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Environmental Impact of Small-scale and Artisanal Gold Mining in Southern

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 N. Håkan Tarras-Wahlberg, Adriana Flachier, Göran Fredriksson,
Article Stuart Lane, Bo Lundberg and Olof Sangfors
Environmental Impact of Small-scale and
Artisanal Gold Mining in Southern Ecuador
Implications for the Setting of Environmental Standards and for the
Management of Small-scale Mining Operations
Small-scale gold mining in southern Ecuador is causing
considerable environmental impacts, the most important of
which are related to the discharge of metals, metalloids
and cyanide into adjacent rivers. In the rivers, these con-
taminants are generally not present in water-soluble forms,
but are instead associated with suspended particles and
river bed sediment. However, elevated levels in biota show
these contaminants to be readily bioavailable. These re-
sults suggest a need to consider the suspended and sedi-
ment phases when evaluating water-quality impacts, and
in setting appropriate environmental water-quality stand-
ards. Contaminant discharges, are almost entirely caused
by inadequate management of the waste products derived
from mining and processing activities, indicating a failure
of policy and public supervision to control the mining
activities, as well as a general difficulty in achieving good
environmental performance among small-scale miners.
These findings suggest that Ecuadorian policy needs to
develop to enable small scale and artisanal miners to
become larger scale.
Figure 1. Map of
southwestern Ecuador,
showing the location of
the four investigated
mining areas.
484 © Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2000
http://www.ambio.kva.se
INTRODUCTION
Concerns over the environmental and human health impacts as-
sociated with metal mining have a long history (1–3). In More
Developed Countries (MDCs), these concerns have led to: (i)
extensive research in order to understand the nature and cause
of these impacts (2, 4); and (ii) the development of environmen-
tal policies and regulations aimed at minimizing their environ-
mental effects (1, 2, 5, 6). The results have been a vast improve-
ment in the environmental management of mining ventures, and
an associated improvement in environmental quality in mining
areas.
In Lesser Developed Countries (LDCs), environmental con-
cerns have been raised more recently and, consequently, many
LDCs still lack functioning systems of environmental control and
supervision of the mining industry (3, 7). Furthermore, whereas
large and wealthy international mining companies are important
in both MDCs and LDCs, mining in LDCs is often conducted
by small-scale and informal enterprises (3, 7, 8). Generally, these
small-scale miners have neither the financial resources neces-
sary to invest in environmental protection, nor the necessary in-
formation needed to understand the significance of the environ-
Ambio Vol. 29 No. 8, Dec. 2000
A typical small-scale
gold mine in the Ponce
Enríquez area of
southern Ecuador.
Photo: B. Lundberg.

mental impacts they are causing. Thus, we may

think of environmental impacts deriving from
metal mining as existing within a continuum be-
tween two end-members: (i) large-scale and
modern mining ventures in the MDCs which are
circumscribed by stringent pollution control and
where impacts, although usually well managed,
are related to the sheer size of the operations; and
(ii) small-scale inefficient operations in the LDCs
where impacts are related to the wasteful and
primitive extraction and processing techniques
used; with inefficient or nonexistent pollution
control.
The latter condition applies in southern Ecua-
dor, where a large number of small-scale miners
are extracting gold using primitive mining and
processing techniques. The gold is mainly asso-
ciated with sulfide rich ores, and it is extracted
by hard-rock mining methods and gravity con-
centrated following crushing and grinding. The
native gold is then recuperated from the result-
ing heavy mineral concentrates, by amalgamation Figure 2. An idealized material flow scheme for the gold-mining activities in southern
with mercury. Additionally, in the 1990s, small Ecuador, showing how mining and processing activities give rise to contamination.
cyanidation plants have been installed to treat
gravity tailings. The overall impacts of these mining activities search has been to evaluate the character and severity of envi-
are severe, but until recently they had not been subject to thor- ronmental impacts on both the physical environment and natu-
ough scientific investigation. Furthermore, national regulations ral ecosystems, and to provide recommendations for how the
stipulating how mining should be conducted in an environmen- environmental management of mining activities may be im-
tally-sound way exist, but are seldom enforced, despite the need proved. The results of the monitoring were presented in a com-
for urgent action. prehensive report early in 1999 (9). In this report, it was shown
The Proyecto Desarollo Minero y su Control Ambiental (Pro- that most environmental impacts associated with the Ecuadorian
deminca), a project executed by the Ecuadorian government and gold mines are directly related to the inadequate management
funded by the World Bank, was initiated in 1994 with the aim of waste products; i.e. the discharge of mining and processing
of facilitating the development of a modern and environmentally- wastes directly or indirectly, from deficient tailings impound-
sustainable mining sector in Ecuador. As part of this project, and ments, to nearby rivers. (An exception is the mercury emitted
with support from the Swedish International Development to air during amalgamation (Fig. 2)). In this way, metals, met-
Agency (Sida), extensive environmental monitoring was con- alloids and cyanide are introduced to the rivers either as dis-
ducted in the waterways of the four main gold-mining areas of solved complexes and ions or associated with suspended solids
Portovelo-Zaruma, Nambija, Ponce Enríquez, and Santa Rosa, and/or bed sediments (9). All these contaminants are to some
all of which are situated within the western Andean Cordillera, extent available for uptake by biota, and may produce signifi-
in the southwestern part of Ecuador (Fig. 1). The aim of this re- cant impacts on aquatic ecosystems.

