I020 MU5I0IANS* UNION MUS1COLOGY 5 ^ W W 1
1021
did not insist on any professional ability stand- its birthplace, but in the latter year London
became the administrative centre, and to-day
ard for admission to membership, its argu-
ment being that so long as employers- were this is situated nl 7 Sicilian Avenue, South*
content to engage musicians irrespective or ampton Row, W.C.t, and its general secretary
such qualifications,The Union would be com- is Fred Dambman (A. 18U0). It has branches
throughout die country with local branch
pelled to admit all ^and sundry. There were
many in<the Union, and in the profession, who secretaries. There are also district organizers
who are, in turn, secretaries of district councils,
did not agree with this ruling, with the result
that there arose a National Federation of Pro- made up of delegates from the branches. Each
district also sends a member or members to an
fessional Musicians registered as a Trade
executive committee which, with a periodic
Union, in 1907, which insisted on this pro- delegate conference (first held in 1894), is the
fessional standard and even provided for a governing body of the Union. Intcr-tradc-
board of examiners where necessary. The uuion activities arc carried on through local
Federation was short-lived, being dissolved in Trades Councils and the Trades Union Con-
1914. gress, with winch the Union has been affiliated
In 1912 the Union formed a Choristers' since 1895. Politics arc provided for under the
Section in order to include chorus singers of Political! Fund Rules of tc^t3 et sfq*
stage productions- It had hut a fitful exist-
ence. More promising was the Musical On the social side, the Musicians' Union has
Directors* Section, formed in London in 8913, attempted much. As early as 1897 it put for-
and extended to Scotland in 1916, where Sir ward a scheme for the acquisition of theatres to
Donald Tovey became its Hon, President. be run on co-operative lines. It was then
Eventually this section was styled the Musi- thought to be Utopian, but the idea has
cal Directors* Association, when provincial recently been adopted by the co-operative
branches in England were formed, and in 1929 movement itself. In both i8gG and 1909 it
a meeting was held with the London Musical proposed unemployment and superannuation
Conductors* Association, with Sir Hugh Allen
schemes, but both were rejected by the mem-
in the chair, with a view of bringing ih** two
bers, A graduated scale of funeral benefits has
societies into one organization, but without existed since 1900, and an insurance fund for
avail. Of greater moment was the working
agreement signed in 1915 between the two instruments began to operate in the same year.
great societies which represented the interests In 1912 the Titanic Convalescent Homes Fund t existence of the objects of the natural sciences
of musicians in general, i.e. the National was established.
Orchestral Association and the Amalgamated To-day the Musicians' Union, with a mem-
Musicians' Union, which eventually brought bership not far from 20,000* must be con-
about the complete fusion of the two societies sidered an integral part of the musical life of
in 1921. This was due mainly to the efforts of this country, snore especially since all wages,
Joseph B. Williams who, having seen the salaries, fees, agreements, contracts and con-
dream of his life fulfilled, retired in 192 j , after
ditions of employment come under its aegis.
watching Ins foundling grow from a mere In fixing adequate rates for the musician in the
handful of stalwarts in 1893 to a powerful concert-hall, band-stand, dance-room, theatre
society of over 19,000 members in 1924= He pit, broadcasting studio and almost every
was succeeded by E. S. Tcale (1861—1931), a sphere of seasonal or occasional engagement, i First, there are the qualities of music
pupil of the Yorkshire Training College of the musical profession has been made suffi-
Music, and it was during his tenure of office ciently lucrative to eliminate the necessity of
that the appalling disemploymcnt of musicians other extraneous employment. This confining
in consequence of the introduction of sound- the musician to a wholc-tienc service has
4 films took place. During the autumn of iq^B,
after the first " talkies " appeared, the mem-
naturally enhanced executive ability which,
ht turn, has not only raised the social status of
bership of the Union was over 20,000, but
>
before long it fell to less than 7000. To meet the musician, but has largely contributed to
o the menace the Union created the Musical the improvement of music itself. tr. G. F.
Performers* . Protection Association which Eh Hi*—* Autnlj-aniaicd Musicians Union Monthly Uc-
port and Journal' (Manchr*lexa 1804-11100).
essayed to confer " performing rights•" on 1
Muxirinns' Journal' (Manchester-London), esprttally
those musicians wlib'tiiade the sound-films, an April loan, !H>'ft"U; JnUy ur.»4J, Pjj*. fl-0 ; Oct. lfl?«0 • their owu inherent laws.
instrument which would have enabled (he _ nj».a7-*»; J»n. u « » j n . g t .
union to control to some extent the humanly MiiMri!nflp*tWffl>iT1mt) J C M M I M ! * {ntattc-Iirsicr, iflUft-
detrimental effects of the new mechanism. In l|W')).
