Q. Explain The OSI Model in Detail Q. What is Protocol ? Explain the protocols used in connec onless Internetwork Q.
col ? Explain the protocols used in connec onless Internetwork Q. Write Short Notes on – 1) Bridges 2) Repeaters
Ans - The OSI (Open Systems Interconnec on) - model is a conceptual framework that
standardizes the func ons of a communica on system or network into seven dis nct layers.
Each layer has specific responsibili es and interacts with adjacent layers to facilitate the
transmission of data between devices. The OSI model is o en used as a reference model to
understand and design network protocols and systems. Let's go through each layer in detail:
1. **Physical Layer**: The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model. It deals with the
physical transmission of data over the network media, such as cables, wireless signals, or fiber
op cs. It defines electrical, mechanical, and func onal specifica ons, including the type of
connectors, pin assignments, and data rates.
2. **Data Link Layer**: The data link layer is responsible for the reliable transmission of data
between two adjacent nodes on a network. It receives raw data from the physical layer and
divides it into frames. It also provides error detec on and correc on mechanisms to ensure
data integrity. This layer uses MAC (Media Access Control) addresses to iden fy devices on a
local network.
3. **Network Layer**: The network layer handles the rou ng and forwarding of data packets
across different networks. It determines the best path for data transmission based on logical
addresses, such as IP (Internet Protocol) addresses. The network layer also handles conges on
control and logical addressing schemes.
4. **Transport Layer**: The transport layer ensures reliable and orderly delivery of data
between end-to-end connec ons. It breaks down large data chunks from the upper layers into
smaller segments and adds sequencing and error checking informa on. This layer uses
protocols like TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol) to
establish and manage connec ons between applica ons.
5. **Session Layer**: The session layer establishes, manages, and terminates communica on
sessions between applica ons. It provides mechanisms for session establishment,
synchroniza on, and checkpoin ng. This layer is responsible for managing dialogues and
ensuring that data exchanges between applica ons are coordinated.
6. **Presenta on Layer**: The presenta on layer deals with the syntax and seman cs of data
exchanged between applica ons. It translates data from the applica on layer into a format
that can be understood by the receiving applica on. This layer is responsible for data
compression, encryp on, and data forma ng to ensure compa bility between different
systems.
7. **Applica on Layer**: The applica on layer is the highest layer in the OSI model. It
provides network services directly to the end-user or applica on. This layer includes protocols
for various applica ons such as email (SMTP), file transfer (FTP), web browsing (HTTP), and
domain name resolu on (DNS). It allows user interac on and provides a means for
applica ons to access the network services.
Q. Explain Working of Connec onless Internetwork Protocol
Ans- Connectionless Internetworking Protocols:
These protocols simply allow data to be transferred without any link among processes.
Some of data packets may also be lost during transmission. Some of protocols for
connectionless services are given below:
 Internet Protocol (IP) –
This protocol is connectionless. In this protocol, all packets in IP network are routed
independently. They might not go through same route.
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP) –
This protocol does not establish any connection before transferring data. It just sends
data that’s why UDP is known as connectionless.
 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) –
ICMP is called connectionless simply because it does not need any hosts to handshake
before establishing any connection.
 Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX) –
IPX is called connectionless as it doesn’t need any consistent connection that is
required to
 A connec onless protocol describes the communica on between two network end
points where a message is sent from one end point to another without a prior
arrangement.
 At one end, the device transmits data to the other before ensuring that the device on
the other end is ready to use.
 This describes most transmissions on the open internet. Some protocols allow for error
correc on by reques ng a retransmission if necessary.
 The internet uses a variety of connec onless protocols to func on. Among the
supported protocols are HTTP (hypertext transfer), IP, UDP, ICMP, IPX and TIPC.
 A connec onless protocol is different from a connec on-oriented system. A connec on-
oriented system requires both devices to be able to communicate with each other.
 Connec onless communica on is a mode of data transmission where each packet is
treated as an independent unit and does not require a dedicated connec on to be
established before transmission.
 In connec onless communica on, packets are sent from the source to the des na on
without any explicit handshake or acknowledgment mechanism.
 Internetworking protocols refer to the set of protocols and technologies used to connect
mul ple networks together to form a larger internetwork, such as the internet. These
protocols enable communica on and data exchange between devices and networks.
Q. Explain The Router level Protocols in Details
Ans - In the context of computer networking, a protocol refers to a set of rules and
conven ons that govern the communica on and interac on between devices on a network.
Protocols define the format, ming, sequencing, and error handling procedures for
transmi ng data between devices. They provide a common language that allows different
devices and systems to understand and exchange informa on effec vely.
When it comes to connec onless internetworking, two main protocols are commonly used:
1. **Internet Protocol (IP)**:
1. IP is a fundamental protocol in the TCP/IP suite, which is the founda on of the modern
internet. It operates at the network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model and is responsible for
addressing and rou ng packets across interconnected networks.
2. IP uses logical addresses called IP addresses to uniquely iden fy devices on a network. It
supports connec onless communica on, meaning that each packet is treated as an
independent unit and can take different paths to reach the des na on. IP is designed to
be scalable, allowing for the growth and expansion of the internet.
2. **User Datagram Protocol (UDP)**:
1. UDP is a transport layer (Layer 4) protocol that provides a connec onless and unreliable
means of data transmission. It is o en used for applica ons that priori ze speed and
efficiency over reliability, such as real- me streaming, voice over IP (VoIP), and online
gaming.
2. Unlike connec on-oriented protocols like TCP, UDP does not establish a dedicated
connec on before transmi ng data. Instead, it encapsulates data into small units called
datagrams and sends them independently. UDP does not guarantee delivery or ensure
data integrity, but it does offer low overhead and reduced latency.
In connec onless internetworking, IP provides the underlying addressing and rou ng
infrastructure to enable communica on across different networks, while UDP offers a
lightweight transport protocol for transmi ng data between applica ons. Together, IP and
UDP form the basis for connec onless communica on in the TCP/IP protocol suite, which is
widely used on the internet and other IP-based networks.
Q. Explain Connec on oriented Interworking with Diagram
Ans - Connection-Oriented Internetworking
 Connection-Oriented Service is basically a technique that is typically used to transport
and send data at session layer. The data streams or packets are transferred or delivered
to receiver in a similar order in which they have seen transferred by sender.
 It is actually a data transfer method among two devices or computers in a different
network, that is designed and developed after telephone system.
 Whenever a network implements this service, it sends or transfers data or message
from sender or source to receiver or destination in correct order and manner.
 This connection service is generally provided by protocols of both network layer
(signifies different path for various data packets that belongs to same message) as well
as transport layer (use to exhibits independence among packets rather than different
paths that various packets belong to same message will follow).
Ex: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
Operations:
There is a sequence of operations that are needed to b followed by users. These
operations are given below:
1. Establishing Connection –
It generally requires a session connection to be established just before any data is
transported or sent with a direct physical connection among sessions.
2. Transferring Data or Message –
When this session connection is established, then we transfer or send message or data.
3. Releasing the Connection –
After sending or transferring data, we release connection.
Types of Connection-Oriented Service:
Service Example
Reliable Message Stream Sequence of pages, etc.
Reliable Byte Stream Song Download, etc.
Unreliable Connec on VoIP (Voice Over Internet Protocol)
Ans - 1) **Bridges**:
A bridge in a computer network is a device used to connect multiple LANs together with a
larger Local Area Network (LAN). The mechanism of network aggregation is known as
bridging. The bridge is a physical or hardware device but operates at the OSI model’s data link
layer and is also known as a layer of two switches.
The primary responsibility of a switch is to examine the incoming traffic and determine whether
to filter or forward it. Basically, a bridge in computer networks is used to divide network
connections into sections, now each section has separate bandwidth and a separate collision
domain. Here bridge is used to improve network performance.
Uses of Bridge in Computer Network:
● Bridges are used to increase the network capacity as they can integrate multiple LANs together.
● On receiving a data frame, databases use the bridge to decide whether to accept or reject the data.
● In the OSI model, it can be used to transmit the data to multiple nodes of the network.
● Used to broadcast the data even if the MAC address or destination address is unavailable.
● It forwards data packets despite faulty nodes.
● The data packet can be forwarded or discarded by the bridge when the MAC address is available.
Func ons of Bridges in the Network
● The bridge is used to divide LANs into multiple segments.
● To control the traffic in the network.
● It can interconnect two LANs with a similar protocols.
● It can filter the data based on destination/MAC address.
2) Repeater
A repeater is a powerful network hardware device that regenerates an incoming signal from
the sender before retransmitting it to the receiver. It is also known as a signal booster, and it
helps in extending the coverage area of networks. The Incoming data can be in optical, wireless
or electrical signals.It works at the physical layer of the OSI model.
When the incoming signals are attenuated, it copies them bit by bit and retransmits them at
their original strength. It is used for longer-distance data transmission without compromising
data security or quality. Repeaters are two-port devices.
Features of a Repeater
● It strengthens the system signals by transmitting signals to the weaker locations.
● The Repeaters can continuously monitor the signals generated between the two LANs.
● Repeaters can help with networking flexibility.
● All of the Repeaters are linked together using an IP site connection network. Any problem in the
repeater network can be quickly resolved by using that IP network.
● Repeaters do not necessitate any additional processing. The only time they need to be investigated
is when performance suffers.
● Signals can be connected using various types of cables by using repeaters.
Types of Repeaters
According to the types of signals that they regenerate, repeaters can be classified into two categories
Analog Repeaters − They can only amplify the analog signal.
Digital Repeaters − They can reconstruct a distorted signal.
According to the types of networks that they connect, repeaters can be categorized into two types
● Wired Repeaters − They are used in wired LANs.
● Wireless Repeaters − They are used in wireless LANs and cellular networks.
According to the domain of LANs they connect, repeaters can be divided into two categories
● Local Repeaters − They connect LAN segments separated by small distance.
● Remote Repeaters − They connect LANs that are far from each other.
Q. Explain Layers of TCP/IP Protocol
Ans - The TCP/IP protocol suite is a set of networking protocols that are widely used for
communication and data exchange in computer networks, including the internet. The TCP/IP
protocol suite consists of four layers, each serving a specific purpose in the transmission and
routing of data. Here are the layers of the TCP/IP protocol:
1. **Network Interface Layer (or Link Layer)**:
- The Network Interface Layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP protocol stack.
- This layer deals with the physical transmission of data over the network medium and
provides protocols for data encapsulation and framing.
- It includes protocols specific to the network technology being used, such as Ethernet, Wi-
Fi, or Token Ring.
- The Network Interface Layer also handles the addressing of devices on the local network
using MAC (Media Access Control) addresses.
2. **Internet Layer**:
- The Internet Layer, also known as the Network Layer in the OSI model, is responsible for
addressing, routing, and fragmenting data across multiple networks.