Ambio Vol. 29 No. 8, Dec. 2000 © Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2000 485
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The confluence of
the Amarillo and
Pindo rivers south of
the Portovelo-
Zaruma mining area.
The Amarillo is
severely
contaminated by
discharges from
mining and
processing activities,
whereas the Pindo is
as yet unaffected by
this type of
contamination.
Photo: B. Lundberg.
The degree to which contaminants are available for biologi-
cal uptake raises the important issue of how to establish safe
water-quality standards, which can provide a basis for the en-
forcement of environmental policies. In the case of metals and
metalloids, standards are relatively well established for dissolved
ions, but not for ions bound to sediments. Such sediment-bound
metals and metalloids may represent a serious environmental
problem even if they are not immediately available for biologi-
cal uptake, as they may be released into their dissolved state ei-
ther through biological activity or as the physicochemical con-
ditions of a waterbody changes; e.g. if the pH is lowered.
This paper aims to: (i) illustrate the environmental impact and
behavior of the main contaminants in rivers affected by small-
scale gold mining in Ecuador; and (ii) elaborate upon the impli-
cations of (i), both in terms of the development of environmen-
tal quality standards for water in particular, and how Ecuado-
rian policy in general needs to develop to counteract the impacts
of small-scale gold mining.
DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREAS
The Portovelo-Zaruma area is Ecuador’s oldest and most impor-
tant gold-mining center and in the first half of this century in-
ternational gold-mining companies operated in the area. How-
ever, large-scale operations have now ceased and been replaced
by extensive artisanal and semimechanized activities. Mining is
being conducted in the catchment of the river Puyango, which
comprises 3 main tributaries (Calera, Amarillo, and Pindo) and
which occupies an extensive watershed situated on the western
side of the western Andean Cordillera (Fig. 1). The Puyango
river drains towards the southwest and passes into Peru, where
it is called Tumbes, about 55 km from the mining area. The av-
erage annual flow of the Puyango close to the Peruvian border,
is about 80–90 m3 s–1, with a minimum monthly average of
21 m3 s–1 in the dry season and maximum monthly average of
230 m3 s–1 in the wet season.
The discovery of the Nambija goldfields in the 1980s started
a gold rush, and at one stage up to 20␣ 000 people were actively
486 © Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2000
http://www.ambio.kva.se
involved in mining activities. Nambija is situated on the eastern
side of the western Andean Cordillera in what is still a fairly
remote part of the rainforest. However, the mining led to the con-
struction of access roads as well as the rapid development of a
substantial mining village, and during the years following its dis-
covery, the Nambija area produced most of Ecuador’s gold. The
main deposits are now depleted, and activities are modest and
decreasing. Mining and processing are done in the catchment of
the Río Nambija, a river with flows varying from about 5 to 20
m3 s–1, draining eastwards to the Río Zamora and, eventually,
into the Amazon Basin (Fig. 1). In contrast to the other Ecua-
dorian gold-mining areas, cyanidation was never widely used in
the Nambija area, and in latter years the method has not been
used at all.
The gold deposits in the Ponce Enríquez mining area, about
40 km northeast of the town of Machala and directly east of the
Pan American highway, were developed during the mid-1980s,
and activities here remain high. The gold deposits are found
where the eastern Andean Cordillera rises above the coastal
plain. A number of smaller rivers and streams drain the area,
flowing through banana plantations, and then through mangrove
swamps, which have largely been converted into ponds for
shrimp aquaculture. These rivers enter the sea about 20 to 30
km west of the mining areas. The 3 rivers that are most severely
affected by contamination are the Ríos Siete, Chico (which even-
tually flows into the more substantial Río Gala) and Tenguel.
All 3 have an average annual flow of less than 5 m3 s–1. About
25 km northeast of Ponce Enríquez lies the Pijili mining area
where activities were intense in the early 1980s. This area was
abandoned in 1995 without any remediative action being taken.
Consequently open galleries and disused, non-maintained tail-
ings deposits, still exist in the area. Erosion from these aban-
doned sites is affecting the Río Pijili, (average yearly flow about
5 m3 s–1), which subsequently enters the more substantial Río
Balao Grande (Fig. 1).
The Santa Rosa mining area is situated 30 km south of
Machala, and is the smallest of the mining districts investigated.
Activities here are fairly modest, and the area is situated along
Ambio Vol. 29 No. 8, Dec. 2000
 Table 1. Summary of characteristics of the investigated mining areas.

