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1. WHAT IS COLLOCATION?
A. What are collocations?
 A collocation is a combination of two or more words that frequently
occur together.
 Collocations are not just a matter of how adjectives combine with
nouns. They can refer to any kind of typical word combination, for
example, verb+ noun (e.g. arouse someone’s interest, lead a
seminar), adverb + adjective (e.g. fundamentally different), adverb
+ verb (e.g. flatly contradict), noun + noun (e.g. a lick of paint, a
team of experts, words of wisdom). There is much more about
different grammatical types of collocation.
 Phrasal verbs and compound nouns are sometimes described as types
of collocations. However, it is not always easy to separate collocations
and compounds
B. Why is it important to learn collocations?
An appreciation of collocation will help you to:
 Use the words you know more accurately
In other words, you’ll make (NOT do) fewer mistakes.
 Sound more natural when you speak and write
 Vary your speech and, probably more importantly, your writing
Instead of repeating everyday words like very, good, or nice, you will
be able to exploit a wider range of language.
 Understand when a skillful writer departs from normal patterns of
collocation
A journalist, poet, advertiser, or another inventive user of language
often creates an effect by not choosing the expected collocation.
 2. STRONG, FIXED, AND WEAK
COLLOCATIONS

A. Strong collocations:
Collocation Comment
(very formal) = unpleasant weather
Inclement weather was
Inclement collocates almost exclusively with the
expected.
weather.
Auburn collocates only with words connected
She has auburn hair.
with hair (e.g. curls, tresses, locks).
= extremely happy
I felt deliriously happy. Strongly associated with happiness. Not used
with glad, content, sad, etc.
= have a pause or rest during a meeting/trial
The Chairperson
Adjourn is very strongly associated with
adjourned the meeting.
meetings and editorial trials.

B. Fixed collocations:
 Fixed collocations are collocations so strong that they cannot be changed
in any way. The meaning of some fixed collocations cannot be guessed
from the individual words. These collocations are called idioms.
C. Weak collocations:
 Weak collocations are made up of words that collocate with a wide range
of other words. For example, you can say you are in broad agreement
with someone [generally in agreement with them]. However, broad can
also be used with several words – a broad avenue, a broad smile,
broad shoulders, a broad accent [a strong accent], a broad hint [a
 strong hint], and so on. These are weak collocations, in the sense that
broad collocates with a broad range of different nouns.
 Strong collocations and weak collocations form a continuum, with
stronger ones at one end and weaker ones at the other. Most collocations
lie somewhere between the two.
 3. GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES OF
COLLOCATIONS

A. Verb + noun:

Verb Noun Example Meaning of Verb

prepare something,
a list Our lawyer drew up a
draw up usually official, in
a contract contract for us to sign.
writing
I didn’t want to pass up
a chance the chance of seeing fail to take
pass up
an opportunity Hong Kong, so I agreed to advantage of
go on the trip.
The police officer’s vest
pressure
withstand can withstand the impact bear
the impact
of a bullet.

B. Noun + Verb:

Noun Verb Example

opportunit An opportunity arose for me to work in China, so I
arise
y went and spent a year there.
People feel educational standards slipped when the
standards slip
government cut finances.

C. Noun + Noun:
 Noun + noun collocations used to describe groups or sets:
There’s been a spate of attacks/thefts in our area recently. [unusually
large number happening in close succession]
 The minister had to put up with a barrage of questions/insults from the
angry audience. [unusually large number, happening at the same time]

 Noun + noun collocations used with uncountable nouns:

By a stroke of luck, I found my keys in the rubbish bin! [sudden,
unexpected piece of luck]

She gave me a snippet of information that is top secret. [small piece of

information]

D. Adjective + Noun:
 This is not an idle threat; I will call the police if this happens again!
[simply a threat]
 He waited in the vain hope that the minister would meet him. [unlikely to
be fulfilled hope]
 The simple/plain truth is that no one was aware of the problem.
E. Adverb + Adjective:
 The article provides an intensely personal account of the writer’s
relationship with his sons.
 Joe’s sister was a stunningly attractive woman.
F. Verb + Adverb or prepositional phrase:
 The teenager tried to persuade his mother that he was innocent but he
failed miserably.
 I don’t like to travel with my brother because he drives recklessly.
[wildly, without care]
 As soon as the singer came on stage she burst into song.

G. More Complex Collocations:

 Mary was looking forward to retiring and taking it easy for a while.
 It’s time you put the past behind you and started focusing on the future.
 4. FINDING AND WORKING ON
COLLOCATIONS IN TEXT

A. Finding collocations:
 faces the challenge
 gaining the respect
 winning the battle
 pending the results: (formal) as long as he achieves successful results
 milestone passed: major life event behind him
 make a difference
 difficult to pin down: hard to fix or place
 provide something entertainment
 got the chance
 grab a seat
 take a boat
B. Recording collocations:
translation the outcome
simultaneous pending the results
equation the response

and weak ones in collocation bubbles (because there are so many more of
them)

value: novelty/practical/sentimental/place great/assess something’s

source: reliable/valuable/cheap/rich/of entertainment/of income/of funding
 5. REGISTER

A. Finding collocations:

Example Register Comment

The police are investigating
/looking into the arms deal. neutral context

The cops are trying to dig Phcontextrbs are often an

out info about the arms informal informal alternative – although
deal. some are neutral.
The police are conducting Longer words of Latin
an investigation into the formal investigating more formal
arms deal. language.
Probe is typical of newspaper
Police to probe arms deal A probe
headline style.
The arms deal may be Subject to investigation is
formal, legal,
subject to a police typical of a bureaucratic or legal
and official
investigation. style.

B. Formal versus neutral collocation:

Formal (from official documents)
Students must submit their
assignments by 1 May
Students may request an extension
after consulting their tutor.
Neutral (spoken)
‘You have to hand in your
assignments by 1 May.’
‘You can ask for an extension after
you’ve talked to / had a word with
your tutor.