- The key protocol of this layer is the Internet Protocol (IP), which provides logical
addressing through IP addresses.
- IP is responsible for routing packets between different networks based on their IP
addresses.
- Other protocols in the Internet Layer include ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol),
which is used for error reporting and network troubleshooting, and IGMP (Internet Group
Management Protocol), used for multicasting.
3. **Transport Layer**:
- The Transport Layer is responsible for end-to-end communication between devices.
- It ensures reliable and ordered delivery of data by providing connection-oriented or
connectionless services.
- The primary protocols in this layer are TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User
Datagram Protocol).
- TCP provides reliable, error-checked, and ordered delivery of data with flow control and
congestion control mechanisms. It is used for applications such as web browsing, email, and
file transfer.
- UDP, on the other hand, provides a connectionless and lightweight transport service
without guaranteed delivery or ordered data. It is used for applications that prioritize speed
and efficiency, such as real-time streaming and online gaming.
4. **Application Layer**:
- The Application Layer is the topmost layer of the TCP/IP protocol stack.
- It encompasses various protocols that support specific application-level services, such as
email (SMTP), web browsing (HTTP), file transfer (FTP), domain name resolution (DNS), and
more.
- Protocols at this layer define the rules and formats for data exchange between
applications running on different devices.
- The Application Layer protocols interact with the lower layers to send and receive data
across the network.
Ans - Router
Routers are networking devices operating at layer 3 or a network layer of the OSI model. They
are responsible for receiving, analysing, and forwarding data packets among the connected
computer networks. When a data packet arrives, the router inspects the destination address,
consults its routing tables to decide the optimal route and then transfers the packet along this
route.
Features of Routers
● A router is a layer 3 or network layer device.
● It connects different networks together and sends data packets from one network to
another.
● A router can be used both in LANs (Local Area Networks) and WANs (Wide Area
Networks).
● It transfers data in the form of IP packets. In order to transmit data, it uses IP address
men oned in the des na on field of the IP packet.
● Routers have a rou ng table in it that is refreshed periodically according to the changes
in the network. In order to transmit data packets, it consults the table and uses a
rou ng protocol.
● In order to prepare or refresh the rou ng table, routers share informa on among each
other.
● Routers provide protec on against broadcast storms.
● Routers are more expensive than other networking devices like hubs,bridges and
switches.
● Routers are manufactured by some popular companies like −
1)Cisco 2)D-Link 3)HP 4)3Com 5)Juniper 6)Nortel
Functions of a Router
The router performs two major functions:
1. Forwarding: The router receives the packets from its input ports, checks its header,
performs some basic functions like checking checksum, and then looks up to the routing
table to find the appropriate output port to dump the packets onto, and forwards the packets
onto that output port.
2. Routing: Routing is the process by which the router ascertains what is the best path for the
packet to reach the destination, It maintains a routing table that is made using different
algorithms by the router only.
Advantages of Router
1. Easier Connection: Sharing a single network connection among numerous machines is the
router’s main job. This enables numerous people to connect to the internet, boosting total
productivity. In addition, routers have connections between various media and network
designs.
2. Security: Undoubtedly, installing a router is the first step in securing a network connection.
Because using a modem to connect directly to the internet exposes your PC to several
security risks. So that the environment is somewhat secure, routers can be utilized as an
intermediary between two networks. While not a firewall or antivirus replacement.
Disadvantages of Router
1. High Cost: They are more expensive than some other tools for systems administration. This
includes security, extension, and the focal point. As a result, routers are typically not the greatest
option for issues. 2)Need for configuration: The router must be properly configured to work
properly. In general, the more complex the intended use, the more configuration is required. This
requires professional installation, which can add to the cost of buying a router.
Q. What are Protocols ? Explain Different Function of Protocol
Ans - Protocols are sets of rules and guidelines that govern how data is transmitted,
received, and processed in computer networks. They define the format, timing, sequencing,
and error control mechanisms for communication between devices. Protocols ensure that
devices can understand and interpret the data exchanged, enabling effective and reliable
communication. Different protocols serve various functions within a network. Here are
some key functions of protocols:
1. **Addressing and Identification**:
- Protocols provide mechanisms to assign unique identifiers, such as IP addresses and MAC
addresses, to devices on a network.
- Addressing protocols, like IP (Internet Protocol), enable the identification of source and
destination devices for routing and delivery of data packets.
2. **Routing and Forwarding**:
- Network layer protocols, such as IP and routing protocols like OSPF (Open Shortest Path
First) or BGP (Border Gateway Protocol), determine the optimal path for data to travel across
interconnected networks.
- These protocols maintain routing tables and exchange routing information to ensure
efficient and reliable delivery of data.
3. **Segmentation and Reassembly**:
- Transport layer protocols, such as TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), divide data into
smaller units called segments to facilitate transmission over networks with different
maximum payload sizes.
- The receiving device uses the sequence numbers provided in the segments to reassemble
them into the original data stream.
4. **Flow Control and Congestion Control**:
- Transport layer protocols, like TCP, employ flow control mechanisms to regulate the rate
of data transmission between sender and receiver, preventing overwhelming the receiving
device.
- Congestion control mechanisms help prevent network congestion and ensure fair sharing
of network resources among devices.
5. **Error Detection and Correction**:
- Protocols include error detection and correction mechanisms to ensure the integrity of
transmitted data.
- Techniques like checksums, cyclic redundancy checks (CRC), and acknowledgments are
employed to detect and recover from transmission errors.
6. **Session Management**:
- Protocols handle session management functions to establish, maintain, and terminate
communication sessions between devices.
- Session layer protocols manage session setup, authentication, and session teardown.
7. **Data Formatting and Representation**: - Application layer protocols define the
structure and format of data exchanged between applications running on different devices.
- Protocols like HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) for web browsing or SMTP (Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol) for email specify how data should be formatted and interpreted by the
receiving application.
Q. Explain Different Type of Internetwork Service With Suitable Example
Ans - Internetworking services refer to the functionalities and capabilities provided by
computer networks to enable communication and data exchange between devices in
different networks. There are several types of internetworking services, each serving a
specific purpose. Here are some common types of internetworking services with suitable
examples:
1. **Routing Service**: - Routing services enable the forwarding of data packets between
networks based on their destination addresses.
- Example: Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is an internetworking routing service used on
the internet. It allows routers in different autonomous systems to exchange routing
information and determine the best paths for data to traverse across multiple networks.
2. **Address Resolution Service**:- Address resolution services provide the mapping
between different types of network addresses.
- Example: Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) resolves IP addresses to MAC addresses in
Ethernet networks. When a device needs to communicate with another device on the same
local network, ARP resolves the IP address to the corresponding MAC address for proper
data transmission.
3. **Name Resolution Service**:- Name resolution services translate human-friendly
domain names into IP addresses for network communication.
- Example: Domain Name System (DNS) is a widely used internetworking service that
resolves domain names (e.g., www.example.com) to their corresponding IP addresses. DNS
allows users to access websites by using domain names instead of remembering IP
addresses.
4. **Directory Service**: - Directory services provide a centralized database of network
resources and their associated attributes, enabling efficient access and management.
- Example: Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) is an internetworking directory
service commonly used in enterprise networks. It provides a hierarchical directory structure
for storing and retrieving information about users, computers, and other network resources.
5. **Security Service**: - Security services ensure the confidentiality, integrity, and
availability of data exchanged across networks.
- Example: Virtual Private Network (VPN) is an internetworking security service that
establishes a secure encrypted connection over a public network, such as the internet. It
allows remote users to access private network resources securely.
6. **Quality of Service (QoS) Service**:- QoS services prioritize and manage network traffic
to ensure certain levels of performance, such as bandwidth, latency, and reliability.
- Example: Differentiated Services (DiffServ) is an internetworking QoS service that
classifies and marks network packets based on their priority levels. Routers and switches
then prioritize and handle the packets accordingly to provide the desired quality of service.
7. **Network Management Service**: - Network management services provide tools and
protocols for monitoring, configuring, and maintaining network devices and resources.
- Example: Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is an internetworking
management service that allows network administrators to manage and monitor network
devices, collect performance data, and configure settings remotely.
Q. Differentiate Between Connection Oriented and Connection Less Internetworking
Ans -
**Connection-Oriented Internetworking:**
1. **Establishment of Connection**: In connection-oriented internetworking, a dedicated
connection is established between the source and destination devices before data
transmission. This connection setup involves a series of handshake procedures to ensure
that both devices agree on the terms of communication.
2. **Reliability**: Connection-oriented internetworking provides a reliable and ordered
delivery of data. It guarantees that data will be delivered without loss or duplication and in
the same order as it was sent.
3. **Sequencing**: In connection-oriented internetworking, data packets are numbered
and sequenced to ensure correct reassembly at the destination. The receiving device uses
sequence numbers to detect missing or out-of-order packets and requests retransmission if
necessary.
4. **Flow Control**: Connection-oriented internetworking implements flow control
mechanisms to regulate the rate of data transmission. It ensures that the sending device
does not overwhelm the receiving device by adjusting the transmission rate based on the
receiving device's capacity.
5. **Example Protocols**: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a commonly used
connection-oriented protocol. It provides reliable, error-checked, and ordered delivery of
data, making it suitable for applications that require data integrity, such as web browsing,
email, and file transfer.
**Connectionless Internetworking:**
1. **No Connection Setup**: Connectionless internetworking does not establish a
dedicated connection before data transmission. Each data packet is treated independently
and does not rely on previous packets or a pre-established connection.
2. **Unreliable Delivery**: Connectionless internetworking does not guarantee the
delivery of data packets. Packets may be lost, duplicated, or delivered out of order without
any error detection or correction mechanisms.
3. **No Sequencing**: In connectionless internetworking, each data packet is independent
and does not carry sequence numbers. The receiving device must handle packet reordering,
duplicate detection, and error checking independently.
4. **No Flow Control**: Connectionless internetworking does not include flow control
mechanisms. The sending device transmits data at its own rate without considering the
receiving device's capacity, which may lead to congestion and packet loss if the network
becomes overloaded.
5. **Example Protocols**: UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a common connectionless
protocol. It is used in applications that prioritize low latency and where minor data loss is
acceptable, such as real-time video streaming, voice-over-IP (VoIP), and online gaming.
***********************************************************
Q. Explain The OSI Environment Layer
Ans - I believe you meant to refer to the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model's
Environment Layer. However, it's important to note that the OSI model consists of seven
layers: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application. There
is no specific "Environment Layer" in the OSI model.
To provide a brief overview of the layers in the OSI model:
1. **Physical Layer**:
- The Physical Layer is responsible for transmitting raw bit-level data over the physical
medium, such as cables, wireless signals, or fiber optics.
- It defines characteristics of the physical connection, such as voltage levels, cable types,
and data transmission rates.
2. **Data Link Layer**:
- The Data Link Layer provides reliable point-to-point and local network communication
between devices on the same network.