Portovelo-Zaruma Nambija Ponce Enríquez Santa Rosa

Altitude (m a.s.l.) 700–1400 1500–2100 700–1600 200–400

–1
Rainfall (mm yr ) 1200–1500 2000–2200 1500–2000 1000–1500

Vegetation/climate Tropical, medium dry Tropical, humid Tropical, humid Tropical, medium dry

Commencement of mining 1896 1980 1983 1985

Current level of activities High Low High Very low

Geology Tertiary: Jurassic: Cretaceous: Paleozoic:
Volcanic rocks, Limestone, lutite Basaltic lava and Gneiss,
andesite skarn and granite tuff schist

Table 2. Summary of sampling and analytical methods used.

Parameter Method Rationale Standard

measured

Physicochemical Standard handheld instruments To provide understanding According to, US-EPA approved,
parameters and complimentary wet of location specific Hach methodology
chemistry analysis at Escuela conditions and their
Politecnica Nacional’s variation through time
laboratory, Quito

Free cyanide Colorimetry Measure concentration of According to Dutch Norm (NEN

free cyanide 6655), adapted from US-EPA
recommended procedure

Total cyanide Colorimetry Measure concentration of According to Dutch Norm (NEN

total cyanide, including 6655), adapted from US-EPA
stable metal-cyanide- recommended procedure
complexes

Dissolved metal and Sample is first passed through a Estimates metals and Water sampling according to US-
metalloid 0.45 µm filter and then acidified metalloids in solution, EPA recommendations
concentration to pH 2. Analyzed by ICP which are directly
in water bioavailable

Recoverable metal Water sample is acidified to pH 2 Includes metals and Water sampling according to
and metalloid in the field without prior filtration. metalloids which are Swedish EPA recommendations
concentration in water Analyzed by ICP associated with the
suspended phase, and
which may become
bioavailable

Metal and metalloid Particles > 0.5 mm screened Metals and metalloids in Sediment digestion according to
concentration in out. Digestion in a solution of sediment, which may be Swedish norm, and Swedish EPA
sediment nitric acid (HNO3 : H2O at 1:1). digested by moderately recommendations
strong acid attack

Metal and metalloid Whole fish and larvae. Measure of metals Metal analysis according to
concentration in Analyzed after digestion in accumulated in aquatic Swedish EPA recommendations
biota concentrated HNO3 and H2O2 organisms
(30 %)

Number of taxa of Semiquantitative sampling of Measure of biological Sampling according to Swedish

benthic invertebrates benthic invertebrates in rivers
by kick sampling and hand-picking
diversity EPA method BIN RR111.
Taxonomic determinations
performed at the Swedish
National Museum of Natural
History in Stockholm

the small rivulet Río de los Ingleses which flows northwards into
the more substantial Río Byron (average flow of a few m3 s–1)
and, eventually, into the sea to the west (Fig. 1).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The aim of the environmental monitoring has been to identify
the key contaminants, how they react in the environment,
whether they are readily bioavailable, and their impact on local
ecosystems. The investigations included physicochemical and
geochemical analysis of surface water and river bed sediments,
taxonomic studies of benthic invertebrates in rivers, and analy-
sis of metal content in larvae of the Dobson fly (family
Corydalidae), and a selected bottom-feeding fish species (fam-
ily Loricariidae, locally known as “raspa balsa”). Over the years
1996–1998, water and sediment sampling was performed twice
yearly, during the wet and dry seasons, respectively. Biological
monitoring was performed on two occasions in October 1996
and August 1998, both times during the dry season when inver-
tebrate collection is easier than during the high water flows of
the wet season. The sampling and analytical methods used are
summarized in Table 2.
Cyanide analyses were performed at the Environmental and
Geotechnical Research Consultant (Omegam) laboratories in
Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Metal and metalloid analyses were
done at SGAB-Analytica laboratory in Luleå, Sweden. The
analyses of element concentrations in water were performed us-
ing a combination of ICP-AES and ICP-MS, except for mercury
which was analyzed by Cold Vapor Atomic Fluorescence. Sedi-
ment and biological samples were analyzed for metals using ICP-
MS for mercury and a combination of ICP-MS and ICP-AES
for the remaining elements. The determination of mercury in
sediment and biological samples was done on a subsample,
which was not subjected to heating in order to avoid evaporative
losses.