.V/vflfc>tfarroilii* (J.'TO. l''nnoiT (If. It,). Muskfans'
it* first legal case however, judgment went Company. William* (Joseph llr-vir).
against the Union and the association was * MUSICOJLOGY. This $erm ftas occurrM
shelved. more and more frequently of recent years in
English books, periodicals and articles. It is
From Us inception in 1893 until 11-932 the used to express the scientific study of music in
headquarters of the Union were at Manchester, the widrst sense. In France and America the
word has been in current use; for some con-
MUSIGOLOGY: Method—Systems of Theory
vderahle time: there is a ' Revue de Musi*
colngic', which appears in Paris, and an
American Musiculogical Society, which corre-
sponds to the Royal Musical Association in
England. «3& flaE*
METHOD.—It is still sometimes questioned
whether the term " musicology u really
corresponds to the idea it is meant to express
or whether it lias merely come into use for
the convenience of having a single word for
H
musical science ". ** ' —* »*
The whole province of the sciences can be
divided into those two main groups which
Socrates recognized as fundamental modes
of scientific thought — the general and the
particular. Thus the polarity of natural and
humanistic or more precisely natural and
historical sciences is preserved: in a more
extended sense this would mean the polarity
of natural and humane sciences (which would
include historical science). Natural science is
concerned with the search for general laws,
limnane science with individual facts.
The historical sciences can never be exact
srx the same sense as the natural. The aim of
•nil historical research is the presentation of the.
individual thing, and this aim is achieved by
the method of description: the choice, from
atnong all the available facts, of those which
the historian considers "valuable". The
is considered in the light of known laws which
these objects obey: the objects of the cultural
sciences are interesting for the value attaching
to each of them individually. Hence there
arc two fundamentally different methods of
i
approach, the generalizing method for the
natural1 sciences, the individualizing for the
humane sciences.
In the case of music, what is the material
with which science has to deal?
considered as a world of sounds j secondly, the
principles according to which isolated sounds
arc joined to each other, the rules arising from
i become passible to achieve our object, sVa. the
the simultaneous or successive relationship of
sounds to each other; thirdly, musical com*
position. These I hrcc groups demand different
treatment.
(1} The acoustic and physiological pheno-
mena of music can be treated purely scientific-
ally: they can be examined in the light or
^ . ($) Tin* ruins governing somjj^tigtajionsjjjj nufiS.
PTC not laws hut norms', which determine rcthn
sicmitlMiriHis (harmony) or successive (melody)
relationship of sounds to each other* with a
view to the fulfilling of certain conditions not
1
Norm* are not like natural laws, i.e. abstractions of
caiwr and effect: they rather lay down the nature or
this cRect under Ktvcn, circumstances. In the termino-
logy of logic the difference between natural tew ana
norm might be compared with that between a judgment
offset and a Judgment of value.
universally valid but dependent upon change-
able values. Musical theory belongs therefore
to the province of the normative cultural
sciences.
' (3) O n the other hand, a musical compost-
tion is a Creation of the artist, a projection of
Vfc
the artistic experience from the iroier con-
sciousness of the artist into actuality. It is con-
ceivable only in relation to the artist who creates
i t : it is bound u p with the significance of the
artist as an individual, a unique phenomenon.
This value may be at its minimum when a
composition is scarcely distinguishable fiom
others of its kind; and it approaches its maxi-
mum in proportion to the success with which
the artist achieves a unique expression of his
personality. A musical composition, then, can
be Classified as M a n g i n g to the historical
humane sciences. T h e investigation arid
understanding of the problems involved fit the
act of composition form the kernel of musical
science. T h e physical and physiological data
of music are of interest to the student only in
so far as they help him to understand a com-
position. Acoustic phenomena, as such, in-
terest the physicist: the norms of muafe— the
rules expounded hi musical theory — a m
conceivable in relation to a musical composi-
tion atone, because they are abstract general-
izations arrived at by induction from concrete
instances. ^^TMMflP
Musjpal scifrige, then, is a province o f the
general theory of art and, as such, of humane
science. The object with which musical
science is concerned is the musical composition
and the conditions of its creation, development
and performance. 4 -rv^
Cjomparative^jpvsK^l .setgwy (which can
be treated purely scientifically) and the history
oLstyJe arc only parts of musical history. By
these means compositions can be collected,
classified and increasingly raised from their
position as parts of a n anonymous mass to an
individual existence, e Starting from these
branches of musical research it will gradually
arrangement and investigation of all available
material in such a way as to be able to consider
historically as many as possible of those com-
positions which have hitherto been regarded as
prehistoric or historically unclassifiable.
