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Basics of Computers - Quick Guide
Basics of Computers - Introduction

Being a modern-day kid you must have used, seen, or read about computers.
This is because they are an integral part of our everyday existence. Be it
school, banks, shops, railway stations, hospital or your own home, computers
are present everywhere, making our work easier and faster for us. As they are
such integral parts of our lives, we must know what they are and how they
function. Let us start with defining the term computer formally.
The literal meaning of computer is a device that can calculate. However,

modern computers can do a lot more than calculate. Computer is an
electronic device that receives input, stores or processes the input as per user
instructions and provides output in desired format.
Input-Process-Output Model
Computer input is called data and the output obtained after processing it,
based on user’s instructions is called information. Raw facts and figures which
can be processed using arithmetic and logical operations to obtain
information are called data.
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The processes that can be applied to data are of two types −
Arithmetic operations − Examples include calculations like addition,

subtraction, differentials, square root, etc.
Logical operations − Examples include comparison operations like greater

than, less than, equal to, opposite, etc.
The corresponding figure for an actual computer looks something like this −
The basic parts of a computer are as follows −
Input Unit − Devices like keyboard and mouse that are used to input data and
instructions to the computer are called input unit.
Output Unit − Devices like printer and visual display unit that are used to
provide information to the user in desired format are called output unit.
Control Unit − As the name suggests, this unit controls all the functions of the
computer. All devices or parts of computer interact through the control unit.
Arithmetic Logic Unit − This is the brain of the computer where all arithmetic
operations and logical operations take place.
Memory − All input data, instructions and data interim to the processes are
stored in the memory. Memory is of two types – primary memory and
secondary memory. Primary memory resides within the CPU whereas
secondary memory is external to it.
Control unit, arithmetic logic unit and memory are together called the central
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processing unit ortutorials, courses anddevices
CPU. Computer ebooks...like keyboard, mouse, printer, etc.
that we can see and touch are the hardware components of a computer. The
set of instructions or programs that make the computer function using these
hardware parts are called software. We cannot see or touch software. Both
hardware and software are necessary for working of a computer.
Characteristics of Computer
To understand why computers are such an important part of our lives, let us
look at some of its characteristics −
Speed − Typically, a computer can carry out 3-4 million instructions per
second.
Accuracy − Computers exhibit a very high degree of accuracy. Errors that may
occur are usually due to inaccurate data, wrong instructions or bug in chips –
all human errors.
Reliability − Computers can carry out same type of work repeatedly without
throwing up errors due to tiredness or boredom, which are very common
among humans.
Versatility − Computers can carry out a wide range of work from data entry
and ticket booking to complex mathematical calculations and continuous
astronomical observations. If you can input the necessary data with correct
instructions, computer will do the processing.
Storage Capacity − Computers can store a very large amount of data at a

fraction of cost of traditional storage of files. Also, data is safe from normal
wear and tear associated with paper.
Advantages of Using Computer

Now that we know the characteristics of computers, we can see the
advantages that computers offer−
Computers can do the same task repetitively with same accuracy.
Computers do not get tired or bored.
Computers can take up routine tasks while releasing human resource for more
intelligent functions.
Disadvantages of Using Computer
Despite so many advantages, computers have some disadvantages of their

own −
Computers have no intelligence; they follow the instructions blindly without

considering the outcome.
Regular electric supply is necessary to make computers work, which could

prove difficult everywhere especially in developing nations.
Booting
Starting a computer or a computer-embedded device is called booting.
Booting takes place in two steps −
Switching on power supply
Loading operating system into computer’s main memory
Keeping all applications in a state of readiness in case needed by the user
The first program or set of instructions that run when the computer is
switched on is called BIOS or Basic Input Output System. BIOS is a firmware,
i.e. a piece of software permanently programmed into the hardware.
If a system is already running but needs to be restarted, it is called rebooting.

Rebooting may be required if a software or hardware has been installed or
system is unusually slow.
There are two types of booting −
Cold Booting − When the system is started by switching on the power supply it
is called cold booting. The next step in cold booting is loading of BIOS.
Warm Booting − When the system is already running and needs to be restarted
or rebooted, it is called warm booting. Warm booting is faster than cold
booting because BIOS is not reloaded.
Basics of Computers - Classification

Historically computers were classified according to processor types because
development in processor and processing speeds were the developmental
benchmarks. Earliest computers used vacuum tubes for processing, were
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huge and broke tutorials,
down courses and
frequently. ebooks...as vacuum tubes were replaced by
However,
transistors and then chips, their size decreased and processing speeds
increased manifold.
All modern computers and computing devices use microprocessors whose

speeds and storage capacities are skyrocketing day by day. The
developmental benchmark for computers is now their size. Computers are
now classified on the basis of their use or size −
Desktop
Laptop
Tablet
Server
Mainframe
Supercomputer
Let us look at all these types of computers in detail.
Desktop
Desktop computers are personal computers (PCs) designed for use by an
individual at a fixed location. IBM was the first computer to introduce and
popularize use of desktops. A desktop unit typically has a CPU (Central
Processing Unit), monitor, keyboard and mouse. Introduction of desktops
popularized use of computers among common people as it was compact and
affordable.
Riding on the wave of desktop’s popularity many software and hardware

devices were developed specially for the home or office user. The foremost
design consideration here was user friendliness.
Laptop
Despite its huge popularity, desktops gave way to a more compact and
portable personal computer called laptop in 2000s. Laptops are also called
notebook computers or simply notebooks. Laptops run using batteries and
connect to networks using Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) chips. They also have chips
for energy efficiency so that they can conserve power whenever possible and
have a longer life.
Modern laptops have enough processing power and storage capacity to be
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used for all office tutorials, coursesdesigning,
website and ebooks...software development and even
audio/video editing.
Tablet
After laptops computers were further miniaturized to develop machines that
have processing power of a desktop but are small enough to be held in one’s
palm. Tablets have touch sensitive screen of typically 5 to 10 inches where
one finger is used to touch icons and invoke applications.
Keyboard is also displayed virtually whenever required and used with touch
strokes. Applications that run on tablets are called apps. They use operating
systems by Microsoft (Windows 8 and later versions) or Google (Android).
Apple computers have developed their own tablet called iPad which uses a
proprietary OS called iOS.
Server
Servers are computers with high processing speeds that provide one or more
services to other systems on the network. They may or may not have screens
attached to them. A group of computers or digital devices connected together
to share resources is called a network.
Servers have high processing powers and can handle multiple requests
simultaneously. Most commonly found servers on networks include −
File or storage server