- It handles error detection and correction, as well as flow control.
- Examples of protocols operating at this layer include Ethernet and Wi-Fi.
3. **Network Layer**:
- The Network Layer focuses on logical addressing and routing of data packets across
different networks.
- It determines the best path for data transmission and uses IP addresses to identify source
and destination devices.
- The Internet Protocol (IP) is a key protocol in this layer.
4. **Transport Layer**: - The Transport Layer ensures reliable and ordered data delivery
between end-to-end connections.
- It provides mechanisms for error detection, flow control, and congestion control.
- Examples of transport layer protocols are TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP
(User Datagram Protocol).
5. **Session Layer**:
- The Session Layer establishes, manages, and terminates communication sessions
between applications on different devices.
- It handles session setup, synchronization, and checkpointing.
- Session layer protocols allow for the coordination and organization of data exchange
between applications.
6. **Presentation Layer**:- The Presentation Layer deals with data representation,
encryption, and compression.
- It ensures that data exchanged between applications is in a format that both sender and
receiver can understand.
- This layer is responsible for data encryption, decryption, and compression techniques.
7. **Application Layer**: - The Application Layer is the topmost layer and is closest to the
end user.
- It provides services and protocols for various applications, such as email, web browsing,
file transfer, and more.
- Application layer protocols include HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), FTP (File Transfer
Protocol), SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), and others.
Q. Explain The TCP in Detail
Ans - TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a widely used transport layer protocol in
computer networks. It provides reliable, connec on-oriented communica on between
applica ons running on different hosts over an IP network. TCP ensures that data is delivered
in order and without errors, and it manages conges on control to prevent network
conges on.
Here are the key components and mechanisms of TCP:
1. Connec on Establishment:
- Three-way handshake: Before data transmission can begin, TCP establishes a connec on
between two hosts. This process involves a three-step handshake, where the ini a ng host
sends a SYN (synchronize) packet to the receiving host, which responds with a SYN-ACK
(synchronize-acknowledge) packet, and finally, the ini a ng host sends an ACK (acknowledge)
packet to confirm the connec on.
2. Reliable Data Transfer:
- Segmenta on: TCP breaks the data into smaller segments before transmission. Each
segment is assigned a sequence number to ensure proper ordering upon arrival.
- Acknowledgment: Upon receiving a segment, the receiver sends an acknowledgment (ACK)
to the sender, confirming the successful receipt of the data. If the sender doesn't receive an
ACK within a specified meout period, it retransmits the segment.
- Retransmission: TCP uses a meout-based retransmission mechanism to recover lost or
corrupted segments. If an ACK is not received within the meout period, the sender assumes
packet loss and retransmits the data.
- Windowing: TCP implements a sliding window mechanism to manage flow control. The
sender can transmit a certain number of segments before wai ng for acknowledgments. The
receiver specifies its window size, indica ng the number of segments it can accept at a given
me.
3. Conges on Control:
- TCP monitors network conges on to avoid overwhelming the network with excessive
traffic. It dynamically adjusts the transmission rate based on the perceived network
condi ons.
- Slow Start: When a TCP connec on is established, the sender ini ally starts with a
conserva ve transmission rate and increases it exponen ally un l conges on is detected.
- Conges on Avoidance: Once conges on is detected (e.g., through dropped packets or
increased round-trip me), TCP reduces its transmission rate to prevent further conges on. It
uses an addi ve increase/mul plica ve decrease algorithm to find a stable transmission rate.
4. Connec on Termina on:
- Four-way handshake: When an applica on is done transmi ng data, TCP ini ates a
connec on termina on process. It involves a four-step handshake, where each host sends a
FIN (finish) packet to indicate the desire to close the connec on. The other host responds with
an ACK, and once both hosts have acknowledged the FIN, the connec on is terminated.
Q. What is Protocol ? Explain the Characteristics of Protocols
Ans - A protocol is a set of rules and guidelines that governs the communication and data
exchange between devices in a computer network. It defines the format, syntax, semantics,
and sequencing of messages or data sent and received by network devices. Protocols ensure
that devices can understand and interpret the data exchanged, enabling effective and
reliable communication. Here are the characteristics of protocols:
1. **Standardization**: Protocols are typically standardized, meaning they are defined and
published by recognized standardization bodies or organizations such as the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) or the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
Standardization ensures interoperability and allows different vendors and implementations
to communicate with each other seamlessly.
2. **Layered Structure**: Protocols in a network often follow a layered structure, such as
the OSI model or the TCP/IP model. Each layer in the protocol stack serves a specific
function, and protocols at each layer interact with corresponding protocols in other layers
to enable end-to-end communication.
3. **Rules and Syntax**: Protocols define the rules and syntax for the structure and format
of messages or data exchanged between devices. These rules specify how data should be
encapsulated, what fields and headers are required, and how the information is interpreted
by the receiving device.
4. **Message Exchange**: Protocols dictate how devices exchange messages or data. This
includes the order and sequence of messages, acknowledgment mechanisms, and error
detection and recovery mechanisms. Depending on the protocol, message exchange may be
connection-oriented (requiring a dedicated connection) or connectionless (without
establishing a connection).
5. **Addressing and Identification**: Protocols provide mechanisms for addressing and
identifying devices on a network. This includes assigning unique identifiers, such as IP
addresses or MAC addresses, to devices. Addressing allows devices to route messages to the
correct destination and enables communication within a network or across multiple
networks.
6. **Error Control**: Protocols incorporate error control mechanisms to ensure the
integrity of transmitted data. These mechanisms include error detection, such as checksums
or cyclic redundancy checks (CRC), and error correction techniques like retransmission or
forward error correction (FEC). Error control ensures that data is accurately received and
any transmission errors are detected and corrected.
7. **Flow Control**: Protocols implement flow control mechanisms to regulate the rate of
data transmission between devices. Flow control prevents overwhelming the receiving
device by managing the amount of data sent and received. It ensures that the sending device
adjusts its transmission rate based on the receiving device's capacity to handle the data.
8. **Security**: Many protocols include security features to protect the confidentiality,
integrity, and availability of data exchanged over a network. These features may include
encryption, authentication, data integrity verification, and access control mechanisms.
Q. Explain TCP Services
Ans - TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) provides several key services to applica ons and
users of computer networks. These services ensure reliable and ordered delivery of data, as
well as efficient and conges on-aware communica on. Here are the main TCP services:
1. Connec on-oriented communica on: TCP establishes a connec on between two hosts
before data transmission begins. This connec on is a logical associa on that allows reliable
and ordered data exchange. The connec on-oriented nature ensures that data is delivered
without errors and in the correct sequence.
2. Reliable data transfer: TCP guarantees reliable delivery of data across the network. It
achieves this through various mechanisms:
- Segmenta on and reassembly: TCP breaks the applica on data into smaller units called
segments. Each segment is assigned a sequence number, allowing the receiving host to
reconstruct the data in the correct order.
- Acknowledgment and retransmission: A er receiving a segment, the receiver sends an
acknowledgment (ACK) to the sender. If the sender does not receive an ACK within a specified
meout period, it assumes that the segment was lost and retransmits it. This ensures that all
segments are eventually delivered.
3. Flow control: TCP provides flow control mechanisms to prevent the receiver from being
overwhelmed by data sent by the sender. It ensures that the receiving host can handle the
incoming data at its own pace without being overloaded. TCP achieves flow control through a
sliding window mechanism:
- Window size nego a on: The receiver specifies its window size, which indicates the number
of segments it can accept at a given me. This allows the receiver to control the amount of
data it can handle.
- Sender's transmission rate: The sender adjusts its transmission rate based on the receiver's
window size. It sends data up to the receiver's window size and waits for acknowledgments
before sending more. This ensures that the sender does not overwhelm the receiver with
excessive data.
4. Conges on control: TCP implements conges on control mechanisms to prevent network
conges on and ensure fair sharing of network resources among different connec ons.
Conges on control helps avoid network conges on, where excessive data transmission leads
to packet loss and degraded performance. TCP uses several techniques for conges on control:
- Slow start: When a TCP connec on is established, the sender starts with a conserva ve
transmission rate and gradually increases it to probe the network's capacity. This prevents
sudden bursts of traffic that could cause conges on.
- Conges on avoidance: Once conges on is detected, TCP reduces its transmission rate to
alleviate the conges on. It uses an addi ve increase/mul plica ve decrease algorithm to find
a stable transmission rate. TCP monitors network condi ons and adjusts its transmission rate
accordingly.
Q. Write Short notes on 1) Repeater 2) Gateways
Ans - 1) **Repeater**:
A repeater is a networking device that operates at the Physical Layer of the OSI model. Its primary
function is to regenerate and amplify signals to extend the reach of a network's transmission. When
signals travel across a network medium, they can weaken and degrade due to attenuation. A
repeater receives the weakened signal, cleans it up, and retransmits it, effectively extending the
network's range. Repeaters are typically used in Ethernet networks and are essential for maintaining
signal strength and preventing data loss.
2) **Gateways**:
A gateway is a network device that operates at the Network Layer (Layer 3) or above in the OSI
model. It serves as an interface between two different networks, translating protocols, formats, or
addressing schemes to enable communication between them. Gateways are intelligent devices that
understand the protocols used in each network and can perform protocol conversion if necessary.
They provide connectivity and enable data transfer between networks that may have different
architectures, protocols, or technologies. Gateways are commonly used to connect local networks
to the internet or to interconnect different types of networks, such as Ethernet and Wi-Fi, or IPv4
and IPv6 networks.
Q. What is the use of Protocols in Network ? Explain The HTTP in Detail
Ans- Protocols play a crucial role in computer networks by facilitating communication and data
exchange between devices. They ensure that devices can understand and interpret the data
exchanged, enabling effective and reliable communication. Protocols provide a standardized set of
rules and guidelines for various aspects of network communication, including addressing, routing,
error control, flow control, and security. Here's an in-depth explanation of the HTTP (Hypertext
Transfer Protocol) protocol:
**HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)**:
HTTP is an application layer protocol used for communication between web browsers and web
servers. It is the foundation of data communication on the World Wide Web and enables the
retrieval and display of web pages. HTTP follows a client-server model, where the client (web
browser) sends requests to the server, and the server responds with the requested data.
Key features and characteristics of HTTP:
1. **Stateless Protocol**: HTTP is a stateless protocol, meaning that each request and response is
treated as an independent transaction. The server does not maintain any information about previous
requests from the same client. This simplicity allows for easy scaling and reduces the overhead on
server resources.
2. **Request Methods**: HTTP defines various request methods, also known as verbs, that indicate
the action the client wants the server to perform. The most common methods are:
- GET: Retrieves a resource from the server.
- POST: Submits data to be processed by the server, often used for form submissions.
- PUT: Updates or replaces a resource on the server.
- DELETE: Deletes a specified resource.