C. Informal versus neutral collocations:

 That film was totally awesome! (mainly used by teenagers,
predominantly US) [neutral equivalent: absolutely amazing/fantastic]
 That party was well good! (Well used to mean ‘very’/‘really’, mainly by
younger UK speakers.) I haven’t a clue / the foggiest idea what you
mean. [neutral equivalent: I have no idea]
 6. METAPHOR

A. Metaphors based on the body:

Collocation Meaning Example
You’re never going to run in
face (up to) the facts accepted reality the Olympics. It’s time you
faced (up to) the facts.
Although others were also
take responsibility for responsible for the problem,
shoulder the blame
something bad Alice decided to shoulder the
blame.
Choose what you like from the
foot the bill paying menu – the company is footing
the bill.
Jo heads a team working on
head a team leads a project group
crime prevention.
keep someone on makes her stay active Having three sons under the age
their toes and concentrated of five keeps Jana on her toes.
Gina has an eye for detail, so
have an eye for is good at noticing ask her to check the report.
go hand in hand happens at the same Unemployment goes hand in
with time or as a result of hand with social unrest.

B. Metaphors based on weight:

 Heavy responsibility.
 Weighty tome
 Weighty matters
 Weighty problems
 Light reading
  Light heart
 Slim chance
 Fat chance
C. Metaphors based on movement:
 ran into difficulties
 hopping mad: (informal) extremely angry
 walked straight into a job: got a job very easily
 jumped to the conclusion
 hit the rocks: ended (metaphor based on a boat being destroyed on rocks)
 7. INTENSIFYING AND SOFRENING ADVERBS
 deeply offensive. (intensifier – very/extremely)
 slightly offensive. (softener – a little bit)
A. Intensifying adverbs:
 spotlessly clean
 downright rude
 thoroughly ashamed
 blatantly obvious
 wildly exaggerated
 wildly inaccurate
B. Softening adverbs:
 slightly different [weak collocation; slightly can be used with a wide
range of adjectives]
 mildly surprised [mildly also collocates with amusing/ed, irritating/ed,
offensive]
 loosely based on [loosely also collocates with centred, structured, related,
connected]
 faintly ridiculous [fairly formal; faintly also collocates with amused,
surprised, patronising, absurd]
C. Alternatives to very:
Alternatives to very  NOT
unlikely, educated, appreciate, influence,
highly
recommended interesting
strongly influence appreciate
greatly appreciate, influence
utterly absurd, ridiculous sorry, busy, glad, lonely
completely/totally/ different, dependent,
entirely separate
 thoroughly enjoy

8. Make AND VERBS THAT MEAN make

A. Common errors with make:

 I would like to do/give some suggestions – make some suggestions
 I think that I could have/give a contribution to the project – make a
contribution
 I expect you to give a formal apology – make a formal apology
 There is still some way to go and lots of improvements to do –
improvements to make
 Sometimes candidates use make where another verb is required. For
example:
 We’re going to make a party on Saturday – have a party
 Lana made some interesting research into her family roots – did …
research
B. Other exprssion with make:
 Make a habit of
 Make enemies
 Made attemps
 Make a success of
 Make an escape
 Make discovery
 Make calculations
 Make room for
 Make his acquaintance
 Make an offer
 Make a proposal
 Make a stand against
C. Other verbs that mean make:
Collocation Example Comment
Wear your grey suit to the slightly more formal
create a good/bad
interview if you want to create than make an
impression
a good impression. impression
more formal than
create a (+ adj.) The lanterns in the garden
make for a romantic
atmosphere create a romantic atmosphere.
atmosphere
The students staged a protest = make a formal
stage a protest
against rising tuition fees. protest
Several people have lodged a
= make a formal
lodge a complaint complaint about the
complaint
receptionist’s rudeness.

It took Sam ten minutes to (informal) = make a

rustle up a meal
rustle up a meal. meal very quickly

This weekend I’m going to run

= make quickly using a
run up curtains up some curtains for my new
sewing machine
room.

This month our company

slightly more informal
turn a profit should turn a profit for the
than make a profit
first time.

I wonder who coined the term = invent / make up a

coin a phrase
‘blogging’. new phrase
 9. COMMUNICATING

A. Collocations with say, speak, talk and tell:

 Wouldn’t say no to
 Needless to say/ It goes without saying that
 Didn’t say a word
 Generally speaking
 Strictly speaking
 Speaks very highly
 Speak properly
 Talked business
 Talking nonsense
 Talking a lot of sense
 Tell a secret
 Tell his fortune

B. Collocations meaning communicate:

Example Comment
I asked why she didn’t trust him but she wouldn’t
NOT say a reason
give me a reason.
The charity states its aim as being to help (formal) also state your
underprivileged children. purpose/goal
The staff on reception required each visitor to
(formal) = say what their
state their business before issuing them with an
intentions are
entry permit.
In her lecture Lucia gave an account of her trip to used about both speech
the Andes. and writing
The speech got the message about the policy (informal) = conveyed
changes across. the idea
I declare Hiroshi Yamamoto the winner of the (formal) statement made
gold medal. at the time of the win
(formal) used when
He was pronounced dead at 1.10. making an official
statement of death
(formal) = transfer
The old man tried to impart his knowledge to his
knowledge; also impart
sons.
wisdom
(formal) = make
That journalist gets amazing stories but he won’t
something secret known;
divulge his sources.
also divulge a secret
(formal) = spreading
The internet is a powerful means of disseminating
information to a lot of
information.
people
(formal) = officially
We notified the police of the burglary.
informed
Although found guilty, Robson continued to (formal) = insist he was
protest his innocence. not guilty
(formal) = claimed –
He professed ignorance of the dent to the car but
perhaps insincerely – that
I think he was lying.
he did not know
Did you break the news to her that her mother is used for news that is very
in prison? upsetting
 10. COLLOCATIONS WITH PHRASAL VERBS