Game server
Application server
Database server
Mail server
Print server
Mainframe
Mainframes are computers used by organizations like banks, airlines and
railways to handle millions and trillions of online transactions per second.
Important features of mainframes are −
Big in size
Hundreds times Faster than servers typically hundred megabytes per second
Hundreds times Faster than servers, typically hundred megabytes per second
Very expensive
Use proprietary OS provided by the manufacturers
In-built hardware, software and firmware security features
Supercomputer
Supercomputers are the fastest computers on Earth. They are used for
carrying out complex, fast and time intensive calculations for scientific and
engineering applications. Supercomputer speed or performance is measured
in teraflops, i.e. 1012 floating point operations per second.
Chinese supercomputer Sunway TaihuLight is the world’s fastest

supercomputer with a rating of 93 petaflops per second, i.e. 93 quadrillion
floating point operations per second.
Most common uses of supercomputers include −
Molecular mapping and research
Weather forecasting
Environmental research
Oil and gas exploration

Oil and gas exploration
Basics of Computer - Software Concepts

As you know, the hardware devices need user instructions to function. A set of
instructions that achieve a single outcome are called program or procedure.
Many programs functioning together to do a task make a software.
For example, a word-processing software enables the user to create, edit and
save documents. A web browser enables the user to view and share web
pages and multimedia files. There are two categories of software −
System Software
Application Software
Utility Software
Let us discuss them in detail.
System Software
Software required to run the hardware parts of the computer and other
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application software coursessystem
are called and ebooks...
software. System software acts as
interface between hardware and user applications. An interface is needed
because hardware devices or machines and humans speak in different
languages.
Machines understand only binary language i.e. 0 (absence of electric signal)

and 1 (presence of electric signal) while humans speak in English, French,
German, Tamil, Hindi and many other languages. English is the pre-dominant
language of interacting with computers. Software is required to convert all
human instructions into machine understandable instructions. And this is
exactly what system software does.
Based on its function, system software is of four types −
Operating System
Language Processor
Device Drivers
Operating System
System software that is responsible for functioning of all hardware parts and
their interoperability to carry out tasks successfully is called operating system
(OS). OS is the first software to be loaded into computer memory when the
computer is switched on and this is called booting. OS manages a computer’s
basic functions like storing data in memory, retrieving files from storage
devices, scheduling tasks based on priority, etc.
Language Processor
As discussed earlier, an important function of system software is to convert all

user instructions into machine understandable language. When we talk of
human machine interactions, languages are of three types −
Machine-level language − This language is nothing but a string of 0s and 1s

that the machines can understand. It is completely machine dependent.
Assembly-level language − This language introduces a layer of abstraction by

defining mnemonics. Mnemonics are English like words or symbols used to
denote a long string of 0s and 1s. For example, the word “READ” can be
defined to mean that computer has to retrieve data from the memory. The
complete instruction will also tell the memory address. Assembly level
language is machine dependent.
High level language − This language uses English like statements and is
completely independent of machines. Programs written using high level
languages are easy to create, read and understand.
Program written in high level programming languages like Java, C++, etc. is
called source code. Set of instructions in machine readable form is called
object code or machine code. System software that converts source code to
object code is called language processor. There are three types of language
interpreters−
Assembler − Converts assembly level program into machine level program.
Interpreter − Converts high level programs into machine level program line by
line.
Compiler − Converts high level programs into machine level programs at one
go rather than line by line.
Device Drivers
System software that controls and monitors functioning of a specific device

on computer is called device driver. Each device like printer, scanner,
microphone, speaker, etc. that needs to be attached externally to the system
has a specific driver associated with it. When you attach a new device, you
need to install its driver so that the OS knows how it needs to be managed.
Application Software
A software that performs a single task and nothing else is called application
software. Application software are very specialized in their function and
approach to solving a problem. So a spreadsheet software can only do
operations with numbers and nothing else. A hospital management software
will manage hospital activities and nothing else. Here are some commonly
used application software −
Word processing
Spreadsheet
Presentation
Database management
Multimedia tools
Utility Software
Application software that assist system software in doing their work is called
utility software. Thus utility software is actually a cross between system
software and application software. Examples of utility software include −
Antivirus software
Disk management tools
File management tools
Compression tools
Backup tools
Basics of Computers - System S/W

As you know, system software acts as an interface for the underlying hardware
system. Here we will discuss some important system software in detail.
Operating System
Operating system (OS) is the lifeline of computer. You connect all the basic
devices like CPU, monitor, keyboard and mouse; plug in the power supply and
switch it on thinking you have everything in place. But the computer will not
start or come to life unless it has an operating system installed in it because
OS − Search tutorials, courses and ebooks...
Keeps all hardware parts in a state of readiness to follow user instructions

Co-ordinates between different devices
Schedules multiple tasks as per priority
Allocates resource to each task
Enables computer to access network

Enables users to access and use application software
Besides initial booting, these are some of the functions of an operating system
−
Managing computer resources like hardware, software, shared resources, etc.
Allocating resources
Prevent error during software use

Control improper use of computer
One of the earliest operating systems was MS-DOS, developed by Microsoft

for IBM PC. It was a Command Line Interface (CLI) OS that revolutionized the
PC market. DOS was difficult to use because of its interface. The users needed
to remember instructions to do their tasks. To make computers more
accessible and user-friendly, Microsoft developed Graphical User Interface
(GUI) based OS called Windows, which transformed the way people used
computers.
Assembler
Assembler is a system software that converts assembly level programs to
machine level code.
These are the advantages provided by assembly level programming −

Increases efficiency
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tutorials, courses and ebooks... as remembering mnemonics is easier
Productivity increases as number of errors decreases and hence debugging

time
Programmer has access to hardware resources and hence has flexibility in

writing programs customized to the specific computer
Interpreter
The major advantage of assembly level language was its ability to optimize
memory usage and hardware utilization. However, with technological
advancements computers had more memory and better hardware
components. So ease of writing programs became more important than
optimizing memory and other hardware resources.
In addition, a need was felt to take programming out of a handful of trained

scientists and computer programmers, so that computers could be used in
more areas. This led to development of high level languages that were easy to
understand due to resemblance of commands to English language.
The system software used to translate high level language source code into
machine level language object code line by line is called an interpreter. An
interpreter takes each line of code and converts it into machine code and
stores it into the object file.
The advantage of using an interpreter is that they are very easy to write and
they do not require a large memory space. However, there is a major
disadvantage in using interpreters, i.e., interpreted programs take a long time
in executing. To overcome this disadvantage, especially for large programs,
compilers were developed.
Compiler
System software that store the complete program, scan it, translate the
complete program into object code and then creates an executable code is
called a compiler. On the face of it compilers compare unfavorably with
interpreters because they −
are more complex than interpreters
need more memory space
take more time in compiling source code