Ambio Vol. 29 No. 8, Dec. 2000 © Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2000 487
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 Throughout the investigations a comprehensive quality assur-
ance program was applied, in order to ensure that the data were
reliable and of high quality. The quality assurance program was
applied to sampling activities as well as to the analyses in the
laboratories, and included the following components (i) compre-
hensive records of field sampling; (ii) continuous checking and
calibration of all field instruments used; (iii) preparation and
analysis of blanks, doubles and spiked samples; and (iv) the use
of internationally accredited laboratories.
Method of Evaluation
In the absence of suitable Ecuadorian water-quality standards for
the protection of aquatic ecosystems, the evaluation of impacts
on water quality is based on comparisons with US-EPA’s and
Environment Canada’s water-quality standards, and Environment
Canada’s provisional sediment-quality guidelines (10–12).
Evaluations of bioaccumulation of metals and metalloids and
impacts on biological diversity are based on comparisons with
uncontaminated sites; i.e. background values. Background val-
ues were obtained from sites within the mining areas, but in
places unaffected by contamination. Care was taken to ensure
Table 3. Concentrations of free and total cyanide in water at
locations directly downstream of cyanidation operations in the
mining areas of Portovelo-Zaruma and Ponce Enríquez. Samples
were collected in the dry season (D) and wet season (W) of 1998.
Water-quality standards from Environment Canada and the US-
EPA are provided as points of reference.
Free Cyanide Total Cyanide
(µg L–1) (µg L–1)
Río Calera W <3
Portovelo-Zaruma D 6
Río Siete W 13
Ponce Enríquez D 13
Environment Canada (24 hr maximum) 3.5
US-Environmental Protection Agency – 5.2
(US-EPA)
that these sites were situated in areas with similar bedrock and
vegetation cover as those parts of the rivers that were affected
by contamination.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
In the 4 mining areas, the impacts arising from mining activi-
ties vary in both severity and characteristics. The main contami-
nants liberated during mining and processing are large amounts
of suspended sediment; cyanide; metals and metalloids; and,
more specifically, mercury.
Cyanide Contamination
Water-quality guidelines for both free and total cyanide are regu-
larly exceeded in the mining areas of Portovelo-Zaruma and
Ponce Enríquez (Table 3). Concentrations of total cyanide—i.e.
both free cyanide and various metal cyanide complexes—are
generally much higher than those of free cyanide only. As free
cyanide breaks down relatively rapidly, it is usually only found
a few kilometers downstream of active mining operations,
whereas cyanide complexes have been encountered more than
50 km from contaminant sources. Lower concentrations of cya-
nide are encountered in the wet season, due to dilution.
In the first field season of 1994, cyanide was also found in
the Santa Rosa area. Since then, the major operator in the area
has improved the management of the cyanidation process, such
that cyanide was not detected in more recent investigations (Ta-
ble 3).
Acid Drainage and Metals in Solution
Sulfide-rich ores, such as those extracted in the Ecuadorian gold
mines, have the potential to cause acid drainage, which occurs
36 when sulfide minerals oxidize. Such drainage is characterized
220 by being very acid and, thus, may carry high concentrations of
640 metals in solution (up to several hundred µg L–1 of Cu, Pb and
2600
Zn) (13). However, due to the high carbonate content and, hence
– the high natural buffering capacity of the local bedrock in the
investigated areas, acid drainage is not a major problem. Only a
few small rivulets in the Portovelo-Zaruma and the Ponce
Enríquez areas are affected, but these are diluted by larger

Table 4. Concentrations of arsenic and selected metals in water (total dissolved and total recoverable concentrations) and sediments at representa-
tive locations in the 4 mining areas of Portovelo-Zaruma, Nambija, Santa Rosa and Ponce Enríquez. All sampling sites are situated 1–3 km down-
stream of mining and processing activities, and samples were collected in the dry season (D) and wet season (W) of 1998. Water-quality standards
from the US-Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA) and sediment-quality guidelines from Environment Canada (EC) are provided as points of
reference. Data in bold exceed one of the relevant environmental standards whereas data in bold italics exceed both of the environmental
standards provided.
As Cd Cu Hg

water dis. water rec. sediment water dis. water rec. sediment water dis. water rec. sediment water dis. water rec.
µg L–1 µg L–1 mg kg–1 µg L–1 µg L–1 mg kg–1 µg L–1 µg L–1 mg kg–1 µg L–1 µg L–1