A. News items:
 abide by the decision: (formal) accept the decision
 take up office: (formal) start work in an official position
 acting on a tip-off: a secret warning
 filed for divorce: made an official request for a divorce
 come down heavily on punish very severely
B. Everyday conversation:
 soaking up the atmosphere
 free up some time
 keeping up my Spanish
 work up an appetite
 fit in
 with my plans
 live up to my expectations
C. Other phrasal verbs with strong collocations:
 burst into laughter/tears [suddenly start to laugh/cry]
 Dip into savings/funds [spend part of some money that was being saved]
 jot down an address / a phone number / a room number [write down
quickly]
 see off an intruder/opponent [get rid of, defeat]
 adhere to principles / beliefs / ideals / a philosophy [formal: continue to
maintain a belief]
 11. WORKING LIFE

A. EMILY:
 make a living: earn enough to live (can also be used just to refer to one’s
job and how one earns one’s money: She makes a living as a hairdresser
 aspects of the job
 maternity leave
 do a job-share: a situation where two people share equal parts of the
same job
 lay off staff: dismiss staff because there is no work for them to do
 go freelance: work for several different organizations rather than working
full-time for one organization
 earn a good living
B. BEN:
 practised medicine: worked as a doctor
 carve a niche for myself: make a special position for myself
 opposite number: someone doing the same job in a different location
 took up the post: started work
C. JULIA:
 putting together my CV: CV = curriculum vitae, a written description of
your education, qualifications, skills, and career
 fast-track scheme: a system for rapid training and promotion of talented
staff
 moving up the ladder: being promoted
 had a change of heart: my attitude or mood changed
 get my priorities right: give importance to the right aspects of life
 take priority over be more important to me than
 12. NEW EMPLOYMENT

A. Discussing job applicants:

 fit the job description
 taking up references
 working as a team
 taking on responsibility
 taken industrial action: gone on strike
 relieved of his duties: (formal) dismissed
 wrongfully dismissed: (formal, legal) unfairly dismissed
 pencil in a meeting
 clear my desk: deal with all the papers on one’s desk (also used 2 (formal)
dismissed when someone is clearing their desk because they 3 (formal,
legal) unfairly dismissed are leaving their job)
B. Conversation about a new job:
 landed a new job: (informal) got a new (and usually a good) job
 living wage: enough money to live on
 overtime unpaid
 throw a sickie: (informal) take a day off work pretending to be sick
 getting the sack: (informal) being dismissed
 sweated labour: workers who are paid very little and work in very bad
conditions
 realize his potential: achieve all that he is capable of
 stay the course: remain there until he is successful
 13. THOUGHTS AND IDEAS

A. Talking about thoughts:

 Honestly think: ... [NOT strongly think]
 Give it some thought
 Bear in mind: remember
 It’s common knowledge: everyone knows
 Grasped the importance of: understand hơ important something is
 Take a view: believe
 A foregone conclusion
 Rough idea: general idea
 Subscribe to the theory: hold the opinion
 Widespread belief: generally held view
 Opinions are devided: people hold iferent views
 My firm conviction: I am totally convinced
B. Judging:

Collocation Meaning Example

Don’t judge him too
judge someone be very cratical of
harshly. He really couldn’t
harshly someone
have done things differntly.
Deciding to set up a business
poor judgement now shows poor judgement
of the economic situation.
Di’s quick to pass
pass judgement judgement on other people
to criticise
on but she’s far from perfect
herself.
I finally agreed to go out
against your despite the knowledge that
with him, against my better
better judgement something is a bad idea
judgement.
 Her approach to the recent
a lack of an inability to judge a discipline problems in school
judgement situation wisely showed a lack of
judgement.

an error of Promoting Alex was a

bad decision
judgement serious error of judgement.

C. Metaphors of thinking:
 Thinking laterally: approaching a problem in an imagineative and
original way rather than using a traditional approach
 Fertile imagination: one that produces lots of original and interesting
ideas
 Wrestle with a problem: stuggle to find a solution
 Nagging doubt: an unpleasant feeling of doubt that will not go away
 Fuelling speculation: encouraging people to consider that something may
be true
 Jump to conclusions: guess the facts about a situation without having
enough information
 14. BUSINESS REPORTS

A. Business news:
 Announce record profits
 Decline in demand
 Fierce competition : [NOT high competition]
 Meeting target
 Go into production: start being made
 Boost sales and profits
 Stimulate growth
 Allocating a part of st’s budget
 Chair the committee
 Unique selling points
 Pay dividends: bring advantage
 Make sound business sense
 Maintain quality
 Promote the interests
 Satisfying the demands of ... target market
 Emergency meeting
 Hike in price: ̣(journalistic) rise in prices
 Affect the bottom line: affect the net income
 Set ourselves clear objectives
 Balance the books: make sure the amount spent is not more than the
amount earned
 Calling in the receivers: going bankrupt
B. Describing trends:

 Showed/saw/experienced [NOT had] + sales/profits/the

market/exports/imports/a rise/a fall/a decline/a growth
 15. MARKETING

A. What is marketing?
 conduct/carry out market research
 focus group: a group of potential customers who give their opinions
about a product, brand, packaging, etc.
 Consumer behaviour
 Buying habits
 Income bracket: a section of the population classified according to their
level of income
 Market segmentation: the way the amrket is divided into different
consumer groups and the differences between them
 Demographic profile: information such as the age, gender and
occupation of a group of people
 Customer relationship management (CRM): the strategies that
companies use to analyse and manage their contact with customers
B. Getting the message across:
 Reach target audience
 Product placement: a company pays for their product to be featured in a
fo=ilm
 Guerrilla marketing: a company promotes their products in an
unconventional way, often on a low budget
 In marketing team
 Brand identity: how a business wants to be seen by its customers
 Build brand awareness: increase knowledge of a brand among potential
customer
 Went viral : become very popular through social media
 Free airtime: time featured on e.g. TV, without payment
 Press converage: reporting in the press
 Celebrity endorsement: a famous person is paid to promote a product
 Engage with customers: communicate with customers
 16. CUSTOMER SERVICES

