiency and head sta­
bility. Additionally, it is important to find the effects of vari­
ous particle types on the erosion rates and pump efficiency
at multiple concentration values. Further research is needed
in the area of optimizing impeller surface design for better
performance at various slurry concentration values.
2.2.6. Effect of slurry temperature
Temperature is an important parameter in the erosion-cor­
rosion process, especially when the temperature of the slurry
exceeds the softening temperature of the pump material.
Such high temperature causes fast erosion which is more
common with hot fluids. Levy, Yan, and Patterson (1986)
studied the effect of higher temperatures on steel degrad­
ation rates. They discovered that erosion decreased at low
and room temperatures, but increased dramatically at the
temperature above room temperature, reaching severe at
high temperatures. As per Noon and Kim (2016) study,
increasing the slurry temperature accelerates the rate of
metal removal. A temperature increase from 70 � C to 90 � C
increased material loss by 21% for the same impact velocity.
Correspondingly, the material loss was observed as 33% and
42%, respectively, for the same particle size and concentra­
tion values as shown in Figure 13(a–d). While research by
Levy, Yan, and Patterson (1986) and Noon and Kim (2016)
provided insight into the impact of temperature on erosion-
corrosion, the associated relation between an extended range
of temperature and other variables still require extensive
research in pumps. High temperatures also enhances mater­
ial loss due to synergy of cavitation, corrosion, and erosion
processes.
2.2.7. Viscosity
The performance characteristics of a pump drop with a rise
in viscosity (Gandhi, Singh, and Seshadri 2001; Chandel,
Singh, and Seshadri 2011). According to Kumar, Gandhi,
and Mohapatra (2014), integrating fly ash into bottom ash
reduced the relative viscosity of the slurry at equivalent
quantities. This decrease in viscosity resulted in a slower
rate of head reduction and increased efficiency. When
 PARTICULATE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 11

Figure 10. (a) Volume fraction distribution of the solid phase at different particle concentrations (Zhao et al. 2021), (b) Schematic illustration of the circumferential
erosion rate sections of volute casing for different concentrations in analyzing erosion (Wang, Wang, et al. 2022), (c) Erosion rate density of different section of vol­
ute against different values of slurry particle concentration (Noon and Kim 2016).

employing a 7:3 ratio of bottom ash to fly ash, the best
improvement in performance characteristics was found at
1450 rpm. Increasing the weight percentage of small-sized
particles lowered the maximum granular viscosity, the inten­
sity of granular pressure, and head loss owing to flow fric­
tion (Tarodiya and Gandhi 2019a). To find the distinct flow
trends, turbulence, and fluid-solid interactions at different
values of viscosity, more research is required. Furthermore,
little is known about the synergistic effect of various varia­
bles like concentration, temperature, and viscosity on ero­
sion and corrosion in pumps.
2.3. Loading condition
Because of the increased velocity and higher collision of par­
ticles, the rate of erosion rises with the flow rate as shown
in Figure 14(a) (Chen et al. 2022; Tarodiya and Gandhi
2021; Peng et al. 2020; Lai et al. 2019). At designed flow
rates, Chen et al. (2022) and Alawadhi et al. (2021) reported
the highest wear in the casing tongue area. At part load con­
ditions, Peng et al. (2020) reported the maximum erosion at
the casing wall. Tarodiya and Gandhi (2021) and Chen et al.
(2022) found that the erosion on the blade and casing was
non-uniform; but, the uniformity improved as the flow rate
12 J. BANKA AND A. K. RAI

Figure 11. Wear distribution of impeller under different sand concentration. (a) 1%, (b) 2%, (c) 3%, (Wang, Li, et al. 2022), blade wear under different mass concen­
tration, (d) 15%, (e) 20%, and (f) 30% Wang, Tan, et al. (2022).

Figure 12. (a). Variation in performance characteristics at part load conditions (Peng et al. 2020), (b). variation of head and efficiency with concentration (Shen
et al. 2019).

increased. At the flow rates of 9 L/s at 75% BEP and 12 L/s
at 100% BEP, Tarodiya and Gandhi (2019a) discovered non-
uniform material loss along the casing centerline. Secondary
flows and impact velocity contribute to non-uniform ero­
sion; however, the zone of the highest erosion remains rela­
tively constant. Figure 14(b) depicts the locations of the
highest wear along the casing centerline based on flow rate
and material loss. Both the blade and casing sections have
increased erosion rates at moderate flows rates. The relative
erosion rate between the impeller and casing decreases at
BEP (Peng, Luo, and Wang 2015). Alawadhi et al. (2021)
discovered considerable changes in casing erosion at a spe­
cific area on the casing indicated as C in Figure 14(c). The
erosion rate trend is similar to the erosion pattern reported
by Tarodiya and Gandhi (2019b) at several locations as
shown in Figure 14(b). The erosion distribution with flow
rate is influenced by the concentration and kinetic energy of
the particles. Peng, Chen, et al. (2021) and Lei et al. (2018)
found the maximum impeller erosion at the leading edge
under part load conditions. Because of the augmented
Coriolis force, the peak erosion rate drifted toward the out­
let and subsequently to the exit as the loading condition
increased. Moreover, Lei et al. (2018) and Bandi et al.
(2023) found the lowest erosion rate at the designed loading
conditions. The position of blade erosion with respect to the
loading condition is shown in Figure 15(a–f). The variations
 PARTICULATE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 13

Figure 13. Rise in erosion rate against a rise in impact velocities for different temperatures (a) at 70 � C, (b) at 90 � C and rise in erosion rate against a rise in particle
size for different temperatures (c) at 70 � C, (d) at 90 � C (Noon and Kim 2016).

Figure 14. (a) Effect of flowrate on total mass loss rate of the pump impeller and casing with 200 lm particle size (Tarodiya and Gandhi 2021), (b) experimentally
measured mass loss of the specimens at different casing locations for 12 L/s and 9 L/s operating flow rate with 605 lm particle size at 1200 rpm (Tarodiya and
Gandhi 2019b), (c) variation of erosion rate density along the walls of casing with corresponding flow rates (Alawadhi et al. 2021).
14 J. BANKA AND A. K. RAI
Figure 15. Erosion distribution of blade at different flow rates (Lei et al. 2018).
in erosion patterns point to the importance of a number of
variables including flow conditions, particle characteristics,
and pump design. In order to comprehend the factors
affecting erosion distribution and develop mitigation plans
for irregular wear trends, more research is required.
The pump performance characteristics varies with the
flow rate variations (Tao et al. 2016; Zhang, Yang, and Zhao
2017; Bajawi, Salim, and Suhibani 2014; Walker and Goulas
1984). Walker and Goulas (1984) and Tao et al. (2016)
found swift drop in performance at part loading conditions.
Pump efficiency exhibits distinct patterns both below and
above the rated design flow condition. The efficiency
declines with blade wear at part load conditions whereas it
increases steadily above the designed condition (Lei et al.
2018). Thus, the flow rate, efficiency, and blade erosion are
closely related and further research is required to find the
inter-relations. Cader, Masbernat, and Roco (1994) analyzed
the velocity distribution at the impeller casing interface to
estimate the head-flow rate characteristic curves at the
impeller outlet. At resonance, the flow rate and head fluctu­
ated the most as a function of the impeller angle. Therefore,
the resonating phenomena give important insights of the
pump dynamic performance and identify the feasible areas
for improvement. Gandhi et al. (2019) explored the link
among heads, specific capacity, and pump speeds. An
adverse association between specific heads and specific cap­
acity was observed for all speeds. Furthermore, while specific
capacity remained constant, specific power decreased linearly
with increasing speed. Yet at high slurry concentrations, the
application of typical similarity relations for predicting spe­
cific head and specific capacity is limited, since large dis­
crepancies were observed due to the linear influence of
pump speed on the head ratio. Figure 16(a–d) shows the
variation of specific heads and specific power for different
speeds. The fundamental mechanisms of lower performance
at higher flow rates is not completely explored.
2.4. Effect of pump geometry
Pump design affects the flow properties and erosion pattern
(Xiao et al. 2019; Qian et al. 2014). Researchers like Cai,
Zhou, and Li (2016), Tao, Bai, and Wu (2021), Qian et al.
(2014), Xiao et al. (2019) and Yan et al. (2020) studied the
geometry influence on erosion rate. Two distinct blade pro­
files, A and B, with changes in radius and outlet width were
considered by Xiao et al. (2019) as shown in Figure 17(a–d).
They found that axial and radial clearance flows had a sub­
stantial impact on erosion rate, distribution, and affected
regions as the blades wore and transitioned from Model A
to Model B. The study was notable for determining the
 PARTICULATE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 15