Río Amarillo W 1.7 < 1.0 35 1.5 1.4 3.6 7.6 1.4 97.6 – 0.004
Portovelo- D 6.8 6.8 403 0.7 2.7 19.6 23.2 142 1680 – < 0.002
Zarruma

Río Nambija W 0.8 2.1 27 0.04 0.4 8.9 2.3 71.3 336 – 0.008
Nambija D 2.9 3.0 1860 < 0.005 3.7 47.8 1.3 395 5360 – 0.015
Río Siete W 35.3 349 2070 0.05 0.5 1.8 13.6 19.8 2420 – 0.002
Ponce Enríquez D 264 3600 7700 0.05 2.3 6.05 11.1 33.3 2500 – 1.11

Río Pijili W 1.9 0.5 7.2 0.02 0.04 0.052 0.7 5.3 24.6 < 0.002
Ponce Enríquez D 2.1 2.5 454 0.01 < 0.005 0.58 0.3 0.7 578 < 0.002

Río Byron W 6.0 14.9 359 0.5 0.04 0.6 2.2 3.5 217 – < 0.002
Santa Rosa D 10.8 48.9 620 0.2 0.07 1.06 1.4 5.7 303 – 0.0022
US-EPA (Acute) 360 360 – 0.8 0.8 – 4.6 4.8 – – 2.1
25 mg L–1 CaCO3

US-EPA (Chronic) 190 190 – 0.4 0.4 – 3.6 3.5 – – 0.01

25 mg L–1 CaCO3

EC - Threshold – – 5.9 – – 0.6 – – 36 – –

EC - Probable effect – – 17 – – 3.5 – – 197 – –

488 © Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2000 Ambio Vol. 29 No. 8, Dec. 2000
http://www.ambio.kva.se
waterbodies, and impacts are only local. In the absence of acid available contaminants that are carried in solution or are loosely
drainage and waters with low pH, the concentrations of dissolved associated with suspended sediment. US-EPA water-quality cri-
metals is generally low to moderate. Consequently, at the sites teria, expressed in this way were exceeded for all elements for
shown in Table 4, US-EPA water-quality criteria, expressed as at least one site (Table 4). Criteria for cadmium, copper, and lead
total dissolved concentrations, were only exceeded for arsenic were exceeded at all sites. Criteria for mercury were exceeded
in Río Siete, for cadmium in Río Amarillo and for copper in both only in Río Nambija and Río Siete, and arsenic criteria were
of these rivers. exceeded only in Río Siete. Generally, the total recoverable con-
taminant concentrations in water are highest during the dry
Metals Bound to Suspended Solids and Sediment season and lower during high flow, which is explained by the
Metal concentrations in water expressed as total recoverable con- dilution of contaminated sediments by freshly eroded and
centrations, provide an estimate of the amount of potentially noncontaminated material during high flows (Table 4).
Comparisons of metal concentrations in river sediment with
Environment Canada’s sediment-quality guidelines show them
Table 5.Contents of arsenic and selected metals in Raspa balsa to be exceeded for all the metals in all areas investigated (Table
fish (family Loricariidae), and Dobson fly larvae (family Coryda- 4). As with total recoverable concentrations in water, the con-
lidae). Fish and larvae from uncontaminated river stretches (bold) taminant concentrations are higher during the dry season.
are included for reference. All samples collected in October 1996,
except for larvae from Río Nambija that were collected in August
1998. Values in mg kg–1 dry weight.
Impacts on Aquatic Ecosystems
Inventories of benthic invertebrate river fauna at reference sites
As Cd Cu Hg Pb not affected by mining activities show the existence of 19-21
mg kg–1 mg kg–1 mg kg–1 mg kg–1 mg kg–1 taxa in Ponce Enríquez; 13 in Santa Rosa; 16 to 22 in Portovelo-
Raspa Balsa (individuals) Zaruma; and 12 taxa in Nambija. These are comparatively low
numbers, although in line with previous findings of low faunal