HISTORICAL SYNOPSIS OP W E SYSTEMS* OF
MUSICAL T H E O R Y . — T h e scientific study of
music, in the Wcstdatcs from Greek antiquity-
It i$ almost easier to form some idea of Greek
music from the numerous theoretical treatises
which have been preserved, and from the
observations of the philosophers, than Etom
the disconnected fragments of the music itselfc
There are a large number of manuals and
treatises belonging to the first centuries o f the
Christian era. Ill which the work of these older
theorists is Revised and extended. For Creek
 1
ikr MUSICOLOGY: Systems of Theory — Medieval Science MUSICOLOOY: Medieval Science 1023

A y^wrtteitjii western writer (in the €

Institutio 1
Aritlunetica') into effect St. Augustine's ideals of Christian Ferriires, Sigul f (from ^96 Onwards), Se rvatus
tO use the word quadrivium for the four branches education. But Cassiodorus set far more value Lupus (805-62); a t Auxerre, Remigius of
if Jtftiidti
^Jp^jr writers, ifmusic (pown*0 h a science (cWrifrtii), of ^ q t h f r n a i , ^ ! ' e f t ™ n f —Arithmetic! Geo- than St. Augustine did on the cultivation by Auxerre (841-908), Hucbald of Salnt-Amand
wjr j Aitotidcsincludes both theory and madia:- the monks of music as a science. I n his
metry, Astrology and Music. 1
(840*030), both of them musical theorists of
'jr** up the ftgnjntiliarius (I st century A.t>Tdtawn Exposltio in psalmos ' he declares that the great fame and lasting importance; at Fulda,
The division of music into " scientia har-
following system s ^ ^ " ^ H B B ^ i " monica, rhythmica, et mctrica " goes back to singing of psalms is of equal importance with Hrabanus Maurus, who was a pupil of Alcuin
I. 0€wpiyrt.K<5v (theoretical portion) ? K 5 » . the • De artibus ac discipHnls Ijbcralium any other form of worship: " to sing is indeed at Tours;!at Reiehenau, the Abbot Waldo
(a) apifyilJTlMH'; (6) ^l'0"lKoV. artjurn ' of QnMinf l ,,,
r" «--fra atf>9"-r
iQ8)t wh<M
* to utter the word of the Lord through the (786-803), who planned the library in which
A. 4>vouc6v (ssi£ll£?) : ^ T ^ ^ ^ g l n - T r
(arithmetic) (physics) classification is more inclusive than thnt of ( mouth " (cantan vero v
est verba Domini ore all the important musical treatises between 833
Boethius; but neither of them goes into the prqferre). Cassiodorus s views remained some- and 84a were copied, and the musical theorists
I r B. vcxuuctfF (technismf) • •* ^ what isolated among those of his contempor-
practical side of music. Cassiodorus is the Her no and Herman nus Contractus (11 th cent.);
(d) dpMOWKo'v; (*) jfoff/utftfi ( 0 ptr/»Nrf'
(harmony) orhydan) (metre) prototype of a number of theorists of the aries ; in a few monasteries only, in Lorn hardy at St. Gall, Notker Balbulus (d. 919), Totilo
following centuries : IfljcJurfi-Of ScvUle, Alcuin and Spain, did his conception find a response, (<f-9'5)» Notker Labco(c.950-1022),Ekkehard
II. npaKTiKrfv (practicaL portion) and Aurelianus Rcomensis all start from his I while in Italy the monastic ideal was that of (c. 980*1060). Bjfeufr *.
A, ,\7»/cmKm' (composition) : principles, which they apply to wider fields. an ascetic way of life* I Prom the opening years of the n t h century
(fl) juAomufa; (ft) /Jufluoiroifa; ($) trofijw. A third important musical system was made Among the Irish, Scottish, Welsh and onwards begins the gradual decline of the
4 (melody) (rhythm) (poclry) by Hep;'"" nf IVihn {j/jjjjjn), who distinguishes I Anglo-Saxon monks, on llic other hand, njnii;wtir. weJipnlu ns c e n t r e s of t h e scientific
H_to- *f«yytATi«rfi» (geceuiittH)' in his KptSuHi tie hniinnnirn hiHliliillonti * (las.Hiudui HM'S ideas IOOIMI nrrrplaiicr. Ilrnrr s t u d y o f nmaifi. A s a result of t h e r e f o r m s
(fl) fipyui'itfii ; M <JWIM)I (rt) rfnoK'/HT^jJ. between a divine musica natUUlli* ami a mjak'i, the exisiriM'ir in Ireland and Wales of a blend originated a t Cluuy the tinging of psalms
(hutrumenial) (vocal)
(vocal) (dramnlir) qrtificialist modelled by man on the musica of theological and secular learning at a period increasingly took the place of general musical
W The speculations of the Greek philosophers naturalis. There is a reflection of nco-£latonic in which — save in Spain and Lombardy — a study. On the other hand the 'rj^ntiffr i H , / t y
and theorists on the nature of mysic and its ideas in this division, and also a noticeable different form of education prevailed on the Qf music in the xathedra) school* jqpr;^asrrj
connection with ethic? were taken over by parallel with Byzantine musical theory as it Continent. In the monastery schools of steadily from the middle of the 10th century
Boethius (c,.AiBi.475-523)* thejirst great musi- had developed under the influence of Gnostic Armagh, Bangor, Lismore and Clonmacnoise onwards. Theorv^a^fj pracficq were taught
cal theoretician of the Qiriitiaa_Wc&u in his and Plotinian ideas. the theory of music was taught together with side by side. This accounts for the fact that
'De instituting Musica \ In the first chapter mathematical theory. The same tendency the treatises of the theorists are a mixture of
In the griddle of the 12th century there
he enunciates the theory (taken over from appears ft fourth system, aIsoT>ase3 on pre- may be found in England at the end of the practical instructions and theoretical specula*
pre-Christian theory, but greatly intensified Christian theory — the separation of music 7th century, especially in the newly founded tion, often following each other in a completely
by Christianity) which was to have such an into musica speculative^ and musica actiua* This school at Canterbury, and also at Malmesbury, l# unsystematic manner; they are thus exceed-
effect on all medieval musical theory, i.e. that goes back to ArSstioes Quintilianus, who dis- Jarrow, Wearmouth and York. -' •*•• ingly difficult for the present-day scholar to
music is related not only to science but tinguished, as we have seen, between a .1 In Italy, on the other hand, the study of fathom, but the readers for whom the treatises
also to morality (musica vero non modo specu-0eo»pTjTiKoV (theory) and a vpa.KTiK4v (prac- music was confined to the practical side. St. were designed knew precisely at what point
lationi verum etiam moralitali coniuncta). Goingtice). This division was taken over by Arabic Benedict's ' Rcgula Monasteriorum' discusses 'the author of a compilation from earlier
back to neo-Pythagorean) and neo-lMaLouic musical theory and reappeared in the West in the practice of music onlyr no mention being treatises was adding something new of his own.