A. Shopping online or on the high street:

 Carry out surveys: do surveys
 Fit for purpose: good at doing what it is supposed to do
 Make a complaint
 Offer a discount
 Place an order
 Healthy competition
B. Complaining about service:
 Kick up – a fuss: make a very forcible complaint
 Take my custom elsewhere: not buy from the same place again
 A full refund: ask for all my money back [NOT strong demand - strong
enough]
C. Company promise:
 Ground for complaint: a reason for complaining
 Honour all commitments: do what we said we should do
 Conform to safety regulations: obey all the rules or laws relating to
safety
 Come up to standard: reach appropriate standards
 17. STUDENT LIFE

A. Courses and qualifications:

 Mental agility: ability to think quickly and clearly
 Straight-A student: a student who always gét very good marks
 Apply to: formally requested a place at
 Read English Literature: do or study (formal and increasingly old-
fashioned)
 Core subjects: subjects which all students on the course have to do
 Set texts: specific books which students must study
 Leading authorities
 Sign up for ... courses = enroll on ... courses
B. Harry’s school report:
 A marked improvement
 Full marks: 100%
 Concentration wavers: concentration is not steady
 A proven ability: ability shown by his/her achievements
 Playing truant: being absent without permission
 18. WRITING ESSAYS, ASSIGNMENTS AND
REPORTS

A. Preparing for a research assignment:

 Select a research topic
 Working hypothesis: a theory which can be used provisionally but may
change
 Supports the hypothesis [NOT prove the hythesis – prove is too strong]
 Undertaking a study: carrying out/ doing a study
 Research ethics: a system of standards which control how research is
done
 In -depth critique: examination and judgement of something, done
carefully and in great detail
 Provide a rationale
 Lay out the results
B. Other collocations often used in essay, reports and assignments:
 Vigorous defence: very strong and forceful defence
 Put the case for ...
 Tackle the issues
 Exhaustive account: extremely detailed account
 To formulate new theories
 To cover a lot of ground
 The thrust: the main idea or opinion that is discussed
 first-hand knowledge: experienced directly knowledge
 critical analysis: a detailed study or examination which assesses quality
 19. SOCIAL LIFE

A. Organising your social life:

 Flying visit: a visit that doesn’t last long
 Go out for a meal
 Spring a surprise on: to surprise
 Call for a celebration: meant that a celebration was approriate
 Put in an appearance: came just for a short time
 (Spend) quality time: time where people can give their complete
attention to each other
 Whirlwind visit: brief and very busy visit
 Social whirl: non-stop set of social events
B. Formal entertaining:
 Playing host to: providing the facilities for
 Pay a visit
 Family gathering: a social event where a family comes together, usually
to celebrate something
 Wine and dine: take out for dinner and drinks
 Convivial atmosphere: a very friendly and welcoming atmosphere
 The perfect venue: a place where a public event or meeting happens
 20. TALKING

A. Types of language and conversation:

 Idle chatter
 Exchange pleasantries: make polite conversation
 Juicy (gossip): interesting because it is shocking or personal
 Engage someone in conversation
 Drawn into an argument
 Carry on a conversation
 Hold a conversation
B. Managing topics:
 Broach the subject: begin a discussion of a difficult topic
 Overstate my case: give too much importance or seriousness to a point of
view
 Bombard me with question: ask me lots of questions
 Broad generalisations
 Drop the subject
C. Adjective + Noun phrase:

Collocation Meaning Example

TV dramas today use much
Swear words, taboo language;
bad/strong/ more bad/strong/foul
foul suggests much stronger
foul language language than they did 40
disapproval than bad or strong
years ago.
Swear words, taboo words Please try to express your
four-letter
(many of which have four feelings without using four-
words
letters in English) letters words.
“You’re a teacher, aren’t
opening A remark ade in order to start
you?” was his opening
gambit a conversation
gambit.
 Don’t make any rash
Promises made without
a rash promise promises. Think before you
thinking
agree to anything.
Promises made which the She’s full of empty
an empty
speaker has no intention of promises. You shouldn’t
promise
keeping believe a word she says.
a tough Do I regret anything? That’s
Difficult question to answer
question a tough question.
 21. IN THE NEWS

A. Political newspaper headlines:

 Call ellection: official announces that an election wwill take place
 Presents show off unity: publicly appears to be united
 Parrty secures slim majority: wins a small majority
 Regime topped: made to fall ̣off regime orr government
 Proclaims victory: makes an official announcement of victory
 Declare independence
 Humiliating defeat
 Deliver speech: makes/gives a speech
B. TV:
 Call off the search: stop searching
 Negotiate a settlement: have formal discussion in the hope of coming to
an agreement
 Atced as a go-between: delivered messages between people who were
reluctant or unable to speak to each other
 Brokering an agreement: arranging an agreement
 Bowed to: given in to
 Prime-time: most popular time off delay for watching TV
 22. CURRENT AFFAIRS

A. Current affairs in the press:

 Abject apology: humble apology
 Disorderly conduct
 Damaging disclosures: sensitive, private information which has been
revealed
 Refused point-blank: completely refused
 Misleading the electorate
 Clarify someone’s position
 To decline to comment
 Seeking permission: asking permission
 Taking a firm stance: position (formal)
 Flatly rejected: completely denied
 Given leave: permission
B. Feelings and reactions in connection with current affairs:

Verb + Noun Meaning Example

I take issue with some of the
take issue with disagree with (formal)
points made in the speech.
The government leaked the
gauge reaction test the response story to the press in order to
gauge public reaction.
The incident has excited
caused rumours to
excite speculation speculation that the couple
circulate
may be about to divorce.
Workers have aired their
air a grivance complained grievances to reporters about
the new pay structure.
Adjective + Noun Meaning Example
When it came to the vote,
a dissenting voice person who disagreed there was only one
dissenting voice.
Our local MP is a
someone who opposes
vociferous oppenent of
a vociferous opponent something loudly and
having a casino in our
publicly
city.