Figure 16. Variation of specific head and specific power with specific capacity at different speeds (Gandhi, Singh, and Seshadri 2002).

Figure 17. Model comparisons: (a) Model A, (b) Comparisons between the failed impeller and model, (c) Model B, (d) Model comparisons for a single blade from
the side view (the yellow wireframe represents model a while the solid body is model B (Xiao et al. 2019).

impact of pre-eroded blade profiles on the erosion patterns
during future operations after an increase in radial clear­
ance. Tao, Bai, and Wu (2021) increased the blade thickness
keeping other parameters unchanged which led to increased
uniform wear at the suction side of the blade as shown in
Figure 18(a–b). Yan et al. (2020) found an increase in the
erosion rate with an increase in wear ring clearance sub­
jected to an increase in concentration. In case of the
impeller, the maximum erosion increased up to 0.15 mm
and then began to decline as illustrated in Figure 18(c). The
casing erosion also varied similarly; but, the point of inflex­
ion was 0.2 mm. Evaluating and mitigating erosion requires
pump design details like blade profiles, clearance flow, and
wear ring clearances. An additional investigation should
concentrate on improving pump designs to reduce erosion,
increase resilience, and boost total pump efficiency.
16 J. BANKA AND A. K. RAI
Figure 18. (a) Wear of blade at high concentrations, (b) wear rate distribution of the impeller under a different clearance values (Yan et al. 2020). (c) Comparison of
solid volume fraction and wear pattern on the suction side of the impeller (Tao, Bai, and Wu 2021).
Gandhi, Singh, and Seshadri (1998) stated that the per­
formance of centrifugal slurry pumps is primarily dependent
on the geometry of the pump and the reason for the signifi­
cant drop in the performance from erosion of the pumps is
associated with leakage losses. More study is needed, yet, to
completely understand the link between different design
parameters of a pump and its performance. Accordingly,
Peng, Fan, et al. (2021) also emphasized the importance of
certain design elements in maximizing pump performance like
impeller profile, wrap angle and blade thickness at the outlet.
After optimizing these parameters, they observed an improve­
ment in the performance characteristics shown in Figure
19(b). They concluded that the impeller diameter had a sub­
stantial influence on the pump head, as did the number of
blades, blade thickness at the exit, and wrap angle. The impel­
ler diameter was found as the key contributing element to
pump efficiency, followed by the wrap angle and blade outlet
thickness. Alemi et al. (2015) used the Stepanoff method to
design a volute with a circular cross-section and radial diffuser
profile to improve the hydraulic performances by reducing
radial force at higher flow rates. This method was successful
in increasing the overall efficiency of the pump. Engin and
Gur (2001) studied the importance of tip clearance on per­
formance characteristics and concluded that the head reduc­
tion factor is not a function of tip clearance. Further, they
observed decrease in efficiency ratio with an increase in tip
clearance value. Cader, Masbernat, and Roco (1994) stated
that the frequency of pump and pipe vibrations match at res­
onance. Further, they observed the highest fluctuation in flow
rate and head as a variable of impeller angle. In a centrifugal
slurry pump, Tao et al. (2016, 2017) observed an increased
blade thickness resulted in a drop-in pump performance as
shown in Figure 19(c–d). Wang, Tan, et al. (2022) investigated
the performance of a centrifugal slurry pump with a semi-
open impeller and T-shaped blades. They found considerable
impact of leakage flows in the clearance gap on the pump per­
formance and energy consumption. The T-shaped blades
improved head output by 3%, increased efficiency by 1.6%,
and reduced the relative flow angle at the leading edge (Figure
19(a)). Furthermore, the potency and magnitude of the
Entropy Production Rate (EPR) were reduced in their
research. With a low flow rate, the EPR size and potency
increased, which led to increase of mixing losses at the tip
clearance. However, investing EPR for different flow rate
helped in minimizing the mixing losses at tip clearance. In
conclusion, the design parameters of centrifugal slurry pump
play vital role in effecting performance characteristics while
handling slurry; hence, further investigations are needed for
integrating design parameters and internal flow fields.
The erosion pattern, location and intensity depend on the
parameters considered during the experiments and numer­
ical simulations. Tables 1 and 2 summarize the major stud­
ies and the parameters considered with main findings.
3. Methods to reduce erosion in centrifugal slurry
pumps
Gelfi et al. (2019) applied different heat treatment process
on two high-chromium white cast irons with 14 wt%
(XCr14) and 18 wt% Cr (XCr18) as well as a low-chromium

Figure 19. (a) Performance comparison of the original and T-shaped blade (Wang, Lu, et al. 2021), (b) Predicted heads and efficiencies before and after optimization
(Peng, Chen, et al. 2021), (c) Q-H characteristics for different blade thicknesses (Tao et al. 2016), (d) Variation of efficiency with flow rate for different blade thick­
nesses (Tao et al. 2016).
nickel-bearing grade (Ni-Hard-2) material for a possible
application in centrifugal slurry pumps. They investigated
the microstructural changes and erosion resistance of all
three materials. The destabilization heat treatment applied to
both high chromium composites, the resistance was less pro­
nounced in XCr18 than XCr14, since XCr18 had a lower grid
hardness than XCr14. After tempering process for ten hours
at 550 � C, the martensitic grid tempered leading to loss of
hardness and a rise in abrasion rates. Finally, they concluded
that the Ni-hard had the best abrasion resistance since it
had a large proportion of (FeCr), 3 C, and ledeburitic cover­
ing soft austenitic-martensitic dendrites. In terms of abra­
sion resistance, Ni-hard-2 did not require any heating
process to function similar to destabilized high chromium
irons. Thus, Ni-hard-2 compositions could be a cost-effect­
ive substitute for high Cr irons in cases where high abrasion
resistance is required.
By using Coriolis wear testing method, Tian, Addie, and
Pagalthivarthi (2005) experimentally investigated abrasive
erosion resistance of different white iron alloys and found
that the specific energy coefficient had a significant relation
with material hardness. When increasing material hardness,
the value of specific energy coefficients dropped for each
particle size (d50). Among all the test materials, the tougher
PARTICULATE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 17
Cr–Mo white iron alloy displayed the maximum erosion
resistance. As their study was exclusively focused on the Cr-
Mo white iron alloy, a broader range of materials and their
performance in diverse slurry scenarios is required in order
to develop better wear prevention options.
Wang, Tan, et al. (2022) used Q235, HT200, and 16Mn
as the three distinct materials for fabricating impellers and
found cutting and erosion wear in Q235 and 16 Mn due to
their greater plasticity and hardness. Between these two
materials, the one with a high degree of hardness and a high
amount of graphite is high resistant to erosion.
Q235 > 16Mn > HT200 is the order of wear loss from high
to low under the identical test circumstances. The erosion
morphologies are shown in Figure 20(a–i). Though the
study provided useful insights into the wear behavior of
Q235, HT200, and 16Mn, the study did not consider the
influence of various operating factors on wear characteristics
of the materials used.
To reduce the rate of erosion, Peng, Fan, et al. (2021)
changed the blade outlet of the optimized pump to a
straight surface. They observed a significant drop in erosion
at the pressure side of the blade outlet and a prolonged ser­
vice life. The study concentrated primarily on the pressure
side at the exit of the blade ignoring possible erosion
Table 1. Different parameters considered by various researchers in Numerical study
18