3. **URL (Uniform Resource Locator)**: HTTP requests include a URL that identifies the resource
being requested. The URL consists of a protocol identifier (http://), followed by the server's domain
name or IP address, and the path to the specific resource on the server.
4. **Headers**: HTTP requests and responses contain headers, which provide additional
information about the request or response. Headers include details such as the content type,
caching instructions, authentication credentials, and more. Headers help the server and client
understand how to handle the request or response.
Q. Write a Short note on Transport Services OR
Q. Describe Different Type of Transport Service
Ans - Transport Services
In a system, there is a transport en ty which provides services to transport users, which might
be an applica on process or a session protocol en ty. This local transport en ty
communicates with some remote transport en ty, using the services of some lower layer, such
as the network layer.
The general service provided by a transport protocol is the end-to-end transport of data in a
way that shields the user from the details of the underlying communica ons systems. To be
more specific, the following categories of service are useful for describing the transport
service:
1) Types of Service: Two basic types of services are possible:
i) Connec on-oriented service, and ii) Connec onless or datagram service.
2) Quality of Service: The transport protocol en ty should allow the transport user to specify
the quality of transmission service to be provided. Examples of services that might be
required:
i) Acceptable error and loss levels. ii) Desired average and maximum delay.
iii) Desired average and minimum throughput. iv) Priority levels.
3) Data Transfer: The whole purpose of a transport protocol is to transfer data between two
transport en es. Both user data and control data must be transferred, either on the same
channel or separate channels. Full-duplex service must be provided. The whole purpose of a
transport protocol is to transfer data between two transport en es.
4) User Interface: The mechanism of the user interface to the transport protocol should be
op mised to the sta on environment.
5) Connec on Management: When connec on- oriented service is provided, the transport
en ty is responsible for establishing and termina ng connec ons.
6) Expedited Deliver: Some data submi ed to the transport service may supersede data
submi ed previously. The transport en ty will endeavour have the transmission facility
transfer the data as rapidly as possible. At the receiving end, the transport en ty will interrupt
the user to no fy it of the receipt of urgent data.
7) Status Repor ng: A status repor ng service allows the transport user to obtain or be
no fied of informa on concerning the condi on or a ributes of the transport en ty or a
transport connec on. Examples of status informa on:
i) Performance characteris cs of a connec on,
ii) Addresses,
iii) Class of protocol in use,
iv) mer values,
v) State of protocol "machine" suppor ng connec on, and
vi) Degrada on in requested quality of service
8) Security: The transport en ty may provide a variety of security services.
Q. Explain Header Format of TCP
Ans - The TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) header is a crucial component of the TCP
segment, which is the unit of data transferred over a TCP connec on. The TCP header contains
essen al informa on that facilitates the reliable and ordered delivery of data between hosts.
Here's an overview of the TCP header format:
The TCP header is 20 bytes (160 bits) in length and consists of several fields:
1. Source Port (16 bits): Specifies the port number of the sender applica on or process. It
iden fies the applica on on the sending host that is genera ng the TCP segment.
2. Des na on Port (16 bits): Indicates the port number of the receiver applica on or process.
It iden fies the applica on on the receiving host that will process the TCP segment.
3. Sequence Number (32 bits): Contains a sequence number assigned to the first data byte in
the TCP segment. It helps in maintaining the correct ordering of segments at the receiver and
enabling reliable data delivery.
4. Acknowledgment Number (32 bits): If the ACK flag is set in the TCP header, this field
contains the next sequence number that the receiver is expec ng from the sender. It
acknowledges the receipt of all data up to that sequence number.
5. Data Offset (4 bits): Specifies the size of the TCP header in 32-bit words. It indicates the
length of the TCP header and any op onal fields that follow it. The field's value mul plied by
4 gives the total length of the TCP header in bytes.
6. Reserved (6 bits): Reserved for future use. These bits are currently unused and set to 0.
7. Control Flags (6 bits):
- URG (Urgent Pointer field used): Indicates if the Urgent Pointer field is valid and should be
considered.
- ACK (Acknowledgment field used): Acknowledges the receipt of data. If set, the
Acknowledgment Number field is valid.
- PSH (Push Func on): Signals the receiver to push the data to the receiving applica on
immediately.
- RST (Reset the connec on): Resets the TCP connec on.
- SYN (Synchronize sequence numbers): Ini ates the connec on establishment process.
- FIN (Finish sending data): Signals the end of data transmission and ini ates the connec on
termina on process.
8. Window Size (16 bits): Specifies the size of the receive window (in bytes) that the receiver
can accept. It helps in flow control, indica ng the amount of data the sender can transmit
without receiving further acknowledgments.
9. Checksum (16 bits): Provides error detec on for the TCP header and data. It is calculated
by the sender and verified by the receiver to ensure data integrity during transmission.
10. Urgent Pointer (16 bits): If the URG flag is set, this field indicates the offset from the
sequence number of the last urgent data byte. It points to the end of the urgent data in the
TCP segment.
Q. Explain transport Protocol Mechanism
Ans - Transport protocols, such as TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User
Datagram Protocol), employ various mechanisms to facilitate reliable and efficient data
transfer between network hosts. Here are some key mechanisms used by transport protocols:
1. Connec on Establishment: Connec on-oriented protocols like TCP use a three-way
handshake mechanism to establish a reliable and ordered connec on between the sender
and receiver. This involves a series of messages exchanged between the hosts to synchronize
sequence numbers and establish ini al parameters.
2. Data Segmenta on: To handle large amounts of data, transport protocols segment the data
into smaller units or packets. Segmenta on breaks down the data into manageable pieces
that can be transmi ed efficiently over the network. Each segment typically includes a
sequence number for proper ordering at the receiver's end.
3. Error Detec on and Recovery: Transport protocols implement error detec on mechanisms,
such as checksums, to verify the integrity of data during transmission. If errors are detected,
the receiver can request retransmission of the damaged or lost segments. Protocols like TCP
use selec ve repeat or go-back-N mechanisms to recover lost or corrupted segments.
4. Flow Control: Flow control mechanisms regulate the rate of data transmission between the
sender and receiver to prevent the receiver from being overwhelmed. Transport protocols use
techniques like sliding window protocols to ensure that the sender doesn't transmit data
faster than the receiver can handle.
5. Conges on Control: Conges on control mechanisms prevent network conges on and
ensure fair sharing of network resources. Transport protocols monitor network condi ons and
adjust the transmission rate based on feedback received from the network. Conges on
control algorithms, such as TCP's conges on control, aim to prevent packet loss and maintain
op mal network performance.
6. Acknowledgment and Retransmission: Reliable transport protocols use acknowledgments
to confirm the successful receipt of data. The receiver sends acknowledgments to the sender
indica ng the next expected sequence number. If the sender doesn't receive an
acknowledgment within a specified me, it retransmits the unacknowledged segments.
7. Connec on Termina on: Connec on-oriented protocols employ a connec on termina on
process to gracefully close the connec on. This involves a series of messages exchanged
between the sender and receiver to ensure that all data is delivered and no more data will be
transmi ed.
Q. Explain Lightweight Transport Protocol
Ans - Lightweight Transport Protocol
Lightweight protocol refers to any protocol that has a lesser and leaner payload when being
used and transmi ed over a network connec on. It is simpler, faster and easier to manage
than other communica on protocols used on a local or wide area network.
Lightweight protocol typically provides the same or enhanced services as their heavier
counterpart, but have a lighter footprint in various ways. Lightweight protocols code performs
faster than standard protocols.
They tend to have lesser overall size, leave out unessen al data and might use a data
compression technique to have a lighter effect on network communica on. For example,
TCP/IP protocol stack is considered lighter and much faster than the OSI protocol stack.
Lightweight directory access protocols (LDAP), lightweight extensible authen ca on protocol
(LEAP) and skinny call control protocol (SCCP) are some popular examples of lightweight
protocols.
UDP is the most simple transport protocol that runs over IP. Like an IP packet, a UDP message
is also called a datagram, and each datagram is handled independently of all others. The UDP
protocol merely encapsulates applica on data with its 8-byte header. Thus, UDP is a
lightweight transport protocol with a minimalist service model that basically demul plexes
messages to the applica on layer.
Q. Explain UDP Packet Format
Ans - The UDP (User Datagram Protocol) packet format is a simple and lightweight structure
used for data transmission over IP networks. UDP provides a connec onless and unreliable
communica on service, making it suitable for applica ons that priori ze low overhead and
real- me data delivery over reliability. Here is an overview of the UDP packet format:
1. Source Port (16 bits): Specifies the port number of the sender applica on or process. It
iden fies the applica on on the sending host that is genera ng the UDP datagram.
2. Des na on Port (16 bits): Indicates the port number of the receiver applica on or process.
It iden fies the applica on on the receiving host that will process the UDP datagram.
3. Length (16 bits): Specifies the length of the UDP datagram, including the header and data.
The value indicates the total number of bytes in the UDP packet.
4. Checksum (16 bits): Provides op onal error detec on for the UDP packet. The checksum is
calculated over the en re UDP packet, including the header and data. If the checksum is
present, the receiver can verify the integrity of the UDP packet.
5. Data: Contains the actual payload or data of the UDP packet. The size of the data can vary,
depending on the length field specified in the header.
The UDP packet format is simple and minimalis c, lacking features such as sequencing, flow
control, or acknowledgment mechanisms. Unlike TCP, UDP does not provide reliable delivery,
ordering guarantees, or conges on control. It operates on a best-effort basis, meaning that it
sends data without any guarantees or acknowledgments.
Q. Explain The Architecture Of UDP Protocol
Ans - The architecture of the UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is rela vely simple compared to
other transport layer protocols like TCP (Transmission Control Protocol). UDP operates on top
of IP (Internet Protocol) and provides a connec onless, unreliable communica on service.
Here's an overview of the architecture of UDP:
1. Datagram-Based Model: UDP uses a datagram-based model for communica on. Data is
divided into small, discrete units called datagrams. Each datagram is treated as an
independent en ty and is individually addressed and transmi ed. UDP does not establish a
dedicated connec on between the sender and receiver.
2. Connec onless: UDP is a connec onless protocol, which means that it does not establish a
connec on before sending data. Each UDP datagram is handled independently and does not
rely on prior communica on or synchroniza on.
3. Header Format: The UDP header is a simple and minimalis c structure that contains the
necessary informa on for UDP communica on. The UDP header includes the following fields:
- Source Port (16 bits): Specifies the port number of the sender applica on or process.
- Des na on Port (16 bits): Indicates the port number of the receiver applica on or process.
- Length (16 bits): Specifies the length of the UDP datagram, including the header and data.
- Checksum (16 bits): Provides op onal error detec on for the UDP packet.
4. Unreliable Delivery: Unlike TCP, UDP does not guarantee reliable delivery of data. UDP
datagrams are sent without acknowledgment or retransmission mechanisms. If a UDP
datagram is lost or damaged during transmission, there is no automa c recovery mechanism
at the UDP protocol level.