sources, Boethius distinguishes the various the translation of Al-FArAbl by Domenicus made of musical theory. At the Schola During the 1 ith and 12th centuries this new
kinds (genera) of music: (1) musica numdaug* Gundisalvus, in the middle of the 12th century. Cantoi um in Rome, founded by Pope Gregory movement centred increasingly at Rheims,
expressed in the motion of the spheres, the Most nicdieva 1 ipfflfjya arc based on the the Groat, it also appears that practical in- Chartrcs and Liigc, and later at Laon. At
ordering of the elements and the cycle <>f the principles of Boethius. Cassiodorus and Isidore struction alone was given. It was otherwise in Rhciins scientific instruction in music was
seasons; (2) musica humana% recognized by — especially on Boethius, who occupied for southern Italy and in Sicily, where there was a inaugurated by Gerbert of Aurillac, later Pope
each man in himself anaordcring aright the the Scholastics the same authoritative position Greek colony with its own monasteries and Sylvester II (c. 940-1005), who introduced the
relations between the incorporeal spirit and in music as Aristotle did in philosophy. On scriptoria. These were the centres from which ' Institutio Musica1 of Boethius as the founda-
the body, just as high and low notes make the other hand, AI-FarAbf starts from the the heritage of the ancient knowledge and tion of the theoretical study of music. At
a consonance; (3) musica quae in quibmdam practical musician, thus introducing into study of musical theory gradually penetrated Chartres the study of musical theory was begun
comtituta est in$mncntis — i.e. music in our medieval musical theory a ncwjpyint_rjf view northwards. The educational reforms which by Fulbert (c. 975-1029), while at Liege it
modern sense. By musician, however, Boethius which led to the new concept of the mitficus as took place under Charlemagne were carried was introduced by Notker (973-1008), who
does not mean one who has acquired the set forth in the ' Musica Klaglstri Ugoliru ' (of I out under the supervision of Irish, Scottish, came from St. Gall and brought with him
practical technique of singing or playing some Orvicto: 1380-1449). Here the musicus is Anglo-Saxon and Lombard monks, and led to to Liftge the great tradition of the famous
instrument: a musician is a man conversant defined as the man who is conversant with a renascence in the cast and west Prankish monastic school. &Lf J flajBj
with the theory of singing which he must have bjuli sides of music, the sjfcculatjva $nd the monastic schools of the Carolingian empire, In the n t h century the monastic schools
mastered not through mere practice but by activa. This prepared the way for the idea The monastic schools of Saint-Martin of Tours, were once again temporarily influenced by the
scientific control (non seruitio optris sed imperioof music and 1 he musician which was universal Fcrrifcrcs, Saint-Germain in Auxerre, Fulda, cathedral schools. But these too, after the 12th
speculations).1 % Boethius is also the first at the time of the Renaissance, the connection Kcichenau and St. Gall became at this period century, were gradually supplanted by those
1 vf theory, and practice; and thence arose the centres of musical culture, primarily of liturgi- new centres of intellectual life which thence-
' P H I definition of the musician ii common to many cal music, but also of musical theory." "The
musical 1 realises throughout the middle nges* and right' type nC fli'ilsir.ifin u/WA j s at the same time forward until the present day were destined to
on to the time of the Flemish and Burgundian eomposeri. leading personalities at these centres were: a t gain and retain the leadership, namely the
Even in Tinctoria'a ' Dimnilorium Musirci' (about t^corist anjixculipoacr. Saint-Martin, Alcuin (from 796 onwards), universities. The fffH'lfl |t",y,v*fr was a^ part
U75) mere is a definition of the musician United almost MUSIC AS A SciENCR AT TUB MSDIBVAl. Fredegisus (804-34), Adelard (O34-45) ' ; a t of the Faculty of Arts at the universities of
word for word on Bocihiut: ' M miens est qui perpenaa SCHOOLS AND UNIVBRSITIRS.—Music was ori-
raiione beneftcio speculation!!, non opcris servltio, 1
Paris, Oxford, Salamanca, Naples, Bologna
canendi oOTcium aasumit. Hinc different! run inter ginally taught in monasteries And cathedral At the end of the 7th century Snint-Marti" became and Pavia, and also in Germany. Johannes de
musicum el cantorem quid am sub tali mctrorum seric schools and made its way thence to the I centre for the composition of sequences, proses and
posuit: (ropes. T h e famous Winchester '1 roper (MS Ifodtoy Qarlandia (b. c. 1186), a student of Oxford,
Muaieorum et canlorum magna eat differentia: universities. J The inclusion of theoretical 77M was probably copied from a book originally taught first In Paris and was appointed in a 229
UH sciunl, It dicunt quae componit musica. instruction in music goes back to Cassiodorus, written at Snint-Martin outside Tours, and came In
fit qui didt quod non aapit dilfinitur bmia.' Winchester by way of Floury and Abingdon. Sec " magister " at the newly founded University
IE. de Couaaemoker, • CEuvre* theortuuei de who, in the monastery founded by him oj I E. W. D, Nicholson, 'Early Bodleian Music \ III, of Toulouse. The Franciscan Robert Grosse
Jean 1 inctoria ' (Llllt, 1875), p . 489.) Vivarium (about 540). endeavoured to put xxix flt
 MUS1GOLOGV: Medieval Science M USIGOLOGY: History of Science 1025