Río Gala 3.0 0.43 5.2 < 0.06 0.5 diversity in tropical streams (14–16). In contaminated river sec-
Ponce Enríques
Río Chico-Gala 230 1.1 11 0.74 9.1
tions, animal diversity decreases, sometimes with no fauna
Ponce EnrÌques present. Analyses of the metal content of biota in contaminated
Larvae of Dobson fly (individuals)
rivers that still support some life, show that mechanisms exist
for the uptake of metals and metalloids, including mercury (Ta-
Río Gala 1.7 1.0 29 0.12 1.8 ble 5). In such rivers, metal contents are highly elevated in bot-
Ponce Enríques
tom-feeding fish (family Loricariidae) and insect larvae (the
Río Buenavista 2.4 0.70 23 0.1 1.6
Santa Rosa Dobson fly, family Corydalidae) (Table 5). The elements taken
Río Pijili 1.4 1.0 29 < 0.1 1.5 up by biota mirror the metal contamination characteristics of the
Ponce Enríquez different mining areas. Consequently, arsenic levels in biota are
Q. de los Ingleses 330 7.5 480 0.35 37 elevated in the Ponce Enríquez area, whereas lead and copper
Santa Rosa
are high in Santa Rosa and Portovelo-Zaruma. Mercury is el-
R. Amarillo 46 44 290 2.3 810
Portovelo-Zaruma evated in biota in all areas.
R. Nambija < 0.58 0.73 23 0.68 0.89 Some indications were found that biological recovery may be
Nambija comparatively rapid once discharges of tailings to rivers cease
or at least diminish. For example, during the El Niño floods of
1997 and 1998, operations in the Portovelo-Zaruma area were
severely curtailed and discharges of tailings to rivers were re-
duced. Subsequently, in the dry season of 1998, aquatic fauna
comprising 8 taxa were found to have returned to within 30 km
downstream of the main processing plants, where in the dry sea-
son of 1996 no fauna were encountered. The fauna in Río Pijili
has re-established itself after the termination of mining, in spite
of somewhat elevated contents of metals and arsenic in water
Pb and sediment (Table 4). In 1996, 16 taxa were found in this river,
sediment water dis. water rec. sediment
and metal levels in a collected Dobson fly larvae were low (Ta-
mg kg–1 µg L–1 µg L–1 mg kg–1 ble 5).
< 0.020 1.1 4.9 107 DISCUSSION
0.1 2.5 225 1310
Small-scale gold mining is heavily contaminating waterways in
3.4 0.07 8.9 23.9 southern Ecuador. The impacts on aquatic ecosystems are espe-
2.2 0.157 11.2 4470 cially severe in the areas of Portovelo-Zaruma and Ponce
0.5 0.6 10.9 21.8 Enríquez. In these areas, contaminant discharges have caused
2.0 0.08 169 70.6
some river sections downstream of mining and processing op-
< 0.04 0.2 0.8 3.6 erations, to have either a severely reduced fauna or to have lost
0.7 0.04 0.7 9.3
all higher aquatic life. The relative importance of the different
< 0.04 0.6 0.7 50.4 contaminants varies between areas as a result of the variation in
5.8 0.3 3.0 52.3
geology, types of mineralization, and the processing techniques
– 14 14 – used. In Portovelo-Zaruma, the contaminants of special concern
are cyanide, lead, cadmium, and copper, whereas rivers in the
– 2.5 3.2 –
Ponce Enríques area carry, in addition to cyanide, large concen-
trations of copper and arsenic. Mercury contamination exists in
0.17 – – 35
all areas.
0.49 – – 91 Most of the cyanide contamination is not in the form of ionic
free cyanide, but as more stable complexes. Furthermore, free