Plans to extend the airport

requests made because went ahead, despite
passionate entreaty
of strong beliefs passionate entreaties
from local residents.

I don’t think the politician

an unintentional remark really meant to say she
a throwaway comment which should not be was leaving the party – it
taken seriously was just a throwaway
comment.
 23. FESTIVALS AND CELEBRATIONS

A. Talking about festivals:

 Uphold the annual tradition: keep up
 The age-old: very old (journalistic/literary)
 Event mark = festival marks
 Festive season: usually refers to the time around Christmas and New Year
B. Traditional festivities:
 Movable feasts: can refer to any arrangement, plan or appointment where
the date is flexible
 A proud tradition
 A break with tradition
 Observing the festival of
 Break with tradition
C. A wedding celebration:
 Long-standing tradition: which has existed for a long time
 Get hitched / tie the knot: get married (informal)
 Joined in matrimony: married (formal: used as part of the marriage
ceremony)
 Propose a toast = make a toast
 Wedded bliss: happiness through being married (slightly humorous)
 24. COSMETICS AND FASHION

A. Advertisements for beauty products:

 Long-lasting colour
 Sun-damaged hair
 Anti-aging properties
 Banish wrinkles: get rid of lines
 Flawless complexion
 Feeling peckish: feeling hungry
 Unrivalled service
 Exclusive beauty salon
 Natural highlights
B. Interview with a fasion model:
 Glossy magazines: magazines printed on high-quality paper with lots of
photos and advert
 High-street fashion: clothes bought in ordinary shops rather than from
special fashion designers
 New season’s looks: the new fashion style
 Setting the trend: starting the fashion
 Stunning range
 Hit the high street: becoming available in chainstores
 Fashion victim: a person who always wears fashionable clothes even if
they make them look ridiculous or don’t suit them
 25. COMMUTING
A. The daily commute:
 local transport links
 commuter route
 getting stuck in traffic: be slowed down by heavy traffic
 toll road: a road you have to pay to use.
 rush hour
 commuter train
 season ticket: a ticket which is valid for a certain period of time (often a
month or a year)
 peak time: the time when most people want to go somewhere, often
leading to higher prices (opp. off-peak)
 replacement bus service
 cycle network
 cycle lanes
 traffic gridlock: when roads are so blocked with traffic that nothing is
moving
 engineering works: repair or maintenance work
B. Problems and solutions:
 packed trains: trains which are very crowded
 fare rises
 train strikes
 invest in infrastructure
 local transport services
 hike: expecting a quick increase
 running late
 Train operators
 Ease traffic congestion: reduce traffic jams
 carsharing programmers
 park-and-ride schemes: schemes where people can park their cars out of
town and take a bus into a town/city centre
 congestion charge: a charge for vehicles which enter a specific zone
within a city
 air quality
 alleviate bottlenecks: reduce places where too many cars try to get
through at the same time
 road closures
 lengthy tailbacks: long queues of traffic
 to a standstill: stop (traffic) completely
 work from home
 26. TRAVEL AND ADVENTURE

A. An exciting trip:
 a thirst for adventure
 get itchy feet
 contain my excitement
 arduous journey: difficult, tiring, needing a lot of effort
 broken the journey: stopped for a short time
 have a stopover: have a brief (usually) overnight stay in a place when on
a long journey to somewhere else, usually by air
 do the sights
 low-cost airline
 put me on standby: made me wait to see if a seat became available
 went trekking
 off the beaten track
 intrepid explorer: brave, with no fear of dangerous situations
B. Articles about travel adventures:
 sunny spells
 boosted
 spirits: made feel more cheerful
 severe weather conditions
 their spirits were high: they were in a positive mood
 sheer epic grandeur
 have a special charm
 keep your eyes peeled
 your budget doesn’t quite stretch to: you can’t aff ord
 lull you to sleep
 leg of the journey
 27. SPORT

A. Sports training:
 do: NOT make
 extreme sports
 acquired
 a taste for: begun to enjoy
 keep my balance
 get the hang of it: (informal) become able to do something
 take up the challenge
 pretty fit: (informal) fairly fit
 push myself to the limits: make a considerable eff ort
 having a whale of a time: informal) having a fantastic time
 jump at the chance: (informal) really like to do something
 summon up the energy
 keep in shape: stay in good physical condition
B. Sports news:
 reached fever pitch: became very excited/agitated
 played brilliantly
 convincing victory
 atest scores
 took the field: went on the pitch
 putting up
 break through the
 defence
 awarded a penalty
 penalty was missed
 given yellow cards
 free kicks
 scored an own goal: scored a goal in error against their own team
 went wild: became crazy with excitement (can also be used for other
emotions, such as rage)
 28. PLANS AND DECISIONS

A. Decisions and solutions:

 toying with the idea: considering, but not in a focused way
 long-term solution
 unveiled a plan: showed / made known for the first time
 drumming up support: increasing support for something
 slight change of plan
 acting on a suggestion: doing something as a result of a suggestion
 implement: put into operation
 draw up a schedule
 stick to that schedule.: keep to
 tentative suggestion: a suggestion that you are not sure will be accepted
 launch the scheme,
 exercise greater control
 to their discretion: leave everything to their judgement
 cover every eventuality: consider all possible situations and difficulties
 after careful consideration
 option open to us.
 The deciding factor
B. Making plans:
 eager anticipation: feeling of great excitement about something that is
going to happen
 came up with the idea
 preparations have been underway: happening
 necessary groundwork: work done in preparation
 reach the decision
 put sth into practice
C. Rejecting plans:
 declare outright opposition
 outright hostility
 rejected out of hand
 constructive criticism
 29.FILM AND BOOK REVIEWS
 suspense builds up
 an amazing chain of events
 startling originality
 a bold experiment: a brave and risky thing to do
 accomplished actor
 consummate professional: (formal) complete professional
 dazzling display
 series of events
 spectacularly successful
 glowing reviews: very positive reviews
 unmitigated disaster: total disaster
 Strongly influenced: or heavily influenced, but NOT highly influenced
 Highly recommend: thoroughly recommend is also possible
 can bear the suspense: can stand the excitement
 think highly
 dismal failure.
 lasting impression: we can also say an indelible impression, meaning a
permanent one
 fired my imagination
 awakened my interest
 create the atmosphere: also evoke the atmosphere
 30. REGULATIONS AND AUTHORITY