5. No Flow Control or Conges on Control: UDP does not provide built-in mechanisms for flow
control or conges on control. It does not regulate the rate of data transmission or manage
network conges on. Applica ons using UDP are responsible for implemen ng their own flow
and conges on control mechanisms if needed.
6. Low Overhead: UDP has a lower overhead compared to TCP. The absence of connec on
establishment, acknowledgment, and sequencing mechanisms results in lower latency and
reduced processing overhead. This makes UDP suitable for applica ons that priori ze speed
and efficiency over reliability.
Q. Define The ISO Transport Standard Q. What is UDP ? Explain User Datagram With Example
Ans - The ISO Transport Standard refers to the transport layer protocol standards developed by the  Ans - UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a lightweight transport layer protocol that operates
Interna onal Organiza on for Standardiza on (ISO). The ISO has defined a suite of protocols known as on top of IP (Internet Protocol) in computer networks.
the OSI (Open Systems Interconnec on) model, which provides a conceptual framework for
 It provides a connec onless and unreliable communica on service, focusing on simplicity,
understanding and implemen ng network protocols.
low overhead, and minimal processing.
The ISO Transport Standard specifically focuses on the transport layer, which is the fourth layer of the
 UDP is o en used for applica ons that priori ze speed and efficiency over reliability, such
OSI model. The transport layer is responsible for the reliable and efficient transfer of data between
as real- me streaming, online gaming, DNS (Domain Name System), and VoIP (Voice over
network hosts. It provides services such as segmenta on, reassembly, flow control, error detec on,
and error recovery. IP).
The ISO Transport Standard consists of several protocols, including:  UDP uses a datagram-based model, where data is divided into small, discrete units called
1. ISO 8073: This standard defines the Connec on-Oriented Transport Protocol (COTP), which is similar datagrams. Each UDP datagram is treated as an independent en ty and is individually
to TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) in the TCP/IP protocol suite. COTP provides reliable and ordered addressed and transmi ed.
data delivery between network hosts.  UDP does not establish a dedicated connec on or perform sequencing and
2. ISO 8072: This standard defines the Connec onless Transport Protocol (CLTP), which is analogous to acknowledgment of packets like TCP (Transmission Control Protocol). Therefore, UDP does
UDP (User Datagram Protocol) in the TCP/IP suite. CLTP offers a connec onless and unreliable data
not guarantee reliable delivery or order preserva on.
transfer service, suitable for applica ons that priori ze low overhead and real- me communica on.
Here's an example to illustrate how UDP works:
3. ISO 8602: This standard specifies the End System to Intermediate System (ES-IS) protocol, which is
Let's consider a scenario where a client wants to request the current me from a me server
used for rou ng and addressing between hosts and network nodes in a large-scale network
using UDP.
environment.
1. Client sends a UDP datagram: The client prepares a UDP datagram containing the request
4. ISO 8822: This standard defines the Virtual Terminal Protocol (VTP), which facilitates terminal
emula on over a network. It allows users to access remote systems as if they were directly connected for the current me. The datagram includes the source and des na on port numbers and the
to a local terminal. payload (request message).
2. Datagram transmission: The client's UDP layer encapsulates the datagram with UDP
Q. Explain Network Services headers, including the source and des na on port numbers. The datagram is then handed
Ans - Network Service over to the IP layer, which adds the IP headers, including the source and des na on IP
To func on, a transport protocol must make use of the services of some lower-level network-oriented
addresses. The resul ng packet is transmi ed over the network.
protocol.
3. Datagram recep on by the server: The me server receives the UDP datagram. The UDP
ISO specified a set of primi ves that might be used to provide a network service to a transport en ty.
layer on the server extracts the payload from the datagram and forwards it to the me server
The network service must provide a means of delivering TPDUS to a remote correspondent. The
applica on listening on the specified des na on port.
transport en ty uses N-DATA .request primi ve to transfer data to the network service for
4. Server generates a response: The me server retrieves the current me, generates a
transmission.
The network service passes up received data using N- DATA indica on primi ve. If the service is not response message, and prepares a UDP datagram. The response is placed in the payload of
connec on-oriented, address informa on must be included in the primi ve invoca on. the UDP datagram.
If the network service is connec on-oriented, addi onal primi ves are needed N- CONNECT.request 5. Datagram transmission: The server's UDP layer encapsulates the response message in a
primi ve signals a request by a transport en ty to open a UDP datagram, adding the appropriate source and des na on port numbers. The datagram is
N-CONNECT .indica on presents this request to the correspondent transport en ty iden fied in the handed over to the IP layer, which adds the necessary IP headers. The resul ng packet is
connec on request. A transport en ty signals its willingness to accept the connec on with N- transmi ed back to the client.
response. This willingness is communicated to the ini a ng transport en ty with N-CONNECT .confirm.
6. Datagram recep on by the client: The client's UDP layer receives the datagram. It extracts
N-DISCONNECT request and N-DISCONNECT indica on are used to terminate a connec on.
the response message from the payload and delivers it to the client applica on listening on
Addi onal primi ves may be provided by the network service for enhancing the capability and
the specified des na on port.
efficiency of the transport protocol. The N-DATA- ACKNOWLEDGE primi ves permit the local exercise
of flow control across the transport/networkinterface in both direc ons. N-EXPEDITED-DATA primi ve
provides direct support of the transport expedited data feature. The N-RESET primi ves allow the
transport en ty to force a reset of the network connec on.
Q. Different Between TCP And UDP Protocol Q. Explain The Different Element of Transport protocol in Brief
Ans - Ans = Transport protocols, such as TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User
Basis Transmission Control Protocol User Datagram Protocol (UDP) Datagram Protocol), consist of several elements that facilitate the reliable and efficient
(TCP) transfer of data between network hosts. Here is a brief explana on of the different elements
Type of Service TCP is a connection-oriented UDP is the Datagram-oriented of a transport protocol:
protocol. Connection protocol. This is because 1. Connec on Establishment: Connec on-oriented protocols like TCP establish a reliable and
orientation means that the there is no overhead for
ordered connec on between the sender and receiver before data transfer. This involves a
communicating devices should opening a connection,
establish a connection before maintaining a connection, or three-way handshake mechanism to synchronize sequence numbers and establish ini al
transmitting data and should terminating a connection. UDP parameters.
close the connection after is efficient for broadcast and 2. Segmenta on: Transport protocols segment large amounts of data into smaller units or
transmitting the data. multicast types of network packets for efficient transmission. Segmenta on breaks down the data into manageable
transmission. pieces that can be transmi ed over the network. Each segment typically includes a sequence
Reliability TCP is reliable as it guarantees the The delivery of data to the number for proper ordering at the receiver's end.
delivery of data to the destination destination cannot be 3. Error Detec on: Transport protocols implement error detec on mechanisms to ensure the
router. guaranteed in UDP. integrity of data during transmission. Common techniques include the use of checksums,
Error checking TCP provides extensive error- UDP has only the basic error- where a mathema cal algorithm is applied to the data to generate a checksum value. The
mechanism checking mechanisms. checking mechanism using
receiver can verify the integrity of the data by recalcula ng the checksum and comparing it to
checksums.
It is because it provides flow the received value.
control and acknowledgment of 4. Flow Control: Flow control mechanisms regulate the rate of data transmission between the
data. sender and receiver to prevent the receiver from being overwhelmed. Transport protocols use
Acknowledgment An acknowledgment segment is No acknowledgment segment. techniques like sliding window protocols to ensure that the sender doesn't transmit data
present. faster than the receiver can handle.
Sequence Sequencing of data is a feature of There is no sequencing of data 5. Conges on Control: Conges on control mechanisms prevent network conges on and
Transmission Control in UDP. If the order is required,
ensure fair sharing of network resources. Transport protocols monitor network condi ons and
it has to be managed by the
Protocol (TCP). this means that adjust the transmission rate based on feedback received from the network. Conges on
application layer.
packets arrive in order at the control algorithms aim to prevent packet loss and maintain op mal network performance.
receiver. 6. Acknowledgment and Retransmission: Reliable transport protocols use acknowledgments
Speed TCP is comparatively slower than UDP is faster, simpler, and to confirm the successful receipt of data. The receiver sends acknowledgments to the sender
UDP. more efficient than TCP. indica ng the next expected sequence number. If the sender doesn't receive an
Retransmission Retransmission of lost packets isThere is no retransmission of acknowledgment within a specified me, it retransmits the unacknowledged segments to
possible in TCP, but not in UDP. lost packets in the User ensure reliable delivery.
Datagram Protocol (UDP).
7. Connec on Termina on: Connec on-oriented protocols employ a connec on termina on
Header Length TCP has a (20-60) bytes variable UDP has an 8 bytes fixed-
length header. length header. process to gracefully close the connec on. This involves a series of messages exchanged
Weight TCP is heavy-weight. UDP is lightweight. between the sender and receiver to ensure that all data is delivered and no more data will be
Handshaking Techniques Uses handshakes such as SYN, It’s a connectionless protocol transmi ed.
ACK, SYN-ACK i.e. No handshake
Q. Explain The TCP Protocol Architecture In Detail
Ans - The TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) protocol architecture provides a
comprehensive set of mechanisms and func onali es for reliable, ordered, and error-checked
data delivery over IP (Internet Protocol) networks. TCP operates at the transport layer of the
TCP/IP protocol suite and consists of several components and layers. Here is a detailed
explana on of the TCP protocol architecture:
1. Applica on Layer: The TCP protocol architecture interacts with the applica on layer, which
includes various network applica ons, such as web browsers, email clients, and file transfer
protocols. Applica on layer protocols, such as HTTP, FTP, and SMTP, u lize TCP as their
transport layer protocol to ensure reliable data transfer.
2. TCP Segment: At the TCP layer, data is divided into smaller units called TCP segments. Each
segment contains a sequence number, acknowledgment number, and other control
informa on necessary for reliable delivery and flow control.
4. TCP Connec on Establishment: TCP establishes a connec on between the sender and
receiver before data transfer using a three-way handshake. This involves a series of messages
exchanged between the hosts to synchronize sequence numbers and establish ini al
parameters.
5. Reliable Data Transfer: TCP ensures reliable data transfer through various mechanisms:
- Posi ve Acknowledgment with Retransmission: TCP employs acknowledgments to confirm
successful data receipt. If an acknowledgment is not received within a specified me, TCP
retransmits the unacknowledged segments.
- Sliding Window: TCP uses a sliding window mechanism for flow control. It regulates the
number of unacknowledged segments that can be sent at a me, based on the receiver's
available buffer space.
- Selec ve Repeat: TCP's selec ve repeat mechanism allows the receiver to request
retransmission of specific segments if they are damaged or lost.
6. Flow Control: TCP manages flow control to prevent the receiver from being overwhelmed.
It uses a sliding window mechanism, where the receiver adver ses its buffer capacity to the
sender. This allows the sender to adjust its transmission rate accordingly.