;

nc (ft. 1175; dm 1253 as Bishop of Lincoln) particularly developed at Byzantium); for L with Vincent d'Indy's * Cours de composi- H e w we find a direct contradiction of
Taught at Oxford. l a his philosophical work the Renaissance the only real music is that tion ' (1902-9), to mention only two standard previous musical theory and a confession of
* Dc Artibus Liberalibus* he gives music a which is audible to human ears. Superficially works of the many produced, one a t the feith in the " theory of sensibility " (AffekUn-
most important place and inclines to Arabic the division into musica animastica and musiea beginning of the period, the other at the Ithre) which was the basis of musical t fi€6Ty?n
views, probably under the influence of Gundi- organica is preserved, and the first of these is present day. r " j *^ ^^*5 the second half of the i8th_century; more than
salvus. His most important pupil was Roger subdivided into mundana and Imtnana. But in I T H E HISTORY OP M U S I C . — T h e fact that that, Eximcno is the herald of the romajuic
Bacon, who considered music as an important practice very little is said of the musica animastica theoretical treatises from now on confined conception of music as it came to be stated a
part of theoretical study. In the 14th century and stress is laid on the musica organica, which their interest to the actual craft of music made few years later in the writings and poems of
Paris possessed one of the greatest theorists, Zarlino subdivides into natitrale (vocal) and it necessary to carry on the philosophical con- the German romantics.
lohannes de Muris, who was •rector. rtificialc (instrumental). The perfect musician I sideration of music in a new way, i.e. in Not long after Eximeno's work there ap-
Sorbpnne i a m y . His chief work is the ? musico perfetto) is still for Zarlino the man who
vfusica Speculativa \ . ; T o the same author practises his art on the foundation of a scientific
treating music historically, a method which peared two English histories, BurncV s ' Gen-
also implied a more or less explicit connection eral History of Music * (1776) and, in the same
was also attributed the ' Speculum Musices * mastery of theory; but h b admiration is with philosophical ideas. No fewer than year, Hawkins's ' General History of the
in seven books, an extraordinary achievement increasingly for free, creative work. As the I seyen would-be complete histories of music Science and Practice of Music \ both of which
which provided the basis of all musical in- poet makes use of language to imitate the appeared during the 38th century. T h e first are still of interest. They were followed by g .
struction at most universities in the 15th and object which he is describing, so the musician of these was the ' Histoire de la musiquc et de de La Bordc'a * Essai sur la musique * (1780)
16th centuries. 1 is allowed to represent by means of music that scs efTcts * ((725) by Jacques Bonnet, who was and J . N. Forkel's' Allgemeine Geschichte der
M. About 1400 Joannes dc Ciconia was living which is expressed in the words of his text ( well aware oTlhc novelty or his attempt. In Musilc £\%oi\ ^^^9tKw^" *
at Padua, and eighty years later Johannes (" cosl 6 couccsso a I Musico Sc Mclopcio, his preface he writes: " Mais quniquc plus dc Unfortunately there was an insufficient
f douze cens Autcurs ayent traite dc cette supply of the material necessary for the
Tinctoris and Bernard Hykaert were at Naples imitar con la Modulatione & con l Harmonia :
— signs of the great esteem in which Flemish con quel modo migliore ch' ei pu6 fare, 1quelle Science [music], pas un ne s'est hazards d'en chronicling and appreciation demanded by a
music was held at this time. Franchinus che esprimono le parole contenute nell Ora- faire 1'Histoire " . After this attempt (for it is general history of music. It is little wonder
Gafurius (Gafori) was Professor musicae at tione, la quale vuole esprimere col c a n t o " : no more) there appeared Q- B. Martini's well- therefore that none of these works achieved
Milan about 1500, Johannes Cochlaeus was ' Sopplimenti musicali', 1588, p. 316). known ' Storia dclla musica 9 (1757)- Very its object. At the end of the 18th century
Magister artium at the University of Cologne,
CI w
The freeing of real music from its de- little attention has been paid to "Eximeno's there began a period of detailed research, a
his pupil Glareanus at Basel and Freiburg i/B. pendence on the cosmic, and its connection ' Dell1 origiuc c dclle regole dclla musica, period which is not yet over, whose object is to
with aesthetic ideas, put the teaching of music colla storia del suo progrcsso, decadenza, c investigate, step by step, the whole province
r After the end of the 1,6th tfftngnryi w hcn in
England the study of music at the universities on quite a new footing. From the time of the rinuovazione' C'J?74)> which is remarkable of music, to publish complete editions of the
took on a new lease of life, the chairs of music Greek theorists, by way of Boethins and Cassio- for the boldness, novelty and penetration of great masters and collections of the most
disappeared on, tfrft Continent. With the end dorus, right up to Tinctoris, Aaron and Glare- its ideas. I n Fart I, ch. ii of his book he important works of lesser composers, each
of scholastic philosophy the study of Muris's anus, theorists did no more than continue and attacks the connection of music with mathe- country contributing its quota to the whole.