Numerical scheme details

CFD code & analysis
type,
Multi-phase Validation of the
Mesh type & model/Model numerical scheme
Author/Study Range of parameters Design parameters Impeller details elements (million) developed with experiments
Tarodiya and Gandhi Sand – water Hd: 11.6 m Nb: 5 Unstructured Fluent & 3D- H ¼ ±2.5%
(2021) S.G: 2.652 Nd: 1200 rpm Do: 265 mm (tetrahedral) unsteady g ¼ þ5%
Dp (mm): 200–600 (5 Qd: 42.94 m3/h DI: 110 mm & 2.72 Eulerian-Lagrangian Validated by
J. BANKA AND A. K. RAI

values) ai: 23� Tarodiya and

Cw (%): 10 ao: 25� Gandhi (2019b).
Q (m3/h): 28.08–58.32 (5 closed
values) BEP (%): 65–135 Ni-hard
(5 values)
Tarodiya and Gandhi Sand – water Fluent & unsteady Validated by Furlan
(2019a) S.G: 2.652 Eulerian- et al. (2015)
Dp (mm): 400–605 (2 Lagrangian
values)
Cw (%): 9.4–10 (4 values)
Q (m3/h): 32.4–43.2 (4
values)
X: Sub angular
Tarodiya and Gandhi Fly ash – water Fluent & unsteady H ¼ ±2%
(2021) S.G: 2.01 Eulerian-Eulerian g ¼ ±3.5%
Dp (mm): 112–855 (4
values)
Cw (%): 13.3–35.1 (4
values)
Q (m3/h): 21.6 – 46.8 (3
values)
BEP (%): 65–100 (3 values)
Zhao et al. (2021) Glass bead – water Hd: 4 m N b: 5 Structural Fluent & unsteady Validated by Shi,
S.G: 2.5 Nd: 900 rpm Do: 180 mm (hexahedral CFD-DEM Wei, and Zhang
Dp (mm): 500–2000 (4 Qd: 15 m3/h DI: __ mm mesh) & 1.3 (2017)
values) ai: __ �
C (%): 0.1–2.5 (6 values) ao: __ �
Q (m3/h): 9–21 (3 values)
X: 0.67–1 (3 values)
Abdolahnejad, Glass bead – water Hd: 30 m N b: 5 Structured ANSYS-CFX & ₰ ¼ ±1% for kaolin
Moghimi, and S.G: 1.055–1.153 (3 values) Nd: 2900 rpm Do: 169 mm hexahedral mesh steady-state water @ 7%
Derakhshan Dp (mm): 90 Qd: 20 m3/h DI: __ mm & 1.5 Eulerian-Eulerian concentration
(2021) Cv (%): 3.6–10 (3 values) ai: __ � ₰ ¼ ±3% for glass
Q (m3/h): 15–36 (4 values) ao: __� bead-water
X: 1 @10%
Kaolin clay – water concentration
S.G: 1.061–1.358 (3 values)
Dp (mm): 15
Cv (%): 3.6–21(3 values)
Q (m3/h): 15–36 (4 values)
X : plate
Tao, Bai, and Wu Quartz – water Hd: 40 m N b: 5 Structured ANSYS-CFX & Conducted a wear
(2021) S.G: 2.650 Nd: 2900 rpm Do: 210 mm hexahedral unsteady test to compare
Dp (mm): 1000 Qd: 100 m3/h DI: 100 mm & 4.02 Eulerian-Eulerian wear
morphologies.
 Cv (%): 10 ai: 20 �
Bt (mm): 15–28 (3 values) ao: 26 �
Peng, Fan, et al. Quartz – water Hd: 8 m Impeller details Unstructured & 4.4 ANSYS-CFX & An experiment is
(2021) S.G: 2.6 Nd: 1500 rpm Nb: 5 steady-state conducted to
Dp (mm): 165 Qd: 18 m3/h Do: 162 mm Eulerian-Eulerian compare wear
Cw (%): __ ai: __ � regions.
Q (m3/h): 3–27 (10 values) ao: 27 � H ¼ ±4.8%
Do(mm): 151–159 (2 closed g ¼ ±5.2%
values)
Nb: 3–5 (2 values)
u (� ): 100–120 (2 values)
Peng, Chen, et al. Quartz -water Structured Fluent & steady An experiment is
(2021) S.G: 2650 hexahedral & 1.2 Eulerian-Eulerian conducted to
Dp (mm):165mm compare wear
Cv (%): 0–50 (4 values) H ¼ ±5%
Q (m3/h): 3.6–28.8 (10 g ¼ ±5%
values)
Alawadhi et al. Sand-water Hd: 20 m N b: 6 Structured & ANSYS-CFX & Pressure and
(2021) S.G: 2680 Nd: 1600 rpm Do: 280 mm 2.7 unsteady and frequency
Dp (mm): 165 Qd: 120 m3/h DI: __ mm steady fluctuations are
Cv (%): 8.41 ai: 27 � Eulerian-Eulerian around 9.46%.
Q (m3/h): 120 ao: 22.5 � and validated by
N (rpm): 1500–1700 (6 the experimental
values) results of Rocco
Nb: 5–8 (4 values) and Addie (1983)
ai: 25� –35� (5 values)
ao: 16� –25� (5 values)
Shi et al. (2020) Sand-water Hd: 20.3 m N b: 5 Structured & 1.1 Fluent & steady H ¼ ±2%
S.G: 2650 Nd: 1450 rpm Do: 228 mm Eulerian-Lagrangian g ¼ ±4%
Dp (mm): 0–350 (6 values) Qd: 54.36 m3/h DI: 100 mm
Q (m3/h): 2–20 (10 values) ai: 15 �
Cv (%): 0 –10 (6 values) ao: 30 �
Gu et al. (2019) Mixed sand-water Hd: 32 m N b: 4 Structured & 2 Fluent & steady H ¼ ±3%
S.G: 2.7 Nd: 2900 rpm Do: 168 mm Eulerian-Eulerian g ¼ –3.5%
Dp (mm): 50 Qd: 56 m3/h DI: 76 mm
Cv (%): 0 –0.2 (5 values) ai: __ �
Q (m3/h): 30–80 (6 values) ao: 21�
qf (kg/ m3): 1000–1340 (5
values)
Xiao et al. (2019) Pulp and water Hd: __ m Model A Unstructured ANSYS-CFX & steady Actual worn
S.G: 0.075 Nd: 1450 rpm N b: 3 & 2.12 Eulerian-Lagrangian impeller
Dp (mm): 500 Qd: 690 m3/h Do: 190 mm compared with
Cv (%): 5 DI: __ mm model A
Q (m3/h): 138–966 (7 ai: __ �
values) ao: __ �
model B
N b: 3
Do: 188 mm
DI: __ mm
ai: __ �
ao: __ �
Noon and Kim Milk of lime (Ca(OH)2) Hd: 12.2 m Nb: __ Unstructured ANSYS-CFX & Steady Validated with data
(2016) S.G: 1.281 Nd: 1500 rpm Do: __ mm & Eulerian-Eulerian available from
PARTICULATE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Dp (mm): 800–1700 (6 Qd: 1440 m3/h DI: __ mm 14.30 Imperial chemical

values) ai: __ � industry and Tian
Cw (%): 20–40 (5 values) ao: __ � et al. (2009).
(continued)
19
Table 1. Continued.
20