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execute very fast on computers. The following
image shows the step-by-step process of how a source code is transformed
into an executable code −
These are the steps in compiling source code into executable code −
Pre-processing − In this stage pre-processor instructions, typically used by

languages like C and C++ are interpreted, i.e. converted to assembly level
language.
Lexical analysis − Here all instructions are converted to lexical units like
constants, variables, arithmetic symbols, etc.
Parsing − Here all instructions are checked to see if they conform to grammar
rules of the language. If there are errors, compiler will ask you to fix them
before you can proceed.
Compiling − At this stage the source code is converted into object code.
Linking − If there are any links to external files or libraries, addresses of their
executable will be added to the program. Also, if the code needs to be
rearranged for actual execution, they will be rearranged. The final output is the
executable code that is ready to be executed.
Basics of Computers - Functions of OS
As you know, operating system is responsible for functioning of the computer
system. To do that it carries out these three broad categories of activities −
Essential functions − Ensures optimum and effective utilization of resources
Monitoring functions − Monitors and collects information related to system

performance
Service functions − Provides services to users
Let us look at some of the most important functions associated with these
activities.
Processor management
Managing a computer’s CPU to ensure its optimum utilization is called
processor management. Managing processor basically involves allocating
processor time to the tasks that need to be completed. This is called job
scheduling. Jobs must be scheduled in such a way that −
There is maximum utilization of CPU
Turnaround time, i.e. time required to complete each job, is minimum
Waiting time is minimum

Each job gets the fastest possible response time
Maximum throughput is achieved, where throughput is the average time taken

to complete each task
There are two methods of job scheduling done by operating systems −
Preemptive scheduling
Non-Preemptive scheduling
Preemptive Scheduling
In this type of scheduling, next job to be done by the processor can be
scheduled before the current job completes. If a job of higher priority comes
up, the processor can be forced to release the current job and take up the next
job. There are two scheduling techniques that use pre-emptive scheduling −
Round robin scheduling − A small unit of time called time slice is defined and
each program gets only one time slice at a time. If it is not completed during
that time, it must join the job queue at the end and wait till all programs have
got one time slice. The advantage here is that all programs get equal
opportunity. The downside is that if a program completes execution before the
time slice is over, CPU is idle for the rest of the duration.
Response ratio scheduling − Response ratio is defined as

$$\frac{Elapsed \: Time}{Execution \: time \: received}$$
A job with shorter response time gets higher priority. So a larger program may
have to wait even if it was requested earlier than the shorter program. This
improves throughput of the CPU.
Non-preemptive Scheduling
In this type of scheduling, job scheduling decisions are taken only after the
current job completes. A job is never interrupted to give precedence to higher
priority jobs. Scheduling techniques that use non-preemptive scheduling are −
First come first serve scheduling − This is the simplest technique where the
first program to throw up a request is completed first.
Shortest job next scheduling − Here the job that needs least amount of time
for execution is scheduled next.
Deadline scheduling − The job with the earliest deadline is scheduled for
execution next.
Memory Management
Process of regulating computer memory and using optimization techniques to
enhance overall system performance is called memory management. Memory
space is very important in modern computing environment, so memory
management is an important role of operating systems.
As you know, computers have two types of memory – primary and secondary.
Primary memory is fast but expensive and secondary memory is cheap but
slower. OS has to strike a balance between the two to ensure that system
performance is not hurt due to very less primary memory or system costs do
not shoot up due to too much primary memory.
Input and output data, user instructions and data interim to program execution
need to be stored, accessed and retrieved efficiently for high system
performance. Once a program request is accepted, OS allocates it primary and
secondary storage areas as per requirement. Once execution is completed, the
memory space allocated to it is freed. OS uses many storage management
techniques to keep a track of all storage spaces that are allocated or free.
Contiguous Storage Allocation

This is the simplest storage space allocation technique where contiguous
memory locations are assigned to each program. OS has to estimate the
amount of memory required for the complete process before allocation.
Non-contiguous Storage Allocation

As the name suggests, program and associated data need not be stored in
contiguous locations. The program is divided into smaller components and
each component is stored in a separate location. A table keeps a record of
where each component of the program is stored. When the processor needs to
access any component, OS provides access using this allocation table.
In a real-life scenario primary memory space might not be sufficient to store

the whole program. In that case, OS takes the help of Virtual Storage
technique, where program is physically stored in secondary memory but
appears to be stored in primary memory. This introduces a miniscule time lag
in accessing the program components. There are two approaches to virtual
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Program paging − A program is broken down into fixed size page and stored in
the secondary memory. The pages are given logical address or virtual address
from 0 to n. A page table maps the logical addresses to the physical
addresses, which is used to retrieve the pages when required.
Program segmentation − A program is broken down into logical units called
segments, assigned logical address from 0 to n and stored in secondary
memory. A segment table is used to load segments from secondary memory
to primary memory.
Operating systems typically use a combination of page and program

segmentation to optimize memory usage. A large program segment may be
broken into pages or more than one small segments may be stored as a single
page.
File Management
Data and information is stored on computers in form of files. Managing file
system to enable users to keep their data safely and correctly is an important
function of operating systems. Managing file systems by OS is called file
management. File management is required to provide tools for these file
related activities −
Creating new files for storing data

Updating
Sharing
Securing data through passwords and encryption
Recovery in case of system failure
Device Management
The process of implementation, operation and maintenance of a device by
operating system is called device management. Operating system uses a
utility software called device driver as interface to the device.
When many processes access the devices or request access to the devices,
the OS manages the devices in a way that efficiently shares the devices among
all processes. Processes access devices through system call interface, a
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by the OS.
Basics of Computers - Types of OS

As computers and computing technologies have evolved over the years, so
have their usage across many fields. To meet growing requirements more and
more customized software have flooded the market. As every software needs
operating system to function, operating systems have also evolved over the
years to meet growing demand on their techniques and capabilities. Here we
discuss some common types of OS based on their working techniques and
some popularly used OS as well.
GUI OS
GUI is the acronym for Graphical User Interface. An operating system that
presents an interface comprising graphics and icons is called a GUI OS. GUI
OS is very easy to navigate and use as users need not remember commands
to be given to accomplish each task. Examples of GUI OS includes Windows,
macOS, Ubuntu, etc.
Time Sharing OS
Operating systems that schedule tasks for efficient processor use are called
time sharing OS. Time sharing, or multitasking, is used by operating systems
when multiple users located at different terminals need processor time to
complete their tasks. Many scheduling techniques like round robin scheduling
and shortest job next scheduling are used by time sharing OS.
Real Time OS
An operating system that guarantees to process live events or data and deliver
the results within a stipulated span of time is called a real time OS. It may be
single tasking or multitasking.
Distributed OS
An operating system that manages many computers but presents an interface
of single computer to the user is called distributed OS. Such type of OS is
required when computational requirements cannot be met by a single
computer and more systems have to be used. User interaction is restricted to
a single system; it’s the OS that distributed work to multiple systems and then
presents the consolidated output as if one computer has worked on the
problem at hand.
Popular Operating Systems