A. Health and safety regulations:

 introduced: also brought in
 standardize procedure
 adhere to standards
 comply with
 have an obligation
 carry out a risk assessment: an exercise to identify and assess risks
 in breach of the law: (formal) breaking the law
 minimise danger
 satisfy the requirements
 arrive at an agreement
 reach an agreement
B. Planning permission:
 absolutely essential: NOT very essential
 seek permission: (formal) ask for permission
 granted permission: formal) given permission
 obtain permission: (formal) receive permission
 introduced new legislation
 tightened controls: made the rules tougher
 infringe the regulations: (formal) break the rules
 faceless bureaucrats: used as an insult to officials, suggesting that they
lack character
 in a position of
 exercising authority: (formal) using that authority
 cut through the red tape: deal quickly and effectively with bureaucratic
procedures
 flout the rules: (formal) intentionally break the rules
 31. THE ENVIRONMENT

A. Damaging the environment:

 dump: dispose of in an irresponsible manner
 toxic: poisonous
 environmental catastrophe
 public health
 weather patterns
B. Climate change and its consequences:
 absolutely vital
 change our ways
 searing heat: extreme heat
 temperatures soar
 widespread flooding
 dire consequences: extremely serious
 irreversible climate change
 reduce our carbon footprint: amount of carbon dioxide created by a
person/business
 food miles: distance food has to travel between where it is grown or made
and where it is consumed.
 offsetting carbon emissions: paying for an equivalent amount of carbon
dioxide to be saved elsewhere.
 vehicle emissions
 hybrid car: a car can alternate between different energy sources (e.g.
petrol and battery)
 alternative energy sources
 solar heating
 off shore wind farms: at sea, away from the coast
 run dry: run out
 Renewable energy
 green taxes: taxes relating to the protection of the environment
 eco-friendly design
 find a solution.
 32. TOWN AND COUNTRY LIFE

A. City life:
 bustling centre: full of busy activity
 urban living
 reliable public transport
 long opening hours
B. Country life versus city life:
 rustic charm: appeal that is simple and picturesque.
 the back of beyond: an extremely isolated place
 quiet backwater: a quiet, isolated village
 in the middle of nowhere
 ored rigid: (informal) extremely bored
 hectic pace of life: very busy and fast pace
C. City Council plans:
 urban regeneration
 open all hours
 derelict buildings: buildings that are not cared for and are in a very bad
condition
 tree-planting scheme
 leafy suburbs
 inner city
 desirable place to live
 residential dwellings: (formal, official) homes
 congested roads
 within walking
 33. PERSONAL FINANCE

A. Managing your finances:

 keeping afloat: having enough money to pay what you owe (can also be
staying afloat)
 supplement your income: add something to something to make it
largeror better
 clear your debts: pay in full
 running up huge debts: continuing to spend and therefore owing a large
amount of money
 outstanding debts: not yet paid
 run up an overdraft: amount of money that a customer with a bank
account is temporarily allowed to owe to the bank
B. Financial crimes and disputes:
 Credit-card fraud: crime of misusing another person’s credit card
without their permission
 identity theft: stealing someone’s personal details, usually in order to
access their bank accounts or credit cards
 run up a bill: accumulate
 falsified: changed something, e.g. a document, in order to deceive people
 put down a deposit: pay a sum of money in advance as part of a total
payment
 default on repayments: fail to pay a debt
 call in loans: demand that people pay back the money the bank has lent to
them
 written off debt: accepted that an amount of money has been lost or that
a debt will not be paid
 34. THE ECONOMY

Budget speech:
 curb inflation: control inflation [continuous increase in prices]
 rampant inflation: very dramatic, uncontrolled inflation
 current economic climate
 investing for the long-term
 steered the economy
 uninterrupted economic growth
 stimulating growth
 industry is thriving: doing very well
 safeguard their interests: protect their interests
 plummeting profits: rapidly falling profits
 social exclusion: the problems of the underprivileged, of those whohave
less fortunate places in society than others
 levy: impose or introduce
 success: been very successful
 build on the success: develop previous success
 left unchecked: not stopped
 undeclared earnings: income that people fail to report to the tax
authorities
 push up costs: make costs rise
 35. SOCIAL ISSUES

A. Facing and solving social problems:

 Dysfunctional families: not behaving normally
 run-down: in a very bad condition
 break the cycle: bring a stop to a negative pattern of behaviour
 makes a plea: an urgent or emotional request
 fresh drive: new effort
 draconian measures: extremely severe
 the social fabric: social structure
 public disorder: expression of dissatisfaction by crowds of people,
especially about a political matter
 riots erupt: burst out suddenly
 law and order break down
 novel solution: new and original
 force for good: a positive influence
 neighborhood watch schemes
 inciting violence
 affordable housing.
 unfit for human habitation
 poor sanitary conditions
 provide shelter
 low-income families
 36. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