Numerical scheme details

CFD code & analysis
type,
Multi-phase Validation of the
Mesh type & model/Model numerical scheme
Author/Study Range of parameters Design parameters Impeller details elements (million) developed with experiments
Vp (m/s): 3–13 (6 values) 4.94% of wear error
T (� C): 70–90 (3 values) observed
Cai, Zhou, and Li Pulverized coal – water Hd: 72 m N b: 5 Unstructured ANSYS-CFX & H ¼ ±1.28%
J. BANKA AND A. K. RAI

(2016) S.G: 1.35 Nd: 1450 rpm Do: 515 mm & 2.8 unsteady g ¼ ±1.93%
Cv (%): 10 Qd: 500 m3/h DI: __ mm CFX particle
Dp (mm): 200 ai: __ � inhomogeneous
Q (m3/h): 100–600 (6 ao: __ � model
values)
Shi and Wei (2014) Bottom ash – water Hd: 20.3 m N b: 5 Unstructured & Fluent & steady Two-phase
S.G: 1.99 Nd: 1450 rpm Do: 228 mm 1.11 Euler – Euler simulation results
Dp (mm): 100 Qd: 54.36 m3/h DI: 100 mm were compared
Cv (%): 10–30 (3 values) ai: 15 � with clean water
ao: 30 � simulations.
Qian et al. (2014) Silt – Water Hd: 71 m N b: 8 Unstructured & 3.5 Fluent & unsteady H¼ ±1.15%
S.G: 0.0895 Nd: 960 rpm Do: 765 mm Eulerian-Lagrangian g ¼ ± __%
Dp (mm): 31 Qd: 3420 m3/h DI: __ mm
Cw (%): 8.95 ai: __ �
Q (m3/h): 3420 ao: __ �
Varied blade design to
reduce erosion
Zhang et al. (2013) Solid particles – water Hd: 8 m N b: 5 Unstructured & Fluent & steady H ¼ þ2%
S.G: 2.5 Nd: 1450 rpm Do: 160 mm 5.08 Algebraic slip g ¼ þ7%
Dp (mm): 100 Qd: 6 m3/h DI: 48 mm mixture model
Cw (%): 5 ai: 25 �
Q (m3/h): 6 ao: 25 �
Dp (mm): 10–250 (6 values)
Cw (%): 5–18 (6 values)
S.G: 0.5–3 (6 values)
Q (m3/h): 2.5–7
Wang et al. (2012) Solid particles – water Hd: 20 m N b: 2 Unstructured & Fluent & steady H ¼ þ10%
S.G: 1.61 Nd: 1650 rpm Do: __ mm 0.421 Eulerian-Eulerian g ¼ þ5%
Dp (mm): 200 Qd: 50 m3/h DI: __ mm
Cv (%): 0–10 (4 values) ai: __ �
Q (m3/h): 18.432–22.536 (4 ao: __ �
values)
Lei et al. (2018) Sand-water Hd: 32 m N b: 3 Structured & 2.2 ANSYS-CFX & steady ______
S.G: 2.3 Nd: 1450 rpm Do: 175 mm Eulerian-Lagrangian
Dp (mm): 500 Qd: 200 m3/h DI: 150 mm
Cw (%): 10 ai: __ �
Q (m3/h): 100–260 (3 ao: __ �
values)
Shen and Chu Sand-water Hd: 32 m Nb: __ Unstructured Fluent & steady ______
(2018) S.G: 2.65 Nd: 1480 rpm Do: __ mm tetrahedron and Eulerian-Lagrangian
Dp (mm): 25 Qd: 165 m3/h DI: __ mm prism hybrid
Cp (ppm): 5074–61547 (4 ai: __ � grids
values) ao: __ � & 0.46
Q (m3/h): 1.8–18 ()
X: 0.2–1 (6 values)
Vp (m/s): 2.6–20 (6 values)
Table 2. Different parameters considered by various researchers in experimental study.
Type of slurry and Design /Rated Operating/Range of
Author/study properties of solid in slurry parameters Impeller details parameters Correlations proposed Uncertainty/error
Gandhi, Singh, (Fly ash þ Zinc tailings) – Hd:14.5 m N b: 5 N (rpm): 1152 − 1750 (3 N a SP−3, For N¼ ±21%
and Seshadri Water Nd:1450 rpm Do: 264 mm values) N a SH−2, SP¼ ±8%
(2002) Fly ash Qd: 57.6 m3/h Di: 114 mm Q(m3/h): 43.2 − 57.6 (2 N a SC−1 SH¼ ±3%
S.G: 2.08 g: 44.5 % ai: 23 � values) Q a SC1 SC¼ ±8%
D p: ao: 25 � fly ash qs a SP−1
Dw(mm): 59 Cw(%): 15.7 − 57.2 (5 Cw a HR−1
D50(mm): 42 values)
Cw: 67.6 % Cw(%): 13.3 − 60.5 (5
Zinc tailings values)
S.G: 2.82 Cw(%): 15.6 − 61.9 (5
D p: values)
Dw(mm): 202 Zinc tailings
D50: 145 mm Cw(%): 15.1–45 (4 values)
Cw: 62 %
Gahlot, Seshadri, (Zinc tailings þ coal) – Pump A Pump A Dw (mm): 0.10–10 K a Cw K¼ −15% to þ20%
and Malhotra water Hd: 20 m N b: 3 Cw(%): 10–60 (6 values) K a (S.G −1)0.72
(1992) Zinc tailings N: 1400 rpm Do: 280 K a loge(50Dw)
S.G: 2.85 Qd: 50.04 m3/h Di: __ mm
Dp(mm): 1000 Ns: 66 ai: __�
Dw(mm): 170.4 Pump B ao: __�
D50: Hd:16 m Semi-open
Cw(%): 72.6 Nd: 1450 Rubber lined vacseal
Coal Qd: 45 m3/h pump
S.G: 1.48 Ns: 89 Pump B
Dp(mm): 3000 Impeller details
Dw(mm): 900 N b: 5
D50: Do:270
Cw(%): 60 % Di: __ mm
ai: __�
ao: __�
Shi et al. (2020) Hd: 20 m Nb: 5 Dp(mm): 60–600 (5 values) gaQ H ¼ ±2%
Nd: 1450 rpm Do: 228 mm Cw(%): 0–10 (6 values) gaH g ¼ ±4%
Qd: 15 m3/h Di: 100 mm Q (m3/h): 2–18 (10 values) gax
Ns: 85 ai: 15� gaT
ao: 30� g a qs
RE a mp
RE a Aface−1
RE a E(a)
RE a vb
RE a C(dp)
Engin and Gur (Casting sand þ Beach Hd: __ m Nb: 7 Tc¼ 1.25 − 8 (4 values) K a Cw K¼ −15% to þ20%
(2001) sand þ Perlite A þ Perlite Nd: __ rpm Do: 210 mm Casting sand K a (S.G −1)0.64
B) – water Qd: __ m3/h Di: 134.5 mm Cw(%): 0 − 28.50 (3 values) K a ln(44Dw)
Casting sand Ns: __ ai: 40� Perlite A
S.G: 2.10 ao: 34� Cw(%): 0 − 20.42 (3 values)
Dp(mm): Perlite B
Dw(mm): 400 Cw(%): 0 − 23.39 (3 values)
D50(mm): 400
Beach sand
S.G: 2.64
PARTICULATE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Dp(mm):
Dw(mm): 440
(continued)
21
Table 2. Continued.
22