Initially computers had no operating systems. Every program needed full
hardware specifications to run correctly as processor, memory and device
management had to be done by the programs themselves. However, as
sophisticated hardware and more complex application programs developed,
operating systems became essential. As personal computers became popular
among individuals and small businesses, demand for standard operating
system grew. Let us look at some of the currently popular operating systems −
Windows − Windows is a GUI operating system first developed by Microsoft in

1985. The latest version of Windows is Windows 10. Windows is used by
almost 88% of PCs and laptops globally.
Linux − Linux is an open source operating system mostly used by mainframes
an supercomputers. Being open source means that its code is available for
free and anyone can develop a new OS based on it.
BOSS − Bharat Operating System Solutions is an Indian distribution of Linux
based on Debian, an OS. It is localized to enable use of local Indian languages.
BOSS consists of −
Linux kernel
Office application suite BharteeyaOO
Web browser
Email service Thunderbird

Chat application Pidgim
File sharing applications

Multimedia applications
Mobile OS
An operating system for smartphones, tablets and other mobile devices is
called mobile OS. Some of the most popular OS for mobile devices includes−
Android − This Linux-based OS by Google is the most popular mobile OS

currently. Almost 85% of mobile devices use it.
currently. Almost 85% of mobile devices use it.
Windows Phone
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latest mobile OS developed by Microsoft.
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Apple iOS − This mobile OS is an OS developed by Apple exclusively for its

own mobile devices like iPhone, iPad, etc.
Blackberry OS − This is the OS used by all blackberry mobile devices like

smartphones and playbooks.
Basics of Computers - Utility Software

Application software that assist OS in carrying out certain specialized tasks
are called utility software. Let us look some of the most popular utility
software.
Antivirus
A virus can be defined as a malicious program that attaches itself to a host
program and makes multiple copies of itself, slowing down, corrupting or
destroying the system. A software that assists the OS in providing virus free
environment to the users is called antivirus. An anti-virus scans the system for
any virus and if detected, gets rid of it by deleting or isolating it. It can detect
many types of virus like boot virus, Trojan, worm, spyware, etc.
When any external storage device like USB drive is attached to the system,
anti-virus software scans it and gives an alert if a virus is detected. You can
set up your system for periodic scans or scan whenever you feel the need. A
combination of both the techniques is advisable to keep your system virus
free.
File management tools

As you know, file management is an important function of operating systems
as all data and instructions are stored in the computer in form of files. Utility
software providing regular file management tasks like browse, search, update,
preview, etc. are called file management tools. Windows Explorer in Windows
OS, Google desktop, Directory Opus, Double Commander, etc. are examples of
such tools.
Compression tools
Storage space is always at a premium in computer systems. So operating
systems are always looking at ways to minimize amount of storage space
taken by files. Compression tools are utilities that assist operating systems in
shortening files so that they take less space. After compression files are
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and cannot be read or edited directly. It needs to be
uncompressed before it can be accessed for further use. Some of the popular
compression tools are WinRAR, PeaZip, The Unarchiver, etc.
Disk Cleanup
Disk cleanup tools assist users in freeing up disk space. The software scans
hard disks to find files that are no longer used and frees up space by deleting
them.
Disk Defragmenter
Disk defragmenter is a disk management utility that increases file access
speeds by rearranging fragmented files on contiguous locations. Large files
are broken down into fragments and may be stores in non-contiguous
locations if contiguous ones are not available. When such files are accessed
by the user, access speed is slow due to fragmentation. Disk defragmenter
utility scans the hard disk and tries to assemble file fragments so that they
may be stored in contiguous locations.
Backup
Backup utility enables backing up of files, folders, databases or complete
disks. Backups are taken so that data may be restored in case of data loss.
Backup is a service provided by all operating systems. In stand-alone systems
backup may be taken in the same or different drive. In case of networked
systems backup may be done on backup servers.
Basics of Computers - Open Source Software

A software whose source code is freely distributed with a license to study,
change and further distributed to anyone for any purpose is called open
source software. Open source software is generally a team effort where
dedicated programmers improve upon the source code and share the changes
within the community. Open source software provides these advantages to the
users due to its thriving communities −
Security
Affordability
Transparent
Interoperable on multiple platforms

Interoperable on multiple platforms
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to customizations
Localization is possible
Freeware
A software that is available free of cost for use and distribution but cannot be
modified as its source code is not available is called freeware. Examples of
freeware are Google Chrome, Adobe Acrobat PDF Reader, Skype, etc.
Shareware
A software that is initially free and can be distributed to others as well, but
needs to be paid for after a stipulated period of time is called shareware. Its
source code is also not available and hence cannot be modified.
Proprietary Software
Software that can be used only by obtaining license from its developer after
paying for it is called proprietary software. An individual or a company can
own such proprietary software. Its source code is often closely guarded secret
and it can have major restrictions like −
No further distribution
Number of users that can use it
Type of computer it can be installed on, example multitasking or single user,
etc.
For example, Microsoft Windows is a proprietary operating software that

comes in many editions for different types of clients like single-user, multi-
user, professional, etc.
Basics of Computers - Office Tools

Application software that assist users in regular office jobs like creating,
updating and maintaining documents, handling large amounts of data,
creating presentations, scheduling, etc. are called office tools. Using office
tools saves time and effort and lots of repetitive tasks can be done easily.
Some of the software that do this are −
Word processors
Spreadsheets
Database systems
Presentation software
E-mail tools
Let us look at some of these in detail.
Word Processor
A software for creating, storing and manipulating text documents is called
word processor. Some common word processors are MS-Word, WordPad,
WordPerfect, Google docs, etc.
A word processor allows you to −
Create, save and edit documents

Format text properties like font, alignment, font color, background color, etc.
Check spelling and grammar

Add images
Add header and footer, set page margins and insert watermarks
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Spreadsheet
Spreadsheet is a software that assists users in processing and analyzing
tabular data. It is a computerized accounting tool. Data is always entered in a
cell (intersection of a row and a column) and formulas and functions to
process a group of cells is easily available. Some of the popular spreadsheet
software include MS-Excel, Gnumeric, Google Sheets, etc. Here is a list of
activities that can be done within a spreadsheet software −
Simple calculations like addition, average, counting, etc.
Preparing charts and graphs on a group of related data