A. Technology in business:
 power is restored
 shut down: switched off completely
 wear and tear: damage caused by ordinary use
 run smoothly: work without problems
 cutting-edge design: the most innovative design
 harnessing3 technology: making use of
 findings: results
 pushing back the frontiers: extending the limits
B. Innovations:
 use satnav: short for satellite navigation
 Wi-Fi hotspots: public places where people can access the internet via a
wireless signal
 swipe a card
 Online banking
 flat-screen TV
 by remote control
 switch channels
 music stored
 37. HEALTH AND MEDICINE

A. Maintaining good health:

 doing plenty of excrise (NOT making exercise)
 do sport (NOT make sport)
B. Treatment:
 have an operation (NOT make an operation)
 take an oversdose: take too much of a drug
 side affects: unwanted secondary effects of a drug
 adverse reactions: negative reactions
C. Illness:
 a streaming cold: a heavy cold
 shake off a cold: get rid of a cold
 be in poor health: not be very well
 an infectious disease: diseases caught from someone with that disease
 a rare illness/disease: an illness that seldom occurs
 suffer from a chronic disease: to have a disease which usually lasts
throughout a person’s life
 critically ill: extremely/dangerously ill
 fight for one’s life: in danger of dying
 fall into / come out of a coma: become unconscious; regain
consciousness
 a massive heart attack: a very serious heart attack
 untimely/premature death: death at too early an age
 38. CRIMAL JUSTICE

A. Expressing views about crime and punishment:

 custodial sentences: a sentence to be served in a prison or similar

institution
 serve out their sentence: serve the full amount of time
 miscarriages of justice: situation where innocent people are found guilty
 trumped – up charges: invented and false accusations
 Soaring crime rates: rising very fast crime rates
 extenuating circumstances: circumstances that lessen the blame, also
itigating circumstances

B. Courts and trials:

 The trial was adjourned until: was suspended till a later time or date
 remanded in custody: send to prison until the trial begins or continues
 unanimous verdict: verdict which all the decision makers agree to
 dismiss the case: decide that the case is not worth considering
 awarded damages: ordered the organisation or person who has been
responsible for causing injury or loss to pay money to the victim as
compensation
 contested the verdict: disagreed with the verdict and tried to change it
 39. WAR AND PEACE
A. Ten days of war:

 stockpiling weapons: building up large qualities of weapons

 creating instability: making the area unsafe
 deploy troops: send soldiers
 violence escalates: violence increases dramatically
 spate of attacks: a large number of attacks
 catch in the crossfire: shot by accident as they were in the wrong place at
the wrong time
 pre – emptive strike: an attack made to prevent the enemy from attacking
you
 collateral damage: unintentional killing of cicilians ans destruction of
non – military targets – term used by those who cause it to make it sound
less serious
 surgical strikes: short and narrowly targeted military attacks
 call for a ceasefire: an agreement to stop fighting

B. Ending fighting:

Collocation Example Meaning

The uneasy truce came
a truce that could easily be
uneasy truce to an end when the rebels
broken
attacked the capital.
There is a fragile peace in
a peace that could easily be
fragile peace the area with hopes it will
destroyed
soon strengthen.
ceasefire comes The ceasefire will come agreement to stop fighting
into effect into effect at midnight. starts from this time
The aim of the talks is to
restore peace stop the fighting
restore peace in the area.
At last the treaty has
bring stability brought stability to the made the region feel safe
region.
It will be hard to persuade send the soldiers home, as
disband an army the warlords to disband the army is no longer in
their army. existence
They have agreed to lift stop preventing goods from
lift a blockade
the blockade on our ports. entering
The country agreed to
withdraw troop withdraw their troops from take their soldiers out
the area.
 40. FRIENDSHIP

A. Friendship over a lifetime:

 long – term relationship: usually referring to a romantic relationship
 platonic relationships: relationships which are not romatic or sexual
B. Making, keeping and losing friends:
 heal the rift: end a serious disagreement between friends
 sprang to his defence: acted very quickly to defend him
 moral support: showing that you approve of someone and what they are
doing
 forge new relationships: form or creat new relationships
 41. YOUTH AND AGE

A. Childhood:
 a child prodigy: young genius
 pandered to his every whim: did every little thing that he wanted even
when it was not appropriate
 spoilt brat: (informal, disapproving) an unpleasent child, one who
behaves badly, and whose parents allow to behave as he/she wishes
 disaffected youth: young people who do not accept society’s values
 juvenile delinquent: a criminal who still legally a minor
 see the error of his ways: understand his mistakes
B. Middle Age:
 had a baby (NOT got a baby)
 take each other for granted: not value each other
 go through a mildlife crisis: period of dissatisfaction in the middle of
one’s life
 going through a phase: going through a period of strange or difficult
behaviour
C. Old Age:
 feel their age: feel as old as they are
 occational twinge: a slight ache from time to time
 senior moment: moment of forgetfulness
 grumpy old man: (informal, uncomplimentary) an old man who is
always complaining about things
 live quite a comfortable life: note how live often collocates with a life
 rekindle memories: bring back memories
 42. CELEBRATIES AND HEROES

A. Contents of a celebrity magazine:

 lavish lifestyle: rich and extravagant way of life
 prenuptial agreement: legal agreement made before marriage dealing
with the distribution of money and property in the event of a divorce.
 the highest bidder: person who is prepared to pay most in an auction
B. Speech at an awards ceremony:
 meteoric rise: rapid rise
 highest accolade: top symbol of praise and approval
 significant impact: (NOT strong impact)
 glowing tributes: (journalistic) extremely positive comments
 43. NEGATIVE OPINIONS ABOUT PEOPLE

A. Lectures and students:

 bone idle: extremely lazy
 have an attitude problem: a negative, uncoooperative attitude
 slippery customer: (informal) someone who cannot be trusted
 pick a fight: provoke a fight
 in contempt: despise
 take the flak: be held responsible
 discruptive influence: someone who encourages others to behave in a
negative way
 the blame rests: it is the fault of
 shirk their responsibility: pay no attention to their responsibility
B. Critical exclamations:
 stoop to that level: do something as bad as that
 dirty trick to play: nasty/dishonest thing to do
 a nasty piece of work: an unpleasent, untrustworthy person
 totally out of order: very inappropriate
 a downright disgrace: absolutely disgraceful
 wouldn’t trust S.O an inch: wouldn’t trust at all
 C. Other collocations relating to opinions about people:

Example Meaning
I’ll never tell you a secret again. You
disappointed me because I trusted you
have totally betrayed my trust.