7. Conges on Control: TCP implements conges on control mechanisms to avoid network
conges on. It monitors network condi ons and adjusts the transmission rate based on
feedback received from the network, such as packet loss or delay. TCP employs algorithms like
Slow Start, Conges on Avoidance, and Fast Recovery to regulate the sending rate and
maintain op mal network performance.
8. Connec on Termina on: TCP terminates the connec on gracefully when data transfer is
complete. It uses a four-way handshake process to ensure that all data is delivered and no
more data will be transmi ed.
**********************************************************************
Q. Explain The Characteris cs of Session Services
Ans - Session services, provided by the session layer in the OSI (Open Systems
Interconnec on) model, offer several characteris cs that are essen al for managing
communica on sessions between applica ons. Here are the key characteris cs of session
services:
1. Session Establishment and Termina on: Session services facilitate the establishment and
termina on of communica on sessions between applica ons. They handle the necessary
procedures to ini ate and close sessions, ensuring orderly and coordinated data exchange.
2. Dialogue Control: Session services manage the dialogues or conversa ons between
applica ons. They establish rules and protocols for ini a ng, maintaining, and ending these
dialogues. This allows applica ons to take turns in sending and receiving data, ensuring proper
synchroniza on and preven ng conflicts.
3. Synchroniza on: Session services provide synchroniza on mechanisms between sender
and receiver applica ons. They establish synchroniza on points, enabling applica ons to
verify the integrity and order of data exchanged during a session. Synchroniza on points aid
in error recovery and resynchroniza on if data is lost or corrupted during transmission.
4. Checkpoin ng: Checkpoin ng is a feature of session services that allows the current state
or progress of a session to be saved. Checkpoints serve as reference points, enabling
applica ons to recover from failures or interrup ons by resuming the session from the last
known checkpoint. This ensures data integrity and avoids the need to restart the en re
session.
5. Token Management: Some session services involve token management, where a token is
passed between communica ng applica ons to control access to shared session resources.
The token determines which applica on has permission to send data, ensuring orderly and
controlled data exchange.
6. Mul plexing: Session services support mul plexing, allowing mul ple sessions to be
established simultaneously over a single network connec on. Mul plexing op mizes network
resource u liza on and facilitates parallel data exchange between different applica ons.
7. Session Security: Session services may include security features to protect the
confiden ality, integrity, and availability of session data. Encryp on, authen ca on, and
access control mechanisms can be implemented to ensure secure communica on between
applica ons.
Q. What are the Session Services ? Explain the role of Session Services in OSI Model
Ans - In the OSI (Open Systems Interconnec on) model, session services are provided at the
session layer, which is the fi h layer of the model. The session layer is responsible for
establishing, managing, and termina ng communica on sessions between applica ons on
different network devices. It ensures that data exchange between applica ons is organized
and coordinated effec vely. Here are the key aspects and roles of session services in the OSI
model:
1. Session Establishment and Termina on: The session layer facilitates the establishment and
termina on of sessions between communica ng applica ons. It handles the setup and
teardown procedures required to ini ate and close a session, allowing applica ons to
exchange data in an orderly manner.
2. Dialogue Control: The session layer coordinates the communica on between applica ons
by managing the dialogues or conversa ons between them. It defines the rules and protocols
for ini a ng, maintaining, and ending these dialogues. This ensures that applica ons can take
turns in sending and receiving data and prevents conflicts or data corrup on due to
simultaneous access.
3. Synchroniza on: Session services ensure synchroniza on between sender and receiver
applica ons. They establish synchroniza on points that allow applica ons to check the
integrity and order of data exchanged during a session. Synchroniza on points help in error
recovery and resynchroniza on if data gets lost or corrupted during transmission.
4. Checkpoin ng: Session services enable checkpoin ng, which is the process of saving the
current state or progress of a session. Checkpoin ng allows applica ons to recover from
failures or interrup ons by resuming the session from the last known checkpoint. This ensures
data integrity and prevents the need to restart the en re session in case of disrup ons.
5. Token Management: Some session services involve token management, where a token is
passed between communica ng applica ons to control access to the shared session
resources. The token determines which applica on has the permission to send data and helps
maintain order and fairness in data exchange.
6. Session Mul plexing: The session layer supports mul plexing, which allows mul ple
sessions to be established simultaneously over a single network connec on. Mul plexing
enables efficient u liza on of network resources and facilitates the parallel exchange of data
between different applica ons.
7. Session Security: Session services may include security features to protect the
confiden ality, integrity, and availability of the session data. Encryp on, authen ca on, and
access control mechanisms can be implemented at the session layer to ensure secure
communica on between applica ons.
Q. Explain Working of DNS
Ans - The Domain Name System (DNS) works as a distributed hierarchical system that
translates human-readable domain names (such as www.example.com) into IP addresses
(such as 192.0.2.1) that computers understand and use to communicate over a network. The
working of DNS involves several components and steps. Here is a simplified explana on of
how DNS works:
1. DNS Client Ini ates a Query: When a user types a domain name into a web browser or any
other applica on, the DNS client on their device ini ates a DNS query to resolve the domain
name into an IP address.
2. DNS Resolver: The DNS client sends the query to a DNS resolver. The resolver is typically
provided by the user's Internet Service Provider (ISP) or configured manually. The resolver acts
as an intermediary between the client and the DNS servers.
3. Recursive DNS Resolu on: The resolver starts the recursive resolu on process. It first
checks its cache to see if it already has the IP address for the requested domain name. If the
informa on is not available in the cache or the cache entry has expired, the resolver proceeds
with the resolu on process.
4. Contac ng Root DNS Servers: The resolver contacts one of the 13 root DNS servers. These
root servers have informa on about the top-level domains (TLDs), such as .com, .org, .net,
etc. The resolver queries the root server for the IP address of the authorita ve DNS server for
the requested domain's TLD.
5. TLD DNS Server: The resolver receives a response from the root server with the IP address
of the TLD's authorita ve DNS server. The resolver then contacts the TLD DNS server directly.
6. Authorita ve DNS Server: The TLD DNS server responds with the IP address of the
authorita ve DNS server responsible for the requested domain name. The resolver then
contacts the authorita ve DNS server.
7. DNS Record Lookup: The resolver sends a query to the authorita ve DNS server, reques ng
the IP address associated with the domain name.
8. DNS Response: The authorita ve DNS server responds with the requested IP address or an
error message if the domain name is invalid or not found.
9. Caching: The resolver receives the IP address from the authorita ve DNS server and caches
it for future use. Caching helps speed up subsequent queries for the same domain name.
10. DNS Response to the Client: The resolver returns the IP address to the DNS client, which
can then ini ate communica on with the server associated with the domain name.
it's important to note that DNS operates in a distributed manner, with mul ple DNS servers
involved in the resolu on process. Each DNS server holds a por on of the DNS database,
allowing efficient and scalable name resolu on across the internet.
Q. Write Notes on 1) FTP 2) HTTP
Ans - 1) FTP (File Transfer Protocol):
- FTP is a standard network protocol used for transferring files between a client and a server
over a TCP/IP network, such as the internet.
- It operates on the applica on layer of the TCP/IP protocol stack and follows a client-server
model.
- FTP uses separate control and data connec ons for file transfer. The control connec on is
established on TCP port 21 and is used for commands and responses, while the data
connec on is established on TCP port 20 (ac ve mode) or nego ated dynamically (passive
mode) for actual file transfer.
- FTP supports various opera ons such as uploading (put), downloading (get), renaming,
dele ng, crea ng directories, and lis ng directory contents.
- It provides authen ca on mechanisms for user login, including username and password
authen ca on or anonymous access for public file repositories.
- FTP can operate in two modes: ac ve and passive. In ac ve mode, the server ini ates the
data connec on, while in passive mode, the client ini ates the data connec on. Passive mode
is commonly used in situa ons where the client is behind a firewall or NAT (Network Address
Transla on).
- FTP can be secured using FTPS (FTP over SSL/TLS) or SFTP (SSH File Transfer Protocol) for
encrypted and secure file transfers.
- FTP is widely used for website hos ng, so ware distribu on, file sharing, and remote
administra on.
2) HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol):
- HTTP is an applica on-level protocol used for communica on between web browsers and
web servers.
- It operates on the applica on layer of the TCP/IP protocol stack and follows a client-server
model.
- HTTP is designed for the transfer of hypertext, which consists of structured text with
embedded hyperlinks.
- HTTP uses TCP as the underlying transport protocol and typically runs on port 80 for non-
secure connec ons (HTTP) and port 443 for secure connec ons (HTTPS).
- It follows a request-response model, where the client (web browser) sends an HTTP request
to the server, and the server responds with an HTTP response containing the requested data
or an appropriate status code.
- HTTP requests include methods such as GET (retrieve a resource), POST (submit data to be
processed), PUT (upload a resource), DELETE (remove a resource), and more.
- HTTP is stateless, meaning each request-response cycle is independent of previous
interac ons. However, cookies and session management mechanisms are used to maintain
stateful behavior if needed.
- HTTPS (HTTP Secure) is an extension of HTTP that uses SSL/TLS encryp on for secure
communica on. It provides confiden ality, integrity, and authen ca on of data exchanged
between the client and server.
- HTTP is the founda on of the World Wide Web and is responsible for retrieving web pages,
images, videos, and other resources. It has evolved over me, and the latest version is HTTP/2,
which brings improvements in performance and efficiency.
Q. Explain the Services of OSI Session layer and Session Management
Ans - The session layer in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnec on) model provides services
that facilitate the establishment, management, and termina on of communica on sessions
between applica ons. It ensures that data exchange between applica ons is organized and
coordinated effec vely. Here are the key services provided by the session layer:
1. Session Establishment: The session layer provides mechanisms for establishing sessions
between communica ng applica ons. It handles the necessary procedures to ini ate a
session, including authen ca on, authoriza on, and nego a on of session parameters.
2. Session Management: The session layer manages the ongoing communica on session
between applica ons. It handles the coordina on and synchroniza on of data exchange,
ensuring that the sender and receiver are in sync. Session management involves:
- Dialogue Control: The session layer manages the dialogues or conversa ons between
applica ons. It establishes rules and protocols for ini a ng, maintaining, and ending these
dialogues. This ensures proper coordina on and prevents conflicts or data corrup on due to
simultaneous access.
- Synchroniza on: The session layer provides synchroniza on mechanisms to maintain the
order and integrity of data exchanged during a session. It establishes synchroniza on points
that allow applica ons to verify the correctness of data received and recover from errors or
disrup ons.
- Checkpoin ng: Checkpoin ng allows the session layer to save the current state or progress
of a session. Checkpoints serve as reference points, enabling applica ons to recover from
failures or interrup ons by resuming the session from the last known checkpoint. This ensures
data integrity and avoids the need to restart the en re session.