Data entry
Data formatting
Cell formatting
Calculations based on logical comparisons
Presentation Tool
Presentation tool enables user to demonstrate information broken down into
small chunks and arranged on pages called slides. A series of slides that
present a coherent idea to an audience is called a presentation. The slides can
have text, images, tables, audio, video or other multimedia information
arranged on them. MS-PowerPoint, OpenOffice Impress, Lotus Freelance, etc.
Search tutorials,
are some popular coursestools.
presentation and ebooks...
Database Management System

Software that manages storage, updating and retrieval of data by creating
databases is called database management system. Some popular database
management tools are MS-Access, MySQL, Oracle, FoxPro, etc.
Basics of Computers - Domain Specific Tools

Depending on its usage, software may be generic or specific. Generic
software is a software that can perform multiple tasks in different scenarios
without being modified. For example, a word processor software can be used
by anyone toSearch
createtutorials, courses
different andof
types ebooks...
documents like report, whitepaper,
training material, etc. Specific software is a software for a particular
application, like railway reservation system, weather forecasting, etc. Let us
look at some examples of domain specific tools.
School Management System

School management system handles the diverse activities of a school like
examination, attendance, admission, students’ fees, time table, teachers’
training, etc.
Inventory Management
Managing multiple activities like purchase, sales, order, delivery, stock
maintenance, etc. associated with raw or processed goods in any business is
called inventory management. The inventory management software ensures
that stocks are never below specified limits and purchase/deliveries are done
in time.
Payroll Software
Payroll software handles complete salary calculations of employees, taking
care of leave, bonus, loans, etc. Payroll software is usually a component of HR
(human resource) management software in mid-sized to big organizations.
Financial Accounting
Financial management software keeps an electronic record of all financial
transactions of the organization. It has many functional heads like account
receivables, accounts payable, loans, payroll, etc.
Restaurant Management
Restaurant management software helps restaurant managers in keeping track

of inventory levels, daily orders, customer management, employee scheduling,
table bookings, etc.
Railway Reservation System

Railway reservation system is a software that handles multiple modules like
train routes, train management, seat booking, food booking, train maintenance,
train status, travel packages, etc.
Weather Forecasting System

Weather forecasting system is a real-time software that predicts weather of a
place by collecting copious amount of live data about atmospheric
temperature, humidity, wind level, etc. It is used to predict major disasters like
earthquakes, hurricanes, tsunamis, etc.
Basics of Computers - Number System

The technique to represent and work with numbers is called number system.
Decimal number system is the most common number system. Other popular
number systems include binary number system, octal number system,
hexadecimal number system, etc.
Decimal Number System

Decimal number system is a base 10 number system having 10 digits from 0
to 9. This means that any numerical quantity can be represented using these
10 digits. Decimal number system is also a positional value system. This
means that the value of digits will depend on its position. Let us take an
example to understand this.
Say we have three numbers – 734, 971 and 207. The value of 7 in all three
numbers is different−
In 734, value of 7 is 7 hundreds or 700 or 7 × 100 or 7 × 102
In 971, value of 7 is 7 tens or 70 or 7 × 10 or 7 × 101
In 207, value 0f 7 is 7 units or 7 or 7 × 1 or 7 × 100
The weightage of each position can be represented as follows −

In digital systems, instructions are given through electric signals; variation is

done by varying the voltage of the signal. Having 10 different voltages to
implement decimal number system in digital equipment is difficult. So, many
number systems that are easier to implement digitally have been developed.
Let’s look at them in detail.
Binary Number System

The easiest way to vary instructions through electric signals is two-state
system – on and off. On is represented as 1 and off as 0, though 0 is not
actually no signal but signal at a lower voltage. The number system having just
these two digits – 0 and 1 – is called binary number system.
Each binary digit is also called a bit. Binary number system is also positional
value system, where each digit has a value expressed in powers of 2, as
displayed here.
In any binary number, the rightmost digit is called least significant bit (LSB)
and leftmost digit is called most significant bit (MSB).
And decimal equivalent of this number is sum of product of each digit with its
positional value.
110102 = 1×24 + 1×23 + 0×22 + 1×21 + 0×20
= 16 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 0
= 2610
Computer memory is measured in terms of how many bits it can store. Here is
a chart for memory capacity conversion.
1 byte Search
(B) = 8tutorials,
bits courses and ebooks...
1 Kilobytes (KB) = 1024 bytes
1 Megabyte (MB) = 1024 KB
1 Gigabyte (GB) = 1024 MB
1 Terabyte (TB) = 1024 GB
1 Exabyte (EB) = 1024 PB
1 Zettabyte = 1024 EB
1 Yottabyte (YB) = 1024 ZB
Octal Number System

Octal number system has eight digits – 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. Octal number
system is also a positional value system with where each digit has its value
expressed in powers of 8, as shown here −
Decimal equivalent of any octal number is sum of product of each digit with its
positional value.
7268 = 7×82 + 2×81 + 6×80
= 448 + 16 + 6
= 47010
Hexadecimal Number System

Octal number system has 16 symbols – 0 to 9 and A to F where A is equal to
10, B is equal to 11 and so on till F. Hexadecimal number system is also a
positional value system with where each digit has its value expressed in
powers of 16, as shown here −
Decimal equivalent of any hexadecimal number is sum of product of each digit

with its positional value.
27FB16 = 2×163 + 7×162 + 15×161 + 10×160
= 8192 + 1792 + 240 +10
= 1023410
Number System Relationship

The following table depicts the relationship between decimal, binary, octal and
hexadecimal number systems.
HEXADECIMAL DECIMAL OCTAL BINARY
0 0 0 0000
1 1 1 0001
2 2 2 0010
3 3 3 0011
4 4 4 0100
5 5 5 0101
6 6 6 0110
7 7 7 0111
8 8 10 1000
9 9 11 1001
A 10 12 1010
B 11 13 1011
C 12 14 1100
D 13 15 1101
E 14 16 1110
F 15 17 1111
ASCII
Besides numerical data, computer must be able to handle alphabets,
punctuation marks, mathematical operators, special symbols, etc. that form
the complete character set of English language. The complete set of
characters or symbols are called alphanumeric codes. The complete
alphanumeric code typically includes −
26 upper case letters
26 lower case letters