Ambio Vol. 29 No. 8, Dec. 2000 © Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2000 489
http://www.ambio.kva.se
cyanide, which is highly toxic but unstable in the environment,
is only found in fairly close proximity to the contaminant sources,
whereas metal-cyanide complexes can be found 50 km down-
stream from the source. Although such complexation of cyanide
with metals generally reduces the toxicity of both the metal and
cyanide, the detailed behavior of such complexes in the envi-
ronment is still poorly understood (17). Therefore, there may ex-
ist a danger of metal-cyanide complexes disintegrating, through
biological or physicochemical processes, and thereby releasing
both free cyanide and ionic metals into the environment.
Due to the generally high content of carbonate in the local
rocks, the generation of acid drainage is small. This lack of sig-
nificant acid drainage is fortunate, as acid conditions dramati-
cally increase the solubility of many metals, which in turn makes
associated mine tailings difficult to remediate (2, 18). Instead,
the prevailing neutral or slightly alkaline conditions of the riv-
ers ensure that most metals are strongly bound to sediment,
whereas only a small proportion is present in the dissolved ionic
form. Consequently, dissolved metal concentrations are gener-
ally below US-EPA water-quality criteria. Exceptions to this ex-
ist in the form of elevated concentrations of arsenic in Ponce
Enríquez, cadmium in Portovelo-Zaruma, and copper in both of
these areas. Both arsenic and cadmium become solvent fairly
readily, also in conditions of neutral or high pH, and the elevated
dissolved concentrations of these elements are not surprising.
Copper, on the other hand, is normally only sparingly soluble
in waters with high pH. Nevertheless, copper is found in high
dissolved concentrations in the areas of Portovelo-Zaruma and
Ponce Enríquez. These high concentrations are probably caused
by the formation of soluble copper-cyanide complexes. The for-
mation of such complexes has been observed elsewhere where
cyanidation of gold is performed (19). The low concentrations
of dissolved copper encountered in Río Nambija, where cyanid-
ation is not used, corroborates this conclusion.
Toxic metals are taken up by aquatic organisms. As the con-
centrations of metals in true solution are low, this suggests that
contaminant exposure is, to a significant degree, caused by the
accumulation of metals from suspended material and/or bed sedi-
ments. The evidence is circumstantial but strong; e.g. in the Santa
Rosa and Portovelo-Zaruma areas. In these areas, the concen-
trations of dissolved lead in water are below US-EPA water qual-
ity criteria for chronic effects on aquatic life, whereas concen-
trations of lead in biota are highly elevated (Table 5). A possi-
ble explanation for the high levels of toxic metals in fish and
larvae is the dissolution of metals from contaminated sediment
in the gastrointestinal tract where acid conditions may prevail
(20, 21).
IMPLICATIONS FOR THE SETTING OF WATER-
QUALITY STANDARDS
Generally, it is thought that the concentration of contaminants
in their dissolved ionic form controls direct toxicity (13, 22).
Thus, water-quality standards are often expressed as a certain
concentration of dissolved metal. The US-EPA, for example, is
in the process of converting to the expression of all water-qual-
ity standards in terms of total dissolved concentrations (23).
However, the results presented in this paper indicate that many
potentially harmful contaminants, such as mercury, copper and
lead, which under the prevailing natural conditions are bound
to bed sediment and suspended particles, may still be readily
bioavailable. Consequently, there is a danger that compliance
with water-quality standards expressed exclusively as concen-
trations of dissolved metals may not provide adequate protec-
tion for aquatic ecosystems. Thus, the results suggest the need
to consider suspended particles and bed sediment when evalu-
ating water-quality impacts, and in setting appropriate environ-
mental water-quality standards for metals.
490 © Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2000
http://www.ambio.kva.se
Similarly, the setting of water-quality standards for cyanide
is complicated by the formation of a large number of metal-cya-
nide complexes of varying toxicity and stability. The results pre-
sented here indicate that although the toxicity of free cyanide is
of major importance close to the contaminant source, the possi-
ble disintegration of metal-cyanide complexes into free cyanide
and dissolved metal ions may be a major concern further away
from the source (17). Thus, the expression of environmental
standards exclusively in terms of free cyanide may provide in-
sufficient protection for aquatic ecosystems.
IMPLICATIONS FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF SMALL-
SCALE MINING
In the mining areas of southern Ecuador, there exist essentially
only 2 important pathways for the contamination of rivers: (i)
direct and indirect discharges of tailings; and (ii) the precipita-
tion of airborne mercury vapor. Both these pathways are directly
related to human activities and hence may be readily mitigated.
In order to improve the environmental quality of the affected riv-
ers one needs to: (i) ensure that adequate tailings impoundments
are built, and that direct and indirect discharges to rivers are
avoided; and (ii) ensure that the usage of mercury in gold
processing is discontinued or at least drastically reduced. There
is strong circumstantial evidence that once discharges of tailings
to rivers cease, the recovery of the affected rivers will be rapid.
Moreover, the remediative measures needed to improve the en-
vironmental quality of the affected rivers are neither technically
difficult to achieve nor necessarily economically prohibitive. On
the contrary, the adequate storage of tailings is a reasonably mod-
erate environmental requirement, and mercury amalgamation,
when compared to cyanidation, is usually a less efficient method
of gold retrieval.
Thus, although the contamination deriving from the Ecuado-
rian small-scale gold-mining industries is fairly complex in na-
ture, the measures needed to improve the situation are techni-
cally fairly straightforward. However, in Ecuador, as in many
other LDCs, these issues are being complicated by 2 important