- Token Management: Some session services involve token management, where a token is
passed between communica ng applica ons to control access to shared session resources.
The token determines which applica on has permission to send data, ensuring orderly and
controlled data exchange.
3. Session Termina on: The session layer provides mechanisms to gracefully terminate
sessions between applica ons. It handles the necessary procedures to close a session,
ensuring that all data is properly exchanged and resources are released.
4. Session Mul plexing: The session layer supports mul plexing, which allows mul ple
sessions to be established simultaneously over a single network connec on. Mul plexing
enables efficient u liza on of network resources and facilitates the parallel exchange of data
between different applica ons.
5. Session Security: The session layer may include security features to protect the
confiden ality, integrity, and availability of session data. Encryp on, authen ca on, and
access control mechanisms can be implemented to ensure secure communica on between
applica ons.
Q. What is DNS ? Explain the Element of DNS
Ans - DNS stands for Domain Name System. It is a hierarchical distributed naming system used
to translate human-readable domain names (such as www.example.com) into IP addresses
(such as 192.0.2.1) that computers use to communicate with each other over a network, such
as the internet. DNS plays a cri cal role in enabling the internet to func on by providing a
mapping between domain names and IP addresses. Here are the key elements of DNS:
1. DNS Servers: DNS servers are computers or network devices that store DNS records and
provide DNS services. There are different types of DNS servers, including:
- DNS Resolver: A resolver is responsible for querying DNS servers on behalf of client devices
to resolve domain names into IP addresses.
- Authorita ve DNS Server: An authorita ve server holds the actual DNS records for a
par cular domain. When a resolver receives a query for a domain, it contacts the authorita ve
server to obtain the IP address associated with the domain.
- Recursive DNS Server: A recursive server performs the en re DNS resolu on process on
behalf of the client. It contacts other DNS servers, star ng from the root server, to resolve the
requested domain.
2. DNS Zones: DNS zones are a way to organize and manage domain names and their
associated records. A zone represents a por on of the DNS namespace and is typically
associated with a domain. Each zone has an authorita ve DNS server that holds the records
for that zone.
3. DNS Records: DNS records are the key components of DNS. They contain informa on about
a domain and its associated IP addresses, mail servers, text descrip ons, and other data.
Common DNS record types include:
- A (Address) Record: Maps a domain name to an IPv4 address.
- AAAA (IPv6 Address) Record: Maps a domain name to an IPv6 address.
- CNAME (Canonical Name) Record: Creates an alias for a domain name, poin ng it to
another domain.
- MX (Mail Exchanger) Record: Specifies the mail servers responsible for accep ng incoming
email for a domain.
- TXT (Text) Record: Allows arbitrary text to be associated with a domain, commonly used
for verifica on or authen ca on purposes.
- NS (Name Server) Record: Specifies the authorita ve DNS servers for a domain.
4. DNS Resolu on Process: When a client device wants to resolve a domain name, it follows
a DNS resolu on process, which involves querying DNS servers in a hierarchical manner. The
process typically includes the following steps:
- The client sends a DNS query to a resolver, typically provided by the Internet Service
Provider (ISP).
- The resolver starts the resolu on process by contac ng the root DNS servers to determine
the authorita ve server for the top-level domain (TLD) in the domain name.
- The resolver then contacts the authorita ve server for the TLD to obtain the IP address of
the authorita ve server for the next level domain.
- This process con nues recursively un l the authorita ve server for the requested domain
is found, and the IP address associated with the domain is returned to the client.
Q. Explain Working of 1) FTP 2) HTTP
Ans - 1) FTP (File Transfer Protocol) Working:
FTP is a standard network protocol used for transferring files between a client and a server.
Here's how FTP works:
- FTP operates on the client-server model, where a client ini ates a connec on to a server to
perform file transfer opera ons.
- The client establishes a TCP connec on with the FTP server using the default control port 21.
- The client sends commands to the server over the control connec on, instruc ng it to
perform specific opera ons such as lis ng directories, uploading files, or downloading files.
- The server responds to the client's commands with status codes and messages, indica ng
the success or failure of the requested opera on.
- For file transfer, FTP uses separate data connec ons. In ac ve mode, the client ini ates the
data connec on on port 20, and the server connects back to the client's IP address. In passive
mode, the server provides the client with its IP address and port to establish the data
connec on.
- Once the data connec on is established, the actual file transfer occurs over the data
connec on. The client and server exchange the file data in the form of data packets.
- A er the file transfer is complete, the control connec on remains open, allowing the client
to send further commands or ini ate addi onal file transfers.
- Finally, when the client finishes its FTP session, it sends the "QUIT" command to the server,
and the server closes the control connec on.
2) HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) Working:
HTTP is a protocol used for communica on between web browsers and web servers. Here's
how HTTP works:
- HTTP operates on the client-server model, where a client (typically a web browser) ini ates
a request to a server and the server responds with the requested data.
- The client sends an HTTP request to the server using a TCP connec on. The request includes
the requested resource's URL, along with addi onal headers and op onal request body data.
- The server receives the HTTP request and interprets it based on the specified method, such
as GET, POST, PUT, DELETE, etc.
- The server processes the request, performs the necessary opera ons, and generates an HTTP
response. The response includes a status code indica ng the success or failure of the request,
along with response headers and the response body containing the requested data.
- The server sends the HTTP response back to the client over the established TCP connec on.
- Upon receiving the response, the client's web browser processes the response, renders the
content, and displays it to the user.
- If addi onal resources (e.g., images, scripts) are required to render the page, the client may
send subsequent HTTP requests to retrieve those resources.
- The client and server may con nue this request-response cycle for further interac ons, with
the client sending addi onal requests and the server responding accordingly.
- Either the client or the server can choose to close the TCP connec on a er the response is
received or keep it open for further requests.
Q. What is HTTP ? Explain General Structure of HTTP
Ans - HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) is an applica on protocol widely used for
communica on between web browsers and web servers. It enables the retrieval of resources,
such as HTML pages, images, videos, and more, over the internet. HTTP follows a client-server
model, where a client (typically a web browser) sends requests to a server, and the server
responds with the requested data.
The general structure of an HTTP request and response consists of the following components:
HTTP Request:
1. Request Line: The request line specifies the HTTP method, the requested URL (Uniform
Resource Locator), and the HTTP version. For example:
- GET /index.html HTTP/1.1
2. Request Headers: Request headers provide addi onal informa on about the request, such
as the host, user-agent, content-type, and more. Example headers include:
- Host: www.example.com
- User-Agent: Mozilla/5.0 (Windows NT 10.0; Win64; x64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like
Gecko) Chrome/91.0.4472.124 Safari/537.36
- Content-Type: applica on/json
3. Request Body (Op onal): In some cases, the request may include a body that contains data
sent by the client to the server. This is commonly used in HTTP methods like POST or PUT for
sending form data, JSON payloads, etc.
HTTP Response:
1. Status Line: The status line consists of the HTTP version, a three-digit status code indica ng
the outcome of the request, and a brief status message. For example:
- HTTP/1.1 200 OK2. Response Headers: Response headers contain addi onal informa on
2.about the response, such as the server type, content-type, cache-control, and more.
Example headers include:
- Server: Apache/2.4.29 (Ubuntu)
- Content-Type: text/html; charset=UTF-8
- Cache-Control: no-cache, private
3. Response Body: The response body contains the requested data or the result of the
requested opera on, such as an HTML page, an image file, JSON data, etc.
3) NT12 is a single piece of equipment that combines functions of NT1 and NT2. The ISDN service
provider owns NT12.
Q. Explain Different Types of Modes Used in FTP
Ans - FTP (File Transfer Protocol) supports two different modes of opera on: the Ac ve mode
(PORT) and the Passive mode (PASV). These modes determine how the FTP client and server
establish data connec ons for file transfers. Here's an explana on of each mode:
1. Ac ve Mode (PORT):
In Ac ve mode, the FTP client ini ates a data connec on to the FTP server. The process is as
follows:
- The FTP client establishes a control connec on to the FTP server on port 21.
- When the client wants to transfer a file, it sends a PORT command over the control
connec on, specifying the IP address and port number on which it will listen for the incoming
data connec on.
- The FTP server receives the PORT command and ini ates a separate data connec on from
port 20 on its side to the IP address and port number specified by the client.
- The FTP client accepts the incoming data connec on and the actual file transfer occurs over
this connec on.
- A er the file transfer is complete, the data connec on is closed, but the control connec on
remains open for further commands.
Ac ve mode may encounter issues when the FTP client is behind a firewall or Network Address
Transla on (NAT) device. The client's listening port specified in the PORT command may not
be accessible by the server, leading to connec on failures.
2. Passive Mode (PASV):
In Passive mode, the FTP server opens a listening port and waits for the FTP client to establish
the data connec on. The process is as follows:
- The FTP client establishes a control connec on to the FTP server on port 21.
- When the client wants to transfer a file, it sends a PASV command over the control
connec on.
- The FTP server receives the PASV command and responds with an IP address and port
number on which it is listening for the data connec on.
- The FTP client ini ates a separate data connec on to the IP address and port specified by
the server.
- The actual file transfer occurs over this data connec on.
- A er the file transfer is complete, the data connec on is closed, but the control connec on
remains open for further commands.
Passive mode is o en preferred in situa ons where the FTP client is behind a firewall or NAT
device. It allows the server to specify an accessible IP address and port for the client to connect
to.
Q. Explain Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN) in Detail.
Ans - Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN) is an evolu on of the Integrated Services Digital Network
(ISDN) that provides higher bandwidth and enhanced capabili es for transmi ng voice,
data, and mul media content. B-ISDN is designed to meet the increasing demand for high-
speed communica on services. Here is a detailed explana on of Broadband ISDN:
1. Increased Bandwidth:
B-ISDN offers significantly higher bandwidth compared to tradi onal ISDN. While ISDN
provides data rates of up to 2 Mbps, B-ISDN can support much higher data rates ranging
from several Mbps to several Gbps. This increased bandwidth enables faster data transfer
and supports the transmission of mul media content such as high-defini on video and
audio streams.
2. Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM):
B-ISDN is based on the Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) technology. ATM is a cell-based
switching and mul plexing technique that allows for the efficient transmission of various
types of data, including voice, video, and data. ATM divides data into fixed-size cells and
provides high-speed, reliable, and flexible transmission of these cells across the network.
3. Quality of Service (QoS):
B-ISDN incorporates Quality of Service mechanisms to ensure the efficient and reliable
delivery of different types of traffic. QoS provisions include traffic priori za on, bandwidth
alloca on, and conges on control. These mechanisms guarantee that me-sensi ve traffic,
such as real- me video and voice, receives higher priority and experiences minimal delay or
packet loss.