10 digits
7 punctuation marks
20 to 40 special characters
Now a computer understands only numeric values, whatever the number

system used. So all characters must have a numeric equivalent called the
alphanumeric code. The most widely used alphanumeric code is American
Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII). ASCII is a 7-bit code that
has 128 (27) possible codes.
ISCII
ISCII stands for Indian Script Code for Information Interchange. IISCII was
developed to support Indian languages on computer. Language supported by
IISCI include Devanagari, Tamil, Bangla, Gujarati, Gurmukhi, Tamil, Telugu, etc.
IISCI is mostly used by government departments and before it could catch on,
a new universal encoding standard called Unicode was introduced.
Unicode
Unicode is an international coding system designed to be used with different
Search Each
language scripts. tutorials, courses and
character ebooks... is assigned a unique numeric
or symbol
value, largely within the framework of ASCII. Earlier, each script had its own
encoding system, which could conflict with each other.
In contrast, this is what Unicode officially aims to do − Unicode provides a

unique number for every character, no matter what the platform, no matter
what the program, no matter what the language.
Number System Conversion

As you know decimal, binary, octal and hexadecimal number systems are
positional value number systems. To convert binary, octal and hexadecimal to
decimal number, we just need to add the product of each digit with its
positional value. Here we are going to learn other conversion among these
number systems.
Decimal to Binary
Decimal numbers can be converted to binary by repeated division of the
number by 2 while recording the remainder. Let’s take an example to see how
this happens.
The remainders are to be read from bottom to top to obtain the binary
equivalent.
4310 = 1010112
Decimal to Octal
Decimal numbers can be converted to octal by repeated division of the number
by 8 while recording the remainder. Let’s take an example to see how this
happens.
Reading the remainders from bottom to top,
47310 = 7318
Decimal to Hexadecimal
Decimal numbers can be converted to octal by repeated division of the number
by 16 while recording the remainder. Let’s take an example to see how this
happens.
Reading the remainders from bottom to top we get,
42310 = 1A716
Binary to Octal and Vice Versa

To convert a binary number to octal number, these steps are followed −
Starting from the least significant bit, make groups of three bits.
If there are one or two bits less in making the groups, 0s can be added after
the most significant bit
Convert each group into its equivalent octal number
Let’s take an example to understand this.

101100101012 = 26258
To convert an octal number to binary, each octal digit is converted to its 3-bit
binary equivalent according to this table.
Octal Digit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Binary Equivalent 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111
546738 = 1011001101110112
Binary to Hexadecimal
To convert a binary number to hexadecimal number, these steps are followed
−
Starting from the least significant bit, make groups of four bits.
If there are one or two bits less in making the groups, 0s can be added after
the most significant bit.
Convert each group into its equivalent octal number.
Let’s take an example to understand this.
101101101012 = DB516
To convert an octal number to binary, each octal digit is converted to its 3-bit
binary equivalent.
Microprocessor Concepts
Microprocessor is the brain of computer, which does all the work. It is a
computer processor that incorporates all the functions of CPU (Central
Processing Unit) on a single IC (Integrated Circuit) or at the most a few ICs.
Microprocessors were first introduced in early 1970s. 4004 was the first
general purpose microprocessor used by Intel in building personal computers.
Arrival of low cost general purpose microprocessors has been instrumental in
development of modern society the way it has.
We will study the characteristics and components of a microprocessor in

detail.
Microprocessors Characteristics
Microprocessors are multipurpose devices that can be designed for generic or
specialized functions. The microprocessors of laptops and smartphones are
general purpose whereas ones designed for graphical processing or machine
vision are specialized ones. There are some characteristics that are common
to all microprocessors.
These are the most important defining characteristics of a microprocessor −
Clock speed
Instruction set
Word size
Clock Speed
Every microprocessor has an internal clock that regulates the speed at which
it executes instructions and also synchronizes it with other components. The
speed at which the microprocessor executes instructions is called clock
speed. Clock speeds are measured in MHz or GHz where 1 MHz means 1
million cycles per second whereas 1 GHz equals to 1 billion cycles per second.
Here cycle refers to single electric signal cycle.
Currently microprocessors have clock speed in the range of 3 GHz, which is

maximum that current technology can attain. Speeds more than this generate
enough heat to damage the chip itself. To overcome this, manufacturers are
using multiple processors working in parallel on a chip.
Word Size
Number of bits that can be processed by a processor in a single instruction is

called its word size. Word size determines the amount of RAM that can be
accessed at one go and total number of pins on the microprocessor. Total
number of input and output pins in turn determines the architecture of the
microprocessor.
First commercial microprocessor Intel 4004 was a 4-bit processor. It had 4

input pins and 4 output pins. Number of output pins is always equal to the
number of input pins. Currently most microprocessors use 32-bit or 64-bit
architecture.
Instruction Set
A command given to a digital machine to perform an operation on a piece of

data is called an instruction. Basic set of machine level instructions that a
microprocessor is designed to execute is called its instruction set. These
instructions do carry out these types of operations −
Data transfer
Arithmetic operations
Logical operations
Control flow
Input/output and machine control
Microprocessor Components
Compared to the first microprocessors, today’s processors are very small but
still they have these basic parts right from the first model −
CPU
Bus
Memory
CPU
CPU is fabricated as a very large scale integrated circuit (VLSI) and has these
parts −
Instruction register − It holds the instruction to be executed.
Decoder − It decodes (converts to machine level language) the instruction and

sends to the ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit).
ALU − It has necessary circuits to perform arithmetic, logical, memory, register
and program sequencing operations.
Register − It holds intermediate results obtained during program processing.

Registers are used for holding such results rather than RAM because
accessing registers is almost 10 times faster than accessing RAM.
Bus
Connection lines used to connect the internal parts of the microprocessor chip
is called bus. There are three types of buses in a microprocessor −
Data Bus − Lines that carry data to and from memory are called data bus. It is
a bidirectional bus with
Search tutorials, width
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ebooks...
Address Bus − It is a unidirectional responsible for carrying address of a
memory location or I/O port from CPU to memory or I/O port.
Control Bus − Lines that carry control signals like clock signals, interrupt
signal or ready signal are called control bus. They are bidirectional. Signal that
denotes that a device is ready for processing is called ready signal. Signal that
indicates to a device to interrupt its process is called an interrupt signal.
Memory
Microprocessor has two types of memory
RAM − Random Access Memory is volatile memory that gets erased when
power is switched off. All data and instructions are stored in RAM.
ROM − Read Only Memory is non-volatile memory whose data remains intact
even after power is switched off. Microprocessor can read from it any time it
wants but cannot write to it. It is preprogrammed with most essential data like
booting sequence by the manufacturer.
Evaluation of Microprocessor
The first microprocessor introduced in 1971 was a 4-bit microprocessor with
4m5KB memory and had a set of 45 instructions. In the past 5 decades
microprocessor speed has doubled every two years, as predicted by Gordon
Moore, Intel co-founder. Current microprocessors can access 64 GB memory.
Depending on width of data microprocessors can process, they are of these
categories−
8-bit
16-bit
32-bit
64-bit
Size of instruction set is another important consideration while categorizing