widespread treatises on music disappeared supplement the works of their predecessors. matics under the heading * Che la musica non This is the end served by the 'Publications of
c
from the curriculum. Zarlino begins the subjective approach to ha correlazionc colla maternalica ', and com- the Musical Antiquarian Society', the Pub-
SL The change in the general conception of music, and with him starts the battle of bats the views of the older and the modern likation alterer praktischer und theoretischer
music is shown by the appearance in 1558 opinions. Vinccnzo Galilei, a pupil of Zar- theorists, especially Euler's ' Tentamen novae Musikwerke', the ' Recueil des morceaux de
of the * lstituzioni harmoniche ' of Gioseffo lino, opposed some of lus master's theories Thcoriae Musicae', Tartini's ' Trattato dell9 ar- musiquc ancienne', the ' Archives du chant',
Zarlino, later maestro di cappelta _of St. Mark'sT in his * Dialogo dclla musica antica c dclla ! monia *, Rameau and d'Alembert. Eximcno the D.D.T., the D.T.O., c Tudor Church
Venice. In the music of his time, and before moderna , which appeared in 1581 at Flor- maintains in his thesis (' Che la musica sia un Music', the * English Madrigal Schools',
c
all else in that of Adriaan Willaert, Zarlino saw ence. Zarlino answered him in the * Soppli- vero linguaggio *) that a knowledge of the the lstituzioni e monument! dell' arte musi-
the end of the infima bassezza of the middle menti musicali ' (1588), ( and Galilei attacked rules of music is not necessary in order to cale italiana % the editions of the ' Maat-
ages which had succeeded the somma altezza of him more bitterly in his Discorso intorno alle compose well in the same sense as a know- schappij tot bevordering der Toon kunst *,
antiquity. I n spite of his deliberate return to opere di Messer Zarlino di Chioggia ' (1589). ledge of the rules of geometry is necessary the ' Plain-Song and Medizval Music S ociety H
the theories of antiquity, however, Zarlino's Still more bitter is the answer of G M, Artusj. for the solution of a mathematical problem. the ' Paleographie Musicale*, the ' Monu-
division of music does not represent any break which appeared after Zarlino's death. The The rules of music are no more than mere ob- menta Musicae Oyzantinae', etc. f *
with scholastic theory (which was itself based chief stress now is laid on questions of aesthetics, servations or reflections on musical sounds In the loth century A. W, Arnbros's
on antiquity) but rather a further development the use of new chords_and their solution, and (" solamente sono osservazioni o riflessioni ' Geschichte der Musilc* (4 vols,, 1862-78)
of that theory. The difference between the the question of declamation. T h e contra- sopra i toni " ) , and an absence of reflection is and F . J . Fetis's 'Histoire generate de la
medieval and Renaissance r-nnccptions of puntal style, hitherto so greatly admired, was no drawback for a composer who follows his musique ' (5 vols., 1869-76) represent a real
music, as shown in the * lstituzioni harmo- attacked by the circle of Florentine musicians instinct. Eximeno even goes so far as to say advance on the works of the 18th century. At
SE&*, lies in trie new indepencTerirp- fif ny yiic who were making the first beginnings of the that if only those who have learnt the rules the beginning of the ont[| rtrnturv we have the
from thf^lngy. r An aesthetic valuation of opera, and by their successors; thus the whole are to compose, it would be better to burn * Oxford History oLMusic' and H. JUciaflttafr
music takes the place of the old connection interest of these musical treatises begins to all compositions. In order to compose, it is * H a n d b u c h d e r Musikgeschichte*J in HJI<J
between music and religious ideas. The centre on the technique of composition and J enough to abandon oneself,to the arms of A- Lavigaac's ! Encyeloptfdie d e la musique - 'T --?*-
middle ages saw in terrestrial music only a questions concerning the aesthetic considera- 1 nature and allow oneself to be guided by the began to appear; in ,1924 G. Adksr's * Hand-
copy of the celestial (a conception which was tion of a composition. It is a sign of the rimes sensations aroused by the subject which Li to buch der Murf^csehicnTe'; and in 1327 E.
that most of the theorizing is done by practis- he put to music ' (p. 107). Huckcn's ' Handbuch der Musikwittcrachaft *.
The problem as to which or the writings that have B y t n c side of these monumental works there
been handed down under the name of Muris arc to be ing musicians, in the prefaces to their works
Mcribed to die mathematician Johannes dc Muris. has (Uanchieri, Peri, Gaccini, Viadana and many
1
" In faui bisognerebbe dar alle fiamme quasi luite have appeared vast quantities of detailed
been much discussed, but tf not yet solved. The only Ic roinposizioni <li Musica, ae fosse siata tiecessaria ne* loro studies of varying size, with the result that
tact which may to-day be regarded as certain is (hat the others) or in books of instruction, written at Aulori la scienxa dclle vere regole. Per la delta ra-
Npeculum Musices" is not by him, but by one Jacobus, tine height of their creative ability, for the use gione ancora mentre si risolve un prohlema geometrico, almost the whole field of music has now been
otherwise unknown, who was studying in Paris towards
of young musicians and composers. There is conviene tener la menie rivolta alle regole: altrimeiiti covered. Perhaps the clearest idea of the
< l r Bc cl lion possono applicaisi a' casi particolari. Ma per com- revolution which took place during the 19th
M ^ * a f e / f l * * ? ? X ' r ^ - . » ^ * Studicn zur a direct line of ancestry connecting Michael porre in musica bisogna abbandonarsi nelle brncci delja
^ , k ^ h U e K ^ " • * < Archiv rur MusikTorschung \ century in the conception of the scicntia musices
VII. ioo IT., and V I I I . 207 fT.V Praetorius's c Syntagma musicum * (1615-^20) N;»iui a r lasciarsi condurre dalle seniazioni, che risveglia
II jmccffiio da metiers fo musica.1*
 MUS1COLOG Y : Synopsis of Systems
MUSIGOLOGY: Synopsis of Systems 097
of the mass of work produced can be ^ - * M MUSICAL SCIENCE y r ^ ^ r * ^ I this was theory concerned with norms (rules).