Type of slurry and Design /Rated Operating/Range of

Author/study properties of solid in slurry parameters Impeller details parameters Correlations proposed Uncertainty/error
D50(mm): 413
Perlite A
S.G: 2.34
Dp (mm):
Dw (mm): 211
D50 (mm): 270
Perlite B
S.G: 2.34
J. BANKA AND A. K. RAI

Dp (mm):
Dw (mm): 1147
D50 (mm): 1390
Li, Chen, Chen, Alumina – water Hd: 1.5 m N b: 5 Dp(mm): 20 to 60 He a Cu
et al. (2020) S.G: 1.050 Nd: 800 rpm Do: 142 mm Q(m3/h): 0.34 − 2.04 (6 He a Q
Qd: 1.7 m3/h Di: 56 mm values) He a A2
Ns: 23.8 Bt: 7 mm He a tan(b2)
ai: 28�
ao: 34�
Selim et al. (2009) Sand – water Hd: 20 m N b: 6 Dw(mm):152–348 (3 values) K a Cw0.88253 K¼ ±10%
S.G: 2.52 Nd: __ rpm Do: 175 mm D50 (mm): 152–341 (3 K a (S.G-1)−6.3397
Qd: 54.36 m3/h Di: 54 mm values) K a D500.69374
Ns: 85 ai: 21.5� Cw (%): 5–30 (6 values)
ao: 28� Q(m3/h): 3.6 − 32.4 (8
values)
N(rpm): 2600 − 3000 (5
values)
Kazim et al. (1997) Sand – water Hd: __ m Nb: __ Cw (%):10.77 − 55.205 (6 K a Cw K¼ ±10%
Mild steel–water Nd: 1000 rpm Do: 270 mm values) K a (S.G-1)1/2
Zinc – water Qd: __ m3/h Di: __ mm Dw(mm): 180–362 (6 values) K a ln(D50/20)
Iron ore – water Ns: __ ai: __�
Sand ao: __�
S.G(kg/m3): 2650
Mild steel
S.G: 6.24
Dw: 230 mm
Coal
S.G: 1.49
Dw: 185 mm
Zinc
S.G: 5.51
Dw: 455 mm
Iron ore
S.G: 4.35
Dw: 663 mm
Benretem et al. Washed phosphate Hd: 30 m Nb: 6 S.G: 1 − 1.25 (4 values) raQ
(2007) S.G: 2.8 Nd:2900 rpm Do: 162 mm r a U−1
Dp (mm): 200 Qd: 19.8 m3/h Di: __ mm r a D−3
Cw (%): 30 Ns: 70 ai: __� d a D−2
ao: __� d a x−2
daH
dag
Walker and Goulas Coal – water Pump A Pump A Q(m3/h): 0 − 57.6 (9 values) Q’ a Q
(1984) Kaolin clay – water Hd: __ m N b: 4 Pump A Q’ a x−1
 Coal Nd: 1200 rpm Do: 352 mm Coal slurry Q’ a D−3
S.G: 1.4 Qd: __ m3/h Di: __ mm S.G: 1.026 − 1.139 (7 values) NRep a x
Dp (mm): 50 Ns: 0.27 ai: __� Kaolin clay NRep a D2
Kaolin clay Pump B ao: __� S.G: 1.207 − 1.476(5 values) NRep a qs
S.G: 2.65 Hd: __ m Closed Pump B NRep a m−1
Dp (mm): 35 Nd: 1000 rpm Pump B Kaolin clay
Qd: __ m3/h Nb: 5, 3 3 vane impeller
Ns: 0.51, 0.56 Do: 244 mm, 240 mm. S.G: 1.207 − 1.585 (4 values)
. Di: __ mm 5 vane impeller
ai: __� S.G: 1.258 − 1.585 (5 values)
ao: __�
Closed, open
Khalil et al. (2013) Hyacinth – water Hd: 18.55 m N b: 6 Cw (%): 0–18 (7 values) K a Cw 0.7754 K¼ ±10%
Cattails – water Nd: 2900 rpm Do: 101.6 mm Q(m3/h): 0–27 (10 values) K a (S.G)0.2358
Hyacinth Qd: 15 m3/h Di: 38 mm K a Dw 0.1426
S.G: 0.096 Ns: __ ai: __�
Dw(mm): 3000 ao: __�
Cattails
S.G: 0.15
Dw(mm): 5500
Burgess and Beach sand – Hd: __ m N b: 4 Beach sand HRF a(1-Cw) n
Reizes (1976) water Nd:__ rpm Do: 371 mm N(rpm): 787 –1280 (22 n ¼ S.G (−0.1734 d502
River sand – water Qd: __ m3/h Di: __ mm values) þ 0.365þ
Ilmenite – water Ns: ai: __� C(%): 3 − 63.8 (54 values) d50þ0.0277)
Coarse heavy mineral – ao: __� River sand
water N(rpm): 787–1280 (15
Beach sand values)
S.G: 2.67 Cw(%): 6.6 − 56.1 (67
Dw(mm): 295 values)
River sand Ilmenite
S.G: 2.64 N(rpm): 788 –1279 (26
Dw: 1290 values)
Ilmenite Cw(%): 15.3 − 61.4 (63
S.G: 4630 kg/ m3 values)
Dw(mm): 170 Coarse heavy mineral
Coarse heavy mineral N(rpm): 788–1278
S.G: 4.350 (21values)
Dw(mm): 290 Cw(%): 6.3 − 61.9 (65
values)
PARTICULATE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
23
24 J. BANKA AND A. K. RAI
Figure 20. Wear of different blade material at pressure area (a) 16Mn, (b) HT200, (c) Q235. Wear morphology of different blade material near trailing edge (d)
16Mn, (e) HT200, (f) Q235. (g) 16Mn, (h) HT200, (i) Q235. (Wang, Li, et al. 2022).
vulnerabilities in other parts of the pump. In a future study,
a complete design change to reduce erosion rates throughout
the pump’s components can result in increased overall per­
formance and lifetime. Tao et al. (2017) stated that the solid
percentage at the impeller shroud would disperse with
higher blade thickness and the solid fraction on pressure
surfaces might move toward the impeller outlet; thus, it
results in extended impeller life. However, the study did not
consider the tradeoff between increasing blade thickness and
its possible influence on hydraulic efficiency. Further study
might optimize blade thickness and performance enhance­
ments to obtain the best design for centrifugal slurry
pumps.
Using a two-phase flow and a CFX particles heteroge­
neous model, Cai, Zhou, and Li (2016) investigated the
impact of the geometry of the back blade on centrifugal
slurry pumps abrasion characteristics. To highlight erosion
morphology as well as erosion mechanism, they used vorti­
city concentration zones. They found that vorticity concen­
tration zones spread at the end of the impeller shroud,
densely at the rear of the blades, as well as near the suction
area of the blade as shown in Figure 21(a–c). By considering
the shape of worn channels on the shroud, the front- and
back-blade, they aimed to improve vorticity dispersion. The
test results revealed that the spectrum of vorticity strength
on the shroud was significantly reduced. Furthermore, the
modification in shape reduced efficiency slightly; however, it
achieved a long life of the centrifugal slurry pump. Although
the study effectively decreased vorticity strength on the
shroud, more testing is needed to assess overall performance
including efficiency and head after the shape alterations.
Qian et al. (2014) studied the effect of inlet and outlet
geometry on the erosion rates of centrifugal pump impellers
considering four profiles each at the inlet and the outlet.
Among all the combinations, the one represented in Figure
22(a–d) has the modest erosion rate. Yet, it is worth noting
that their study only looked at erosion rates and ignored the
pump hydraulic performance. While erosion resistance is
vital, increasing the pump hydraulic efficiency is also critical
for overall performance. To summarize, while existing
research has made substantial improvements to comprehend
erosion resistance and performance enhancement in centri­
fugal slurry pumps, there are various scopes for future study.
Future research should look at alternate materials, sophisti­
cated heat treatment procedures, complete design changes,
and the impact of modifying operating conditions to
increase erosion resistance, overall performance, and service
life of centrifugal slurry pumps.
The intensity of erosion in centrifugal slurry pump is
majorly influenced by the type of material selected for the
experiments, eroded considered and flow field. Table 3 gives
the information about different pump materials used in the
literature.
4. Visualization of flow
Several researchers like Wu et al. (2009), Shi, Wei, and Zhang
(2017), Shi, Wei, and Zhang (2017), Shi, Wei, and Zhang
(2015), Keller et al. (2014), Kadambi et al. (2004), Zhang
et al. (2018), Perissinotto et al. (2023), Li, Chen, Chen, et al.
(2020), and Li, Chen, Chen, et al. (2020) applied Particle
Image Velocimetry (PIV) flow visualization technique to
understand the internal flows of centrifugal pumps using
optically accessible set-up. Tracer particles were used to
observe the flow field in the set-up comprising of dual-cavity
pulsed Nd:YAG laser, laser light sheet optics, charge-coupled
device (CCD) camera, synchronizer, and dates processing sys­
tem. The laser is used as a light source to trace particles and
 PARTICULATE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 25