microprocessors. Initially, microprocessors had very small instructions sets
because complex hardware was expensive as well as difficult to build.
As technology developed to overcome these issues, more and more complex
instructions Search tutorials,to
were added courses and ebooks...
increase functionality of the microprocessor.
However, soon it was realized that having large instruction sets was
counterproductive as many instructions that were rarely used sat idle on
precious memory space. So the old school of thought that supported smaller
instruction sets gained popularity.
Let us learn more about the two types of microprocessors based on their
instruction set.
RISC
RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computers. It has a small set of
highly optimized instructions. Complex instruction are also implemented using
simpler instructions, reducing the size of instruction set. The designing
philosophy for RISC incorporates these salient points −
Number of instructions should be minimum.
Instructions should be of same length.

Simple addressing modes should be used
Reduce memory references to retrieve operands by adding registers
Some of the techniques used by RISC architecture include −
Pipelining− A sequence of instructions is fetched even if it means overlapping

of instructions in fetching and execution.
Single cycle execution − Most of RISC instructions take one CPU cycle to
execute.
Examples of RISC processors are Intel P6, Pentium4, AMD K6 and K7, etc.
CISC
CISC stands for Complex Instruction Set Computers. It supports hundreds of
instructions. Computers supporting CISC can accomplish wide variety of
tasks, making them ideal for personal computers. These are some
characteristics of CISC architecture −
Larger set of instructions

Instructions are of variable length
Complex addressing modes
Instructions take more than one clock cycle
Work well with simpler compilers
Examples of CISC processors are Intel 386 & 486, Pentium, Pentium II and III,
Motorola 68000, etc.
EPIC
EPIC stands for Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing. It is a computer
architecture that is a cross between RISC and CISC, trying to provide the best
of both. Its important features include −
Parallel instructions rather than fixed width
Mechanism to communication compiler’s execution plan to hardware
Programs must have sequential semantics
Some EPIC processors are Intel IA-64, Itanium, etc.
Basics of Computers - Primary Memory

Memory is required in computers to store data and instructions. Memory is
physically organized as a large number of cells that are capable of storing one
bit each. Logically they are organized as groups of bits called words that are
assigned an address. Data and instructions are accessed through these
memory address. The speed with which these memory addresses can be
accessed determines the cost of the memory. Faster the memory speed,
higher the price.
Computer memory can be said to be organized in a hierarchical way where

memory with the fastest access speeds and highest costs lies at the top
whereas those with lowest speeds and hence lowest costs lie at the bottom.
Based on this criteria memory is of two types – primary and secondary. Here
we will look at primary memory in detail.
The main features of primary memory, which distinguish it from secondary

memory are −
It is accessed directly by the processor

It is the fastest memory available
E h di t d ll
Each word is stored as well as
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It is volatile, tutorials, courses and
its contents areebooks...
lost once power is switched off
As primary memory is expensive, technologies are developed to optimize its

use. These are broad types of primary memory available.
RAM
RAM stands for Random Access Memory. The processor accesses all
memory addresses directly, irrespective of word length, making storage and
retrieval fast. RAM is the fastest memory available and hence most expensive.
These two factors imply that RAM is available in very small quantities of up to
1GB. RAM is volatile but my be of any of these two types
DRAM (Dynamic RAM)
Each memory cell in a DRAM is made of one transistor and one capacitor,
which store one bit of data. However, this cell starts losing its charge and
hence data stored in less than thousandth of a second. So it needs to be
refreshed thousand times a second, which takes up processor time. However,
due to small size of each cell, one DRAM can have large number of cells.
Primary memory of most of the personal computers is made of DRAM.
SRAM (SRAM)
Each cell in SRAM is made of a flip flop that stores one bit. It retains its bit till
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to be refreshed like DRAM. It also has
shorter read-write cycles as compared to DRAM. SRAM is used in specialized
applications.
ROM
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. As the name suggests, ROM can only be
read by the processor. New data cannot be written into ROM. Data to be stored
into ROM is written during the manufacturing phase itself. They contain data
that does not need to be altered, like booting sequence of a computer or
algorithmic tables for mathematical applications. ROM is slower and hence
cheaper than RAM. It retains its data even when power is switched off, i.e. it is
non-volatile. ROM cannot be altered the way RAM can be but technologies are
available to program these types of ROMs −
PROM (Programmable ROM)
PROM can be programmed using a special hardware device called PROM

programmer or PROM burner.
EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM)
EPROM can be erased and then programmed using special electrical signals
or UV rays. EPROMs that can be erased using UV rays are called UVEPROM
and those that can be erased using electrical signals are called EEPROM.
However, handling electric signals is easier and safer than UV rays.
Cache Memory
Small piece of high speed volatile memory available to the processor for fast
processing is called cache memory. Cache may be a reserved portion of main
memory, another chip on CPU or an independent high speed storage device.
Cache memory is made of fast speed SRAMs. The process of keeping some
data and instructions in cache memory for faster access is called caching.
Caching is done when a set of data or instructions is accesses again and
again.
Whenever the processor needs any piece of data or instructions, it checks the
cache first. If it is unavailable there, then the main memory and finally
secondary memory is accessed. As cache has very high speed, time spent in
accessing it every time is negligible as compared to time saved if data indeed
is in the cache. Finding data or instruction in cache is called cache hit.
Basics of Computers - Secondary Memory
You know that processor memory, also known as primary memory, is

expensive as well as limited. The faster primary memory are also volatile. If we
need to store large amount of data or programs permanently, we need a
cheaper and permanent memory. Such memory is called secondary memory.
Here we will discuss secondary memory devices that can be used to store
large amount of data, audio, video and multimedia files.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory
These are some characteristics of secondary memory, which distinguish it

from primary memory −
It is non-volatile, i.e. it retains data when power is switched off
It is large capacities to the tune of terabytes

It is cheaper as compared to primary memory
Depending on whether secondary memory device is part of CPU or not, there

are two types of secondary memory – fixed and removable.
Let us look at some of the secondary memory devices available.
Hard Disk Drive