factors: (i) small-scale and artisanal miners do not have the fi-
nancial resources available to construct tailings dams, or to in-
vest in more efficient methods of gold retrieval, such as
cyanidation; and (ii) the authorities are faced with the almost
impossible task of ensuring compliance to environmental regu-
lations for a vast number of small enterprises, many of which
have no legal status.
In the whole of Ecuador there are only 2 examples of gold
mining and processing operations that may be regarded as
achieving acceptable environmental performance, one in the
Santa Rosa area and one in the Portovelo-Zaruma area. Both
these operations are, in the Ecuadorian context, much larger than
the average operations. This suggests that the impacts of small
operations are related to the very fact that they are small scale.
In order to address these fundamental problems, efforts within
Prodeminca are presently focused on:
(i) Promoting the reorganization of small-scale miners into for-
mal companies or cooperatives in order to move away from
small scale, rudimentary activities towards bigger and
mechanized operations. Such scales of operations are more
likely to have the knowledge, awareness, and financial re-
sources necessary to mine in an environmentally-sound way.
Through being bigger entities, their compliance with envi-
ronmental legislation may be more readily controlled and
assured. For example, in the Ponce Enríquez area, a substan-
tial part of the mining community has joined a so-called co-
operative (the local denomination of the cooperation between
a number of small companies), and work is in progress in
order to construct common tailings dams which will receive
Ambio Vol. 29 No. 8, Dec. 2000
 most of the tailings that are generated in the area.
(ii) Achieving an open dialogue (or even cooperation) between
miners and affected communities, and providing interested
parties with the information necessary for wise decision mak-
ing. A promising example of what can be achieved by initi-
ating open communication has taken place in the Santa Rosa
area where a vigorous dialogue between communities af-
fected by contamination and the miners has prompted the
most important mining operation in the area to considerably
improve its environmental performance. This, in turn, has
resulted in a marked improvement in the water quality of
References and Notes
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24. Prodeminca under the co-ordination of A. Bermeo is gratefully acknowledged for per-
mission to publish this material. The personnel of Unidad Ambiental Minera (UAM),
and its director G. Vaca of the Ecuadorian Ministry of Energy and Mines, are equally
acknowledged for the collection of the environmental field data which form the basis
for the findings presented in this paper.
25. First submitted 27 Dec. 1999. Accepted for publication after revision 3 April 2000.
Ambio Vol. 29 No. 8, Dec. 2000 © Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2000
http://www.ambio.kva.se
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the previously severely polluted rivers, Río de los Ingleses
and Río Byron.
This paper presents an example of how, from an environmen-
tal point of view, large-scale mining operations may be prefer-
able to small-scale and artisanal mining. It is suggested that
within the Ecuadorian mining sector, policy needs to develop
to enable small-scale miners to become larger scale. Only in this
way will Ecuadorian gold miners be able to invest in environ-
mental protection and held accountable for their environmental
performance by authorities as well as the public at large.
Håkan Tarras-Wahlberg works as a consultant for the
company Swedish Geological AB, with many of his
assignments being related to environmental management
within the mining sector. He holds an undergraduate degree
in geology from the University of Cape Town and MPhil in
geography from the University Cambridge. He is presently
reading for a PhD in Cambridge, UK. His research focuses
on metal contamination in water and water quality policy
issues. His address: Swedish Geological AB, Box 19090,
SE-10432 Stockholm, Sweden.
E-mail: hakan.tarraswahlberg.sgab@hifab.se
Adriana Flachier is a consultant biologist with an MSc from
the Vrije University of Brussels. Her specialities include
aquatic ecology of rivers, estuaries and wetlands and her
assignments are often within the fields of aquatic pollution
and water-quality assessments. Her address: Prodeminca,
General Baquedano 222 y Reina Victoria, Casilla 17-21-95,
Quito, Ecuador.
E-mail: flachier_troya@hotmail.com
Göran Fredrikson is a senior consultant with Swedish
Geological AB in Stockholm. He obtained his undergraduate
degree in geology and chemistry at the University of
Stockholm, and has a PhD in geology and chemical
engineering from the University of Texas, Austin, USA. He
has worked for many years as an economic and exploration
geologist. His address: Swedish Geological AB, Box 19090,
SE-10432 Stockholm, Sweden.
E-mail: goran.fredrikson.sgab@hifab.se
Stuart Lane is professor of physical geography at the
University of Leeds, UK. He has a PhD in geography from
the University of Cambridge. His research focuses on
monitoring and modelling river channel processes,
including flow, sediment transport and water quality issues.
His address: School of Geography, University of Leeds,
Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK.
E-mail: s.lane@geography.leeds.ac.uk
Bo Lundberg is senior consultant with Swedish Geological
AB in Stockholm, and holds a PhD from the University of
Lund, Sweden. He has been involved in international mining
projects for many years and his expertise includes
institutional development, sectoral environmental
assessments and the elaboration of environmental policies
for the mining sector. His address: Swedish Geological AB,
Box 19090, SE-10432 Stockholm, Sweden.
E-mail: b.lundberg.sgab@hifab.se.
Olof Sangfors is consultant biologist at the Swedish
Environmental Research Group, and holds an MSc from the
University of Göteborg. His expertise includes ecological
field monitoring, ecotoxicological testing and environmental
impact and hazard assessments.
His address: Swedish Environmental Research Group,
Sjöleden 9, Fryksta, SE-665 91 Kil, Sweden.
E-mail: olof.sangfors@mfg.se
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