Figure 21. (a) Vorticity and wear morphology on the front shroud (b) vorticity and wear morphology on the back shroud, (c) vorticity on the front shroud of modi­
fied designed, (d) vorticity on the back shroud modified designed (Cai, Zhou, and Li 2016).

the CCD camera captures the images of particles to obtain
the motion of the particles and study the flow fields. A typical
PIV arrangement is shown in Figure 23. Table 4 provides the
summary of major literature including visually accessible
pump material, laser source, tracker particle, and type of
impeller used in the PIV set-up.
and Walker and Goulas (1984) studied the effect of slurries
on the wear and performance characteristics of centrifugal
slurry pumps in the thermal power plants. The major indus­
tries and the type of slurry used for analyzing the wear and
performance characteristics of centrifugal slurry pumps are
listed in Table 5.

5. Applications of slurry pumps in industries 6. Challenges in measuring and modeling slurry

The application of centrifugal slurry pumps is not limited to
a particular industry as continuous transportation of slurry
at high discharge and medium head is frequently required
in several industries. Refineries, agricultural irrigation, power
generation, dredging, and oil and petroleum industries are a
few examples which use centrifugal slurry pumps.
Researchers like Gandhi, Singh, and Seshadri (2001), Kumar,
Gandhi, and Mohapatra (2014), Cai, Zhou, and Li (2016)
pump erosion
Because of the presence of solid particles in the slurry, the
flow is complex inside the pump resulting in non-uniform
erosion and flow patterns. Modeling these complicated inter­
actions and flow dynamics is a challenging task. The issue
becomes more complex due to particle settling, fluid-particle
interactions, particle-particle interactions, and particle-sur­
face interactions as all phenomena have a significant impact
26 J. BANKA AND A. K. RAI

Figure 22. (a) Prototype blade and four-blade inlet shapes: (a) 3 D perspective vie of double suction pump, (b) 3 D perspective view of impeller, (c) actual design of
blade, (d) improved design of the blade (Qian et al. 2014).

Table 3. Different pump materials used by the researchers during their investigation of wear and performance characteristics of centrifugal slurry pump.
S. No. Author Pump material
1 Tarodiya and Gandhi (2019b) Ni-hard
2 Kumar, Gandhi, and Mohapatra (2014); Chandel, Singh, and Seshadri (2011); Ni-hard
Gandhi, Singh, and Seshadri (2002); Gandhi, Singh, and Seshadri (2001);
Gandhi, Singh, and Seshadri (2001); Kazim et al. (1997)
4 Gahlot, Seshadri, and Malhotra (1992) Rubber lined Vacseal pump, Ni-hard casing metal pump
3 Noon and Kim (2016) Grey cast iron-volute
4 Tao et al. (2016), Tao et al. (2017) Ceramic
5 Xiao et al. (2019) Stainless steel
6 Gelfi et al. (2019) High chromium(14 wt.% and 18 wt.% Cr)white cast irons and a
low chromium nickel-bearing grade(Ni-Hard2)
7 Tarodiya and Gandhi (2021) Steel 304 L, high chromium white cast iron (HCWCI)
8 Wang, Tan et al. (2022) Carbon structural steel (Q235), grey cast iron (HT200), and low-
alloy high-strength steel (16 Mn).
9 Gandhi and Borse (2004) Cast iron

on the erosion mechanism including the pattern and degree
of material loss from the pump surfaces. Because of
unsteadiness and the intricate nature of slurry characteris­
tics, modeling multiphase flows and associated interactions
are complex. Another key issue is to precisely estimate the
material loss caused by slurry erosion in the pump compo­
nents. During on-site measurements, traditional procedures
such as weight loss, surface profilometry observations, and
measuring cavity volumes with cast-outs do not offer precise
values. The ease of measurement is another issue with trad­
itional methods, especially for smaller pumps where
accessibility for measurement is difficult. As a result, devel­
oping precise and reliable erosion measurement methodolo­
gies is still a work in progress. Recently, precise 3D scanners
are used frequently for capturing the blade profiles accur­
ately, especially in hydraulic turbines (Rai, Kumar, and
Staubli 2017; Rai et al. 2020). In addition, continuous oper­
ation of slurry pumps can result in considerable temporal
and local changes in material properties such as hardness
and toughness. Incorporating these property changes into
erosion models for simulations is difficult. In conclusion,
the complicated nature of slurry flows, the intricate