Hard disk drive is made up of a series of circular disks called platters arranged
one over the other almost ½ inches apart around a spindle. Disks are made of
non-magnetic material like aluminum alloy and coated with 10-20 nm of
magnetic material.
Standard diameter of these disks is 14 inches and they rotate with speeds
varying from 4200 rpm (rotations per minute) for personal computers to 15000
rpm for servers. Data is stored by magnetizing or demagnetizing the magnetic
coating. A magnetic reader arm is used to read data from and write data to the
disks. A typical modern HDD has capacity in terabytes (TB).
CD Drive
CD stands for Compact Disk. CDs are circular disks that use optical rays,
usually lasers, to read and write data. They are very cheap as you can get 700
MB of storage space for less than a dollar. CDs are inserted in CD drives built
into CPU cabinet. They are portable as you can eject the drive, remove the CD
and carry it with you. There are three types of CDs −
CD-ROM (Compact Disk – Read Only Memory) − The data on these CDs are
recorded by the manufacturer. Proprietary Software, audio or video are
released on CD-ROMs.
CD-R (Compact Disk – Recordable) − Data can be written by the user once on
the CD-R. It cannot be deleted or modified later.
CD-RW (Compact Disk – Rewritable) − Data can be written and deleted on

these optical disks again and again.
DVD Drive
DVD stands for Digital Video Display. DVD are optical devices that can store
15 times the data held by CDs. They are usually used to store rich multimedia
files that need high storage capacity. DVDs also come in three varieties – read
only, recordable and rewritable.
Pen Drive
Pen drive is a portable memory device that uses solid state memory rather
than magnetic fields or lasers to record data. It uses a technology similar to
RAM, except that it is nonvolatile. It is also called USB drive, key drive or flash
memory.
Blu Ray Disk

Blu Ray Disk (BD) is an optical storage media used to store high definition (HD)
video and other multimedia filed. BD uses shorter wavelength laser as
compared to CD/DVD. This enables writing arm to focus more tightly on the
Search
disk and hence tutorials,
pack in morecourses andBDs
data. ebooks...
can store up to 128 GB data.
Basics of Computers - Input/Output Ports

A connection point that acts as interface between the computer and external
devices like mouse, printer, modem, etc. is called port. Ports are of two types −
Internal port − It connects the motherboard to internal devices like hard disk
drive, CD drive, internal modem, etc.
External port − It connects the motherboard to external devices like modem,

mouse, printer, flash drives, etc.
Let us look at some of the most commonly used ports.
Serial Port
Serial ports transmit data sequentially one bit at a time. So they need only one
Search
wire to transmit tutorials,
8 bits. courses it
However and ebooks...
also makes them slower. Serial ports are
usually 9-pin or 25-pin male connectors. They are also known as COM
(communication) ports or RS323C ports.
Parallel Port
Parallel ports can send or receive 8 bits or 1 byte at a time. Parallel ports come
in form of 25-pin female pins and are used to connect printer, scanner, external
hard disk drive, etc.
USB Port
USB stands for Universal Serial Bus. It is the industry standard for short
distance digital data connection. USB port is a standardized port to connect a
variety of devices like printer, camera, keyboard, speaker, etc.
PS-2 Port
PS/2 stands for Personal System/2. It is a female 6-pin port standard that
connects to the male mini-DIN cable. PS/2 was introduced by IBM to connect
mouse and keyboard to personal computers. This port is now mostly obsolete,
though some systems compatible with IBM may have this port.
Infrared Port
Infrared port is a port that enables wireless exchange of data within a radius
of 10m. Two devices that have infrared ports are placed facing each other so
that beams of infrared lights can be used to share data.
Bluetooth Port
Bluetooth is a telecommunication specification that facilitates wireless
connection between phones, computers and other digital devices over short
range wireless connection. Bluetooth port enables synchronization between
Bluetooth-enabled devices. There are two types of Bluetooth ports −
Incoming − It is used to receive connection from Bluetooth devices.
Outgoing − It is used to request connection to other Bluetooth devices.
FireWire Port
FireWire is Apple Computer’s interface standard for enabling high speed
Search
communication tutorials,
using courses
serial bus.and
It isebooks...
also called IEEE 1394 and used mostly
for audio and video devices like digital camcorders.
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Basics of Computers - Quick Guide

Basics of Computers - Introduction

The literal meaning of computer is a device that can calculate. However,

The processes that can be applied to data are of two types −

Arithmetic operations − Examples include calculations like addition,

Logical operations − Examples include comparison operations like greater

The basic parts of a computer are as follows −

Storage Capacity − Computers can store a very large amount of data at a

Advantages of Using Computer

Computers can do the same task repetitively with same accuracy.

Computers do not get tired or bored.

Despite so many advantages, computers have some disadvantages of their

Computers have no intelligence; they follow the instructions blindly without

Regular electric supply is necessary to make computers work, which could

Switching on power supply

Loading operating system into computer’s main memory

Keeping all applications in a state of readiness in case needed by the user

If a system is already running but needs to be restarted, it is called rebooting.

There are two types of booting −

Basics of Computers - Classification

All modern computers and computing devices use microprocessors whose

Let us look at all these types of computers in detail.

Riding on the wave of desktop’s popularity many software and hardware

File or storage server

In-built hardware, software and firmware security features

Chinese supercomputer Sunway TaihuLight is the world’s fastest

Most common uses of supercomputers include −

Molecular mapping and research

Oil and gas exploration

Search tutorials, courses and ebooks...

Basics of Computer - Software Concepts

Let us discuss them in detail.

Machines understand only binary language i.e. 0 (absence of electric signal)

Based on its function, system software is of four types −

As discussed earlier, an important function of system software is to convert all

Machine-level language − This language is nothing but a string of 0s and 1s

Assembly-level language − This language introduces a layer of abstraction by

Assembler − Converts assembly level program into machine level program.

System software that controls and monitors functioning of a specific device

File management tools

Basics of Computers - System S/W

Keeps all hardware parts in a state of readiness to follow user instructions

Schedules multiple tasks as per priority

Allocates resource to each task

Enables computer to access network

Managing computer resources like hardware, software, shared resources, etc.

Prevent error during software use

One of the earliest operating systems was MS-DOS, developed by Microsoft

These are the advantages provided by assembly level programming −

Productivity increases as number of errors decreases and hence debugging

Programmer has access to hardware resources and hence has flexibility in

In addition, a need was felt to take programming out of a handful of trained

are more complex than interpreters

need more memory space

take more time in compiling source code

Pre-processing − In this stage pre-processor instructions, typically used by

Essential functions − Ensures optimum and effective utilization of resources

Monitoring functions − Monitors and collects information related to system

Service functions − Provides services to users

There is maximum utilization of CPU

Turnaround time, i.e. time required to complete each job, is minimum

Waiting time is minimum