4. Scalability and Flexibility:
B-ISDN offers scalability to accommodate the growing demands of bandwidth-intensive
applica ons. It provides the flexibility to allocate different amounts of bandwidth to different
services based on their requirements. This enables efficient u liza on of network resources
and ensures op mal performance for diverse applica ons.
5. Mul media Services:
B-ISDN supports the transmission of mul media services, including high-quality voice, video,
and data. It enables real- me videoconferencing, mul media streaming, and interac ve
mul media applica ons over the network. B-ISDN's high bandwidth and QoS mechanisms
ensure the seamless delivery of mul media content without degrada on in quality.
6. Network Integra on:
B-ISDN integrates different types of networks and services into a single network
infrastructure. It enables the convergence of voice, data, and video networks, elimina ng
the need for separate networks for each service. This integra on simplifies network
management, reduces costs, and enhances the interoperability of various services.
7. Broadband Access Technologies:
B-ISDN supports various broadband access technologies to connect end-users to the
network. These technologies include Digital Subscriber Line (DSL), Cable Modem, Fiber
Op cs, Wireless, and more. B-ISDN accommodates different access methods and provides
high-speed connec vity to a wide range of devices and applica ons.
Q. Explain The Architecture of FTP
Ans - The architecture of FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is based on a client-server model, where
a client applica on communicates with a server applica on to transfer files over a network.
The FTP architecture involves the following components:
1. FTP Client:
The FTP client is an applica on running on a user's computer or device that ini ates the file
transfer opera ons. It interacts with the FTP server to send commands, receive responses,
and transfer files. The client provides a user interface or programma c interface to interact
with the FTP server.
2. FTP Server:
The FTP server is an applica on running on a remote computer or server that listens for
incoming FTP connec ons and handles file transfer requests from clients. It receives
commands from clients, executes them, and sends back responses. The server manages file
storage, authen ca on, and authoriza on for clients.
3. Control Connec on:
The control connec on is a persistent TCP connec on established between the FTP client and
server on well-known port 21. It is used for sending commands, receiving responses, and
exchanging control informa on. The control connec on handles tasks such as user
authen ca on, nego a on of transfer parameters, and control of file transfer opera ons.
4. Data Connec on:
The data connec on is a temporary TCP connec on established between the FTP client and
server for transferring file data. FTP uses separate data connec ons for file transfers.
Depending on the mode (ac ve or passive) being used, the client or server ini ates the data
connec on. Data connec ons are opened and closed as needed during file transfers.
5. FTP Commands and Responses:
FTP uses a set of commands and responses to communicate between the client and server
over the control connec on. Commands are sent by the client to request specific ac ons, such
as lis ng directories, uploading files, or downloading files. The server responds to these
commands with status codes and messages indica ng the success or failure of the requested
opera on.
6. File System:
The FTP server manages the file system where files are stored. It provides access to directories
and files based on user authen ca on and authoriza on. The server supports commands to
navigate directories, create directories, upload files, download files, rename files, delete files,
and perform other file-related opera ons.
7. User Authen ca on and Authoriza on:
FTP supports various methods for user authen ca on and authoriza on. Common methods
include username/password authen ca on, anonymous access, and secure authen ca on
mechanisms such as SSL/TLS. The server verifies the client's creden als and determines the
permissions granted to the client for accessing files and directories.
*************************************
Q. Write a Note on ISDN Protocol
Ans - ISDN communications can be described at many levels, from the way bits are
transferred from machine to machine to the sets of messages computers pass to one
another. A scheme for communication at a certain level is called a protocol.
In the late 1970's, the International Standards Organization (ISO) established the Open
Systems Interconnect (OSI) model for communication. ISDN is based on this model. In
OSI, seven separate levels, or layers, of communication are defined. The first three layers,
called the chained layers, are the lowest levels. The following table describes the chained
layers:
Layer Description
Physical The electrical and mechanical layer. Protocols for this layer describe,
layer from an electrical and mechanical perspective, the methods used to
(layer 1) transfer bits from one device to another. A protocol used at this layer
is CCITT recommendation I.430/I.431.
Data link The layer above the physical layer. Protocols for this layer describe
layer methods for error-free communication between devices across the
(layer 2) physical link. A protocol used at this layer is CCITT recommendation
Q.921, also known as Link Access Procedures on the D channel (LAPD).
Network The layer above the data link layer. Protocols for this layer describe
layer methods for transferring information between computers. They also
(layer 3) describe how data is routed within and between networks. A protocol
used at this layer is CCITT recommendation Q.931.
Layers higher than these are end-to-end layers. They describe how information is
exchanged and delivered end-to-end. They also define process-to-process communication,
and describe application-independent user services, as well as user interfaces and
applications.
The following illustration shows the OSI protocol layering model:
Q. Explain the Architecture of ISDN
Ans - ISDN system architecture is shown in Figure 27.2. If the subscriber has an ISDN telephone, an
ISDN terminal, and an ISDN PBX, they are connected to the network termina on-1 (NT1), and NT1 is
in turn connected to the ISDN switch. Non-ISDN equipment such as a PSTN telephone, or a normal
computer can be connected to the ISDN interfaces through a terminal adapter (TA).
ensure that the ISDN-compliant equipment as well as the legacy equipment can be connected through
standard interfaces, various interfaces are defined as shown in Figure
The Advantages of this approach are
 Interface standards can be developed at each reference point.
 Improvements/modifications on one piece of equipment do not have an effect on the other
equipment.
 The subscriber is free to procure equipment from different suppliers.
Terminal equipment: Terminal equipment is of two types—TE1 and TE2.
1. TE1 devices support standard ISDN interfaces such as a digital telephone, integrated voice/data
terminals, and digital fax machines.
2. TE2 devices are the present non-ISDN equipment such as PC with RS232 interface computer with
an X.25 interface. A terminal adapter (TA) is required to interface the TE2 devices with the ISDN
network.
Reference Points
1) Reference point T (terminal): This reference point corresponds to a minimal ISDN network
termination at the subscriber premises. It separates the ISDN service provider's equipment from
the user's equipment.
2) Reference point S (system): This reference point corresponds to the interface of individual ISDN
terminals and separates the user terminal equipment from network-related communication
functions.
3) Reference point R (rate): This reference point provides a non-ISDN interface between user
equipment that is not ISDN compatible and adapter equipment (such as an RS232 interface to
connect an existing PC to ISDN through a terminal adapter).
4) Reference point U: This reference point provides the interface between the ISDN switch and the
network termination-1.
Network terminations:
Three types of network terminations are defined—NT1, NT2, and NT12.
1) NT1 includes functions associated with physical and electrical terminations of ISDN at user
premises. This corresponds to OSI layer 1. NT1 may be controlled by an ISDN service provider and
forms a boundary to the network. NT1 also performs line maintenance functions such as loop-
back testing and performance monitoring. At NT1, the bit streams from different terminals are
multiplexed using synchronous TDM. NT1 can support multiple devices in a multidrop
arrangement
2) NT2 is an intelligent device that can perform switching functions. It includes functionality up to
layer 3 of the OSI model. Equipment such as a digital PBX and a local area network (LAN) are
examples of NT2 devices.
Q. Explain the Transmission Structure of ISDN
Ans - ISDN Interface
The ISDN bit pipe supports mul ple channels interleaved by me division mul plexing.
Several channel have been standardized:
1) A: 4 kHz analog telephone channel.
2) B: 64 kbps digital PCM channel for voice or data.
3) C: 8 or 16kbps digital channel for out-of-band signaling.
4) D: 16 kbps digital channel for out-of-band signaling.
5) E: 64 kbps digital channel for internal ISDN signaling.
6) H: 384, 1,536, or 1,920kbps digital channel.
Transmission Structure
The digital pipe between central office and ISDN subscriber carries a number of
communica on channels, varying from user to user according to user's requirements:
1) Digital pipe between central office and ISDN subscriber will be used to carry a number of
communica on channels. The capacity of the pipe and the number of channels carried, may
vary from user to user.
2) The transmission structure of access links includes channel of:
i) B-Channel: 64 kbps
ii) D-Channel: 16 or 64 kbps
iii) H-Channel: 384 (Ho), 1536 (H1) or 1920 (H12) kbps
Q, Explain the principle of ISDN
Ans - Principles of ISDN
The various principles of ISDN as per ITU-T recommenda on are:
1) To Support Voice and Non-Voice Applica ons: The main feature of the ISDN concept is the
support of a wide range of voice (for e.g. Telephone calls) & non-voice (for e.g. digital data
exchange) applica ons in the same network.
2) To Support Switched and Non-Switched Applica ons: ISDN supports both circuit switching
and packet switching. In addi on ISDN supports non-switched services in the form of
dedicated lines.
3) Reliance on 64-kbps Connec ons: ISDN provides circuit switched and packet switched
connec ons at 64 kbps. This is the fundamental building of ISDN. This rate was chosen because
at the me, it was standard rate for digi zed voice.
4) Intelligence in the Network: An ISDN is expected to provide sophis cated services beyond
the simple setup of circuit switched calls. These services include maintenance and network
management func ons.
5) Layered Protocol Architecture: A layered protocol structure should be used for the
specifica on of the access to an ISDN. Such a structure can be mapped into OSI model.
6) Variety of Configura ons: Several configura ons are possible for implemen ng ISDN. This
allows for differences in na onal policy, in state of technology and in the needs and exis ng
equipment of the customer base.
Q. Explain the Different Services Provided by B- ISDN
Ans - Broadband ISDN Services
1) Interac ve Services: Interac ve services are those services which need two-way transfers
between either two subscribers or between a subscriber and a service provider. The
interac ve services are:
i) Conversa onal: Services that support real me data exchange (phone class,
videoconferencing, real me transfer)..
ii) Messaging: These services are store-and- forward services (voice mail, data mail, video
mail).
iii) Retrieval: Informa on are retrieved from a central source (libraries, shared resources).
2) Distribu ve Services: Distribu ve services are of simplex communica on form which is sent
from a service provider to subscribers. The subscriber does not have to transmit a request
each me a service is desired. These services can be without or with user control. The
distribu ve services are:
i) Without User Control: Commercial TV. programming contents and mes. are decided by
provider.
ii) With User Control
a) Pay TV, and
b) Educa onal broadcas ng.
Q. Explain B-ISDN Architecture
Ans - B-ISDN: Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN) is a broad-based a empt to set up a single unified,
worldwide high- speed network, to replace the mul plicity of the exis ng networks. This new
universal network is intended to take over the func ons of current speech, data, television,
and all other communica on facili es.
B-ISDN is mainly based on the concepts already developed for ISDN. The evolu on of B-ISDN
enables the development of new and advanced services in the near future.
Since the B-ISDN is based on overall ISDN concepts, the ISDN access reference configura on
is also the basis for the B-ISDN reference configura on.
Figure shows the Architecture of B-ISDN. B-ISDN must, of course, support all of the 64-Kbps
transmission services, both circuit switching and packet switching, which are supported by
narrow-band ISDN.