Figure 23. PIV Technic for flow visualization in centrifugal slurry pump (Shi, Wei, and Zhang 2017).
interactions between particles and pump surfaces, and the
precise measurement, as well as modeling, provide signifi­
cant obstacles in the study of centrifugal slurry pumps. The
different types of numerical and experimental technics
applied to evaluate the erosion in centrifugal pumps and
their limitations are provided in Table 6.
7. Future outlook in study of centrifugal slurry
pumps
The major research required in the centrifugal slurry pumps
in coming future can be summarized in the points below.
� Since the fluid conveyed by the centrifugal slurry pump
is corrosive and abrasive in nature, centrifugal slurry
pumps are susceptible to wear. The synergy effect of cor­
rosion and erosion has not been explored completely.
Further, cavitation in the pumps can arise due to lower
pressure in flow domain and can further accelerate the
wear process. Initiation of material loss from the surface
also needs to be explored. More research to create novel
materials and coatings is needed to boost the pump dur­
ability against wear and corrosion.
� The centrifugal slurry pumps require frequent mainten­
ance and repair of worn components. The predictive
maintenance strategies to increase the reliability of the
pumps are yet to be developed completely.
� The progressive erosion in centrifugal slurry pumps have
not been explored extensively. To understand the long-
term impacts of erosion on pump operation and mainten­
ance, research on the progressive damage and associated
performance characteristics degradation is essential. The
majority of experimental research solely examines erosion
rates of a new profile of pumps without taking the long-
term eroded profiles into account. Pump design and
maintenance procedures will improve by analyzing the
long-term durability and performance degradation of
eroded pump components under various flow conditions.
� Unified testing techniques for assessing erosion resistance
of materials in centrifugal slurry pumps are lacking.
PARTICULATE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 27
Usually, erosion jet tester or centrifugal rotating tester
are used for material strength testing; but, the flow in
pumps are significantly different from these testers.
Thus, non-availability of unified testing makes it difficult
to evaluate and confirm the durability of pump against
erosion for distinct pump designs and materials. While
testing, it is of paramount interest to keep particle prop­
erties consistent during the entire testing period.
� The effects of restrictions and prior motions of fluid on
the wear and performance characteristics of a centrifugal
slurry pump is not yet explored.
� During operation, centrifugal slurry pumps may produce
loud sound and vibration, which may be an issue in a
specific application. Research is required to reduce the
sound and vibration from pumps as well as to develop
techniques for detecting amount of erosion from the cap­
tured signals.
� More study is needed to understand the interdependence
of parameters which affect erosion process in centrifugal
slurry pumps considering different solid particles in the
slurry, the fluid flow parameters, and the pump impeller
designs.
� The flow of hot fluid further promotes the material
removal rate and may involve cavitation and corrosion in
pumps. For centrifugal slurry pump handling hot fluids,
extensive research is required to estimate the overall
wear and performance characteristics.
� In practical applications, solid particle size and weight
are not uniform in the slurry and wear distribution
majorly depends upon the particle kinetics. Insufficient
data is available on the wear distribution of the pump
while handling multi-sized particles.
� A multi-stage centrifugal pump and erosion in respective
stages have not been fully explored for different
materials.
� Parametric optimization and reduction of erosion by
improving the profiles of pump components have been
explored; however, such studies in different types of
slurry and operating conditions are required. The effect
of shape has not been quantitatively examined completely
28 J. BANKA AND A. K. RAI
Table 4. Information about the PIV set-up of various authors.
S. No. Author/study
1 Wu et al. (2009)
2 Keller et al. (2014)
3 Shi, Wei, and Zhang
(2015)
4 Shi, Wei, and Zhang
(2017)
5 Kadambi et al. (2004)
6 Zhang et al. (2018)
7 Perissinotto et al. (2023)
Pump and particle
material Nb Major findings Optically accessible pump
Fluorescence 6 � Studied pump interior flow field
nanoparticles used in � The comparative velocity pattern from
optically acrylic resin the intake to exit is intended to be
pump smooth and uniform, and it declines.
� Re-circulation observed in the tongue
area of the casing under part load
conditions
Florescent seeding 6 � Studied flow patterns at high flow
particles used in rates in a volute
acrylic glass pump � Observed high-vorticities opposite in
nature that released from the impeller
passages caused impingement on the
tongue tip causing cutting and
deformation,
� blade leading and trailing edges as
well as the tongue tip produced the
majority of the turbulence in the wake
areas
Organic glass 5 � Constructed a PIV setup with a novel
Polyamide tracer porous inverted cone and found that
particles used the PIV setup possessed high stability
inorganic glass pump and reliability to study the internal
flow fields of centrifugal pumps
Glass bead and 6 � Suggested a two-phase recognition
rapeseeds in organic approach with grey-scale level and
glass pump particle size statistics.
� Algorithm produced very few false
vectors and greater fitting particle
pairs, making it extremely effective in
removing false vectors.
Spherical glass bead 3 � Studied the kinetics of the particles
particle used in � Wear of the tongue region is
acrylic pump significantly influenced by the
unpredictable bombardment process
brought on by the fluctuating kinetic
energy of the solids.
Hallow glass spheres 6 � Monitored the interior flow patterns of
used in Plexiglas a centrifugal slurry pump.
pump � At partial load conditions, wakes were
formed at the blade outlet. Vortices
formed at pressure and suction side
during full load conditions resulted in
cutting and deformation of the
tongue.
Acrylic particles doped 7 � Studied interdependence between flow
with Rhodamine-B patterns and output characteristics.
dye were used in a � When the pump is operated away
pump made of from designed conditions, decline in
acrylic available energy and an increase in
turbulence were observed
(continued)
 PARTICULATE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 29

Table 4. Continued.
Pump and particle
S. No. Author/study material Nb Major findings Optically accessible pump
8 Li, Chen, Chen, et al. Solid alumina tracer 5 � Internal flow pattern observed at low
(2020a) particles in Plexiglas speed.
pump � Observed formation of clockwise and
counterclockwise vortices in suction
and pressure sides, respectively.
� Clockwise vortex has a positive impact
on output characteristics; whereas, the
counterclockwise vortex has a negative
impact.

9 Li, Chen, Chen, et al. Solid alumina tracer
(2020) particles in Plexiglas
pump
5 � Studied the connection between the
interior flow field and the local Euler
head to guide the inverse design
process.
� Local Euler head was affected by the
comparative motion of a clockwise
counterclockwise vortex at the outlet
and by a clockwise vortex at the inlet.