- t r a i n e d b y comparing the oldest extant this article ft is possible to distinguish two
I. Historical section (history of music ar> This was not an historical science until musical methods of approach. Thefirstfries t o collect
dictionary of music (Tinctoris's * Terminoruiti ~ $* ranged by epochs, peoples! empires! composition became the object of investigation.
musicae diffinitoriurn"*, 1475) with the latest 9 E^< countries, provinces, towns, schools, in- all the facts pertaining to music in order to
Adler then illustrated the. methods necessary investigate, on the basis of natural science,
edition of the present Dictionary, Tinctoris's JP ?f$t dividual artists). for 1 he determination of the qualities required the general laws of the process, from its first
" dictionary ** would barely cover ten pages in Kg A. Musical palaeography (systems of nota- by a work of art. *v ' y - -JEg origins in the appearance of musical sound
the format of Grove's Dictionary. 5 P * "V-1 " tion). Palaeography must come first, to enable the to the completed musical composition. T h e
SYNOPSIS OF METHODICAL SYSTEMS DP TO •* 11. Historical basic forms (grouping of student to transliterate a composition, as far second starts from the work of art seen as part
THE PRESENT TIME.—We have seen thai the musical forms). as possible, from the original into our modem of the cultural achievement of the aye to wftifjn
second half of the iqth century saw the bir t h C. Laws: notation. Then follows the ocamjpntiori of it belongs. 1 he musicologist is led to consider
r s n tr>ft
of the scif nlU* - Pffy * treatment of the H (1) As they occur in the compositions the composition, its rhythmic, melodic and what such a work reveals to him about the
problems of musical history. A natural corol- of each epoch; harmonic structure, its form and method of period, but also to describe what gives it its
lary of this was the appearance of a number of (a). As they are conceived and taught performance: this enables the student \o date special significance, its uniqueness as a work
scholars concerned with the exact nature of
their studies. (1) The first of these was Frie-
drich Chrysandcr. the editor of the complete
by the theorists of each period;
(3) As they appear in the practice of the
the work. Style is the sum-total of the char-
acteristics of a work which, apart from tech-
nical questions, determine its character. T h e
of a r t
In order to examine the specific qualities
1
arts. of a work of art the student must first compare
edition of Handel's works. In his preface to great virtue of Adlcr's research lies in the ex-
the ' Jahrbiichcr fur musikalischc Wkscn- 1). Musical instruments. it with other works of its own period and with
amination of stylistic hallmarks and the those of the preceding and following periods to
schaft' h e explained that he had chosen the II. Systematic section (tabulation of the chief building up of a method of stylijstiaiuvcsiiga-
word Wissenschaft (science) in order to em- discover in what respects it differs from other
laws applicable to the various branches tion (Stilkritik). inthis'he resembled C. H. H. works of art and in what its significance lies.
phasize the fact that musical research would be Parry, whose '$tyle in Musical Art* appeared
content with nothing less than the standard of I of music). He will then try to describe as faithfully as
in the same year as Adler's ' Dcr. Stil in der possible its specific qualities. He must consider
seriousness and accuracy demanded by the A. Investigation and justification of these Musik ', a significant fact in the development
other, older branches of science. He looked for laws in: himself an historian, not a mere chronicler.
of the study of musical history. The work of art must live in him; he must—to v
An aesthetic of music arrived at from the point (1) Harmony;
of view of the artist and his work, not from that (2) Rhythm; The study of style is the last stage of the quote Benedetto Croce ' — apprehend its indi-
of his audience. This short programme was (3) Melody. research into general factors; after this there viduality by thinking himself into it. This is
admirably suited to Chrysander's day. when remain only the personal factors which deter- the supreme task of the musicologist fifi
1). Aesthetics and psychology of music:
the scientific study of the arts suffered much mine the individual character and worth of When, towards the end of the 19th century,
(j) Comparison and estimation of value each separate work. systematic study of the history of music began
from obsolete and useless aesthetic slogans. and their relation to apperceptive
(3) An essay of Hermann Kretzschmar's, and more and more works of art wore dis-
(2) Thz * Jahrbucher' met with very little subjects; which appeared in the c Jahrbuch der rviusik- covered and transcribed from manuscripts,
success and only appeared over a period (2) Complex of questions either directly bibliothek Peters ' (1007), deserves attention. the student was principally concerned to
of two years. The * Vierteljabrsschrift fur or indirectly connected with the It bears the title ' A Few Considerations of the* explain the dcvclopmen t of the various
B Musikwissenschaft', edited by Chty&audcrancl foregoing. Purpose, Development and the Task of Music schools of composers* For this pioneer work -
fi Philipp Spitta. and directed by Guido Adler, C. Musical pedagogics: in the Immediate Future 1 , and in it Kretzsch- the stilkritische Methods was an excellent
B had much greater success. The first volume (1) The general leaching of music; mar points out that in all other branches of means of studying, the technique of composi-
cnc
B (i§§5) °P d with an essay by Guido Adler (2) Teaching of harmony; artistic study the history of art is given priority, tion in various periods, and this method must
• bearing the title * Scope, Method and Object (3) Counterpoint; while in music history tends to be sacrificed to still remain the basis pf our investigations.