Table 5. Types of slurry used by various authors and industries handling the slurries.
S. No. Authors Type of slurry Slurry pump application in industry
1 Gandhi, Singh, and Seshadri (2001) Fly ash Power plant
Zinc tailings Processing plant
Bed ash Coal fluidized bed combustion boiler
2 Noon and Kim (2016) Milk of lime slurry (ca(OH)2) Imperial chemical industry (process
industry)
3 Kumar, Gandhi, and Mohapatra (2014) Fly ash and bottom ash Thermal power plant
4 Tarodiya and Gandhi (2021) Multi-sized fly ash Power plant
5 Abdolahnejad, Moghimi, and Derakhshan Glass bead water Kaolin clay: paper, rubber, paint
(2021) Kaolin clay industries, etc.
Glass bead
6 Tao, Bai, and Wu (2021) Quartz sand-water Power plant
7 Xiao et al. (2019) Pulp slurry Paper pulp industries
8 Cai, Zhou, and Li (2016 Pulverized coal-water Thermal power plant
9 Shi and Wei (2014) Bottom ash water Thermal power plant
10 Shi, Wei, and Zhang (2017) Water – glass beans and water-rape Chemical industry
seeds
11 Zhao et al. (2021) Glass bead – water
12 Peng, Fan, et al. (2021) Quartz sand-water Mineral processing industry
13 Gu et al. (2019) Mixed sand-water Hydropower plants
14 Qian et al. (2014) silt Hydropower plants
16 Walker and Goulas (1984) Coal slurry Thermal power plants, paper, rubber,
Kaolin clay paint industries, etc.
16 Tarodiya and Gandhi (2019a), Tarodiya and Sand þ water Lift irrigation projects, dredging industry
Gandhi (2021), Tarodiya and Gandhi
(2019b), Alawadhi et al. (2021), Shi et al.
(2020), Lei et al. (2018), Shen and Chu
(2018), Wang, Tan, et al. (2022), Tao et al.
(2017), Wang, Li, et al. (2022).
17 Engin and Gur (2001) Casting sand-water Manufacturing industry
Beach sand – water
Pearlite A – water
Pearlite B – water
18 Roco, Nair, and Addie (1986) Phosphate lime slurry Phosphate mining
19 Benretem et al. (2007) Lorry of washed phosphate Phosphate industry
20 Chandel, Singh, and Seshadri (2011) Fly ash slurry Thermal power plants
21 Vlasak and Chara (2011) Provodin sand – water, Novaves sand Mineral industry
– water
Zavadasand – water
, Bohuchovice sand – water
Mistrovice stony dust þ water
22 Zhang, Yang, and Zhao (2017) Swage water Sewage transportation
23 Cheng et al. (2017) Molten salt Chemical industry
24 Peng, Luo, and Wang (2015) Sediment Dredging industry
25 Khalil et al. (2013) Water hyacinth Sea minerals transportation
Cattails
26 Barmaki and Ehghaghi (2019) Sand blast – water Power plants
(continued)
30 J. BANKA AND A. K. RAI

Table 5. Continued.
S. No. Authors Type of slurry Slurry pump application in industry
27 Lai et al. (2019) Silica – water Power plants
28 Shen et al. (2019) Sediment – water Jangtai Yellow River Irrigation Project
(JYRIP)
29 Chen et al. (2022) Sediment – water Wind-solar–water integration system
30 Gahlot, Seshadri, and Malhotra (1992) Coal – water Steel plant
Zinc – water Zinc plant

Table 6. Different technics to study erosion in centrifugal pump.

S.no Erosion measuring method Description
1 PIV Understanding erosion processes using a
novel experimental technique that measures fluid
flow velocities and monitors particle motion.
2 Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV) Erosion pattern assessment is made possible by an
experimental method that uses laser light to assess
fluid dynamics.
3 Ultrasonic technics A nondestructive testing method to assess the depth
of material loss
4 Particle Tracking velocimetry (PTV) Individually track the particle motion and its effect on
erosion. It is an experimental technic
5 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) Analyses the surface morphologies precisely to foretell
erosion in pump components
6 wear examination of substrate Identifying erosion origins and assessing particle-
material particles induced impact by analyzing wear particles
collected from pump systems.
7 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy Analyse the outer surface condition to predict the
erosion
8 CFD A numerical simulation method used to study erosion
and fluid flow patterns.
9 Finite element analysis Simulates material behavior to erosive stresses to
anticipate the deposition of stress in pump parts.
10 Fluid-particles interaction models Models that simulate the behavior of slurry flow by
taking particle size, shape, velocity, and other
factors into account.
11 Surface response methods Material response models are combined to describe
mechanical behavior under erosive circumstances.
12 Multi-phase simulations Employs CFD technic to assess complex interactions
between particles and fluid
14 Turbulence models It is essential for representing the turbulent character
of fluid flow as it affects particle paths as well as
impingement conditions
Drawback
Measurement challenges with large
particulate speeds
Visually accessible flow is necessary.
The depth of erosion can be known but
not the distribution or pattern of
erosion
Measurement challenges with complex
flows
Requires precise material characteristics
for precise erosion measurement.
Identification of particles from wear and
foreign contaminations is difficult.
Demands high vacuum conditions.
The expense cost computing. Demands
for rigorous setup and verification.
Demands accurate information on
material properties
Encounter difficulty in complex particle
shapes and flows
Efficiency depends on precise data on
material properties
The computational time is determined
by the flow complexity and the
difficulties in capturing turbulence
and particle interaction at the same
time.
The difficulty of recording tiny
turbulence in high-velocity flows

due to difficulty in maintaining the shape of abrasives
during experiments.
8. Conclusions
In general, the particle properties including size, shape, con­
centration, and hardness have an immense impact on centri­
fugal pump performance and erosion characteristics. The
pump efficiency and lifespan have been decreased rapidly
due to increased wear on the impeller and casing from
larger and harder particles. On the other hand, small and
uniformly shaped particles have been reported to help the
pump operate more effectively, especially at lower concen­
trations. It is crucial to carefully evaluate the particle proper­
ties and modify the pump design, materials, and operating
conditions accordingly in order to maximize performance
and reduce erosion of a centrifugal pump. The output char­
acteristics, wear rate, and longevity of the pump is affected
by variables including flow rate, pressure, speed, and suction
conditions. Since the flow inside the pump is turbulent, the
flow pattern has mainly been studied employing PIV and
PTV technologies with a miniature optical centrifugal pump.
The major outcomes from this literature review have been
summarized below.
� Generally, as the size of the particle increases, the ero­
sion rate has been found to increase. The variation of
erosion rate with particle size has been non-linear.
Compared to all the other components of the pump,
impeller have been more prone to erode with an
increase in the particle size. The impact of particle size
on performance characteristics has been more promin­
ent with large-sized particles compared to the smaller-
sized particle.
� The effect of concentration has been severe on the ero­
sion of the volute followed by pressure and suction sides

of impeller. Among all other parameters, the concentra­
tion of slurry particles has the most impact on the per­
formance characteristics as head developed and power
requirement increases with concentration. At low con­
centrations, the efficiency of the pump has been found
more compared to the efficiency of the pump handling
clear water.
� The erosion rate and reduction in performance charac­
teristics have a direct relation with the velocity of the
pump. At low concentrations, the variation of the head
has a linear relationship with velocity; but, it does not
hold well at higher concentrations.
� Commonly the shape factor has an inverse relation with
erosion rate when the shape factor approaches one.
However, the maximum erosion rate does not occur with
a particle having the least shape factor. Specific power
consumption increases with a decrease in the shape fac­
tor value.
� The variation of erosion rate has been found to vary
with flow rate at different locations; but, the point of the
maximum erosion rate remains unaltered. For any flow
rate, the least erosion has been observed when the pump
operated at its best efficiency point.
� The geometry of the pump has a huge impact on the
erosion rate as well as the performance characteristics.
The erosion rate and location of maximum erosion
changes as per the time of operation of the pump as pro­
gressive erosion influences the profile of the blade. The
increased thickness provides prolonged life to a pump;
but, it promotes erosion rate and diminishes the per­
formance of the pump quickly. Generally, the large-sized
pump is recommended for better service life with semi-
open and open-type impellers compared to closed impel­
lers in erosive conditions.
A centrifugal slurry pump performance is improved
through regular monitoring, adjusting the operating
parameters, and appropriate pump maintenance. As the
application of centrifugal slurry pumps is very wide and
handles different fluids under various circumstances,
mainly the erosion aspect has been dealt in this literature
review.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank Science and Engineering Research
Board [Grant No. SRG/2020/002452], India for financially supporting
the present work.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Funding
The authors would like to thank Science and Engineering Research
Board [Grant No. SRG/2020/002452], India for financially supporting
the present work.
PARTICULATE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 31
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