B of Musical Science*, in which he explained the (4) Teaching of composition; semi-scientific theory. However, once this task is achieved, the
E programme of the quarterly. Adler starts from (5) Teaching of orchestration; (4) H . Riemann starts from quite a different musicologist must operate as an historian.
B the thesis that all peoples who can be said to (6) Methods of teaching singing and point of view in his ' Grundriss der Musik- It will depend upon the greatness of his own/,
B have an art of music also possess a science of instrumental playing. wissenschaft \ As we have seen, Adler and experience of them how far he will succeed
B music, undeveloped though it may be as a D. Musicology (research and comparative Kretzsch mar, start from the musical composi- in presenting as living things the works which
B scientific system. He acknowledges that the studies in connection with folklore and tion as die object of research and so arrive he studies. - ^ -^ %ff &• J* ^»
B concern with musical science will o£ necessity ethnography). naturally at the priority of musical history* all JHBUOGRAPHY ^ ° ^ ^ ^*W*rt
B change with the status of music as an art; and other branches ofstudy merely playing second- ADLER, C , ' M e t h o d s der Musikgeschichte * (Leipzig,
B he lays down—as has been demonstrated Sciences contributory to the historical section: ary parts in the investigation of the origin and
B in die section dealing with method — that General History and Palaeography, Chrono- DKRNIIEIM, E., *Lehrbuch der historischen Methode'
development of the musical composition. (Leipzig, 1908). ^^ _ .^ m .
» modern musical - science must start with the logy, Diplomacy, Bibliography, Knowledge of Riemann, on the other hand, starts, from the COLUNOWOOO, R. G., ' T h e Idea of History (Oxford,
composition. Following the theory of Greek Library and Archive Methods, Literature and psychological act of artistic creation, the CROCE, B., * Theory and History of Historiography
antiquityv Adler classed music as a science a 1 id Languages, Liturgiology, History of the exteriorization of the creation of the artist's (London. tofti)* . .
drew up the following table^ which shows for Mimetic Arts and the Dance, Biography, etc. inner vision, which has artistic worth as a new GEROLD, T I L * ' Lcs Peres de I'figlwe et h muwque
the first time the full extent of the province of Sciences contributing to the systematic section: object. This method leads logically to a (Paris, 10,31)- .m . .
musicology': ^^^^3mTf^ i *v J
La Miisiquc au- moyenTage (Pans. 1932; -
Acoustics and Mathematics, Physiology (sen- psychology of the artist, but it can never com- Piemen, G\, g Die KhtsaKikatioB der Musis TOO Boeuw
* Thii table is repeated* with a frw variation* iiolnl sations of si itincl), Psychology, I -ogir, Grammar, pletely explain the complex ingredients which 1
bis Uftnliae von Orvieto • (Halle, 1020).
here. 111 Adlrr's Mrtliode dcr MuiikecRcliirliir ' (Kim), Dirt Miilik im Erzichungs- und Biklun^sideal des
a book to which too liillc attention has been paid. 11 is Metrics and Poetics, Pedagogics, Aesthetics, make up a musical composition. It opens the ausgHicndeii Altcrlums und IrOhen M m c u i t e n
designed Tor students and provides an excellent iiu re- etc., KK^sfitfi 8 ? H • .c^yy door to fruitless ac^hctic speculation, very JUcKK"T!|Ph!.D3?K»ltHrw»sse^nschaft ^LSSSSSSi
ductionto the whole field of musical Imtory. In the • Adler starts with the appearance of musical srliaft: *lie Grcnzcn der naturwissenschaiUiclieD
wax* 1898-1937, when h e was director of the Music different from that of H. Mcramann'a brilliant hcgrifrshilclung' (Tubingen, I0J3)- , . .
History Institute of Vienna University. Adler carried science as theoretical observation, as opposed ' Musikaesthetik | fipgg}, which demonstrates RIEMANN, U.j ' Geschichte der Musiktheone un IX.-
w
out 1 he programme outlined above. Musical theory W « to the sound-product arranged by fantasy and
taught by A Scho.-ii-.vcrg. K. Wcigl and H. CM ; nicn- the possible value ofaesthctic investigations and XIX. Jalirhundert' (Leipzig, 1898)-.,
sural theory by K O U T , one of the editors or die Trent subject to primitive aesthetic norms. At first the attempt to explain a work of art from the • Grundriss dcr Musikwissenschalt (LiPMfc ' 9 ^ > -
Codices; lute tablaluros. by Kosftirz ; the siudv of mrdi- science tried to fix, determine and explain philosophical ana physiological standpoints* 1 *Tcoriadcllastoria flellasloriografia ' (Ban, X9i?jt
s'Mmd-dala. i.e. methodolocirallv considered. (n the «VMIr*m* which have been outlined in n. 1 to, Eng. trans. (London, 1921), pp. 134-35-
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