He did really well, given that he is

make what he has done seem
only a child. It’s not fair to belittle
unimportant
his achievements.

You’re letting his good looks cloud

affect your judgement negatively
your judgement.

Your essay was not bad, but I have a

small complaints
few minor niggles.

How did you manage to overlook

obvious mistake
such a glaring error?

He said he was leaving me because

complaining or criticising all the time
he was sick of my constant nagging.

* deep dissatisfaction (NOT strong dissatisfaction)

 44. REFERENCES

A. A reference for a student:

 keen interest: very strong interest
 encyclopaedic knowledge: very extensive knowledge
 experience: (formal) gain experience
 honing her practice skills: making her practice skills perfect
 paramount importance: (formal) extremely important
 meeting the challenge: deal with the difficult aspects
B. A job reference:
 perform the tasks: perform the tasks is more formal way of saying carry
out the tasks
 financial acumen: talent in financial matters
 revealed a remarkable talent for handling: (formal) showed a talent
 trust him implicitly: trust him totally
C. Common errors:

Error Correction
He has good/advanced computer
He has high computer skills.
skills.

He is highly educated.
He has a high education.
He has a good level of education.

An engineer with high qualifications is A well-qualified engineer is

required. required.
 An engineer with good
qualifications is required.

He has a good / an advanced

He has a high knowledge of English.
knowledge of English.

She has an extensive / a

She has a large knowledge of all
comprehensive knowledge of all
subjects.
subjects.

She has big/great experience of She has considerable experience of

teaching. teaching.

She managed to get a good relationship She managed to establish/develop a

with her boss. good relationship with her boss.

Mrs Day is a very appreciated member Mrs Day is a highly valued member
of staff. of staff.
 45. PERSONALITY AND BEHAVIOUR

A. Describing people’s personality:

 thinly disguised: barely hidden
 stubborn streak: a stubborn side to his character
 gruff exterior: rude and unfriendly
 sharp wit: was very amusing in clever way
 pent – up anger: anger he didn’t express
 forthright manner: direct manner
 boundless energy: lots of energy
 boost people’s confidence: make more confident
 bubbly personality: lively personality
 bear a striking resemblance to: look very like
 look your age: look as old as you are
 act my age: behave in a manner expected of my age
B. Other useful collocations for behaviour:
 had a blank expression: show no understanding or emotion
 warm / friendly smile
 cool reception: unfriendly welcome
 unacceptable behaviour
 perfectly friendly
 abrasive manner: rude and unfriendly manner
 46. SPACE AND TIME

A. Talking about space:

 ample room: more than enough room
 a waste of space: bad use of space when there is a limited amount of it
 ample space/room; leave space/room; short space/room and take up a
lot of space/room
 waste of space (NOT waste of room)
B. Talking about time:
 over the course of time: as time passes
 go down in history: be remembered
 golden era: can also be golden age; period of time when a particular art,
business, ect. was very successful
 preserved for posterity: (formal) kept for people in the future
 bygone era: (literary) a time in the distant past
 restore to their former glory: glory here menas ‘beauty’
 a dim and distant memory: remembered slightly, but not very well
 the not-so-distant future: not the ummediate future but relatively near
 the forceseeable future: as far into the future as you can inagine or plan
for
 47. SOUND

A. The human voice:

 a trace of: very slight
 booming voice: very loud voice
 gruff voice: low, unfriendly and harsh
 meet with a stony silence: meet with a cold and unfriendly silence
 utter a word: note, this collocation is normally in the negative or has a
negative subject
 broad Scottish accent: strong (of accents)
 husky voice: low and rough, often thought to be attractive
 slurred her words: spoke unclearly, running the sounds together
 muffled voice: quiet and unclear
B. Sound and silence:
 clap of thunder: sudden loud noise made by thunder
 deathly hush: extreme silence, in a way that is unpleasant
 incessant noise: which never stop
 silence reigns: dominates
 dull thud: unclear sound made when something heavy falls
 48. MAKING THINGS EASIER

A. Choosing your approach:

 feasible1 alternatives: possible
 viable options: workable options
 simplicity itself: extremely simple
 do what is easiest but not what is best – which may mean avoiding
doing anything at all
B. Ways of remembering:
 immense asset: something of great value
 perfected: the verb is pronounced
 straightforward way: easy to understand or simple
 steep learning curve: something which is diff icult to learn and takes a
lot of eff ort
 49. DIFFICULTY

A. Adjective + noun collocations:

 Constant struggle
 State of connfusion
 Severe blow
 Adverse weather conditions
 Widespead flooding
 Widespead looting
 Grave dangers
 High risk
 Complete disaster
 Catastrophic results
 Sounds like hard work
B. Verb + noun collocations:

Collocation Example
My grandmother faced many problems in her
face a problem
life.
How do you think we should address the traffic
address a problem
problems in our city?
More must be done to tackle the AIDS
tackle a problem
problem.
Nuclear weapons pose a threat to the whole
pose a threat
world.
Most things that we do in life carry some
carry a risk
degree of risk.

Not smoking minimises the risk of getting a

minimise a risk
whole range of illnesses.
relish a challenge Rob relishes the challenge of a new project.
 Our party believes that this country’s complex
hinder progress
tax laws mainly serve to hinder progress.

Terry spotted an error in the email he was

spot an error about to send.
Any new business is bound to encounter some
encounter difficulties initial difficulties.
You need to maintain a positive attitude if you
deal with (the) want to deal successfully with the complexities
complexities (of) of life.
As she was born blind she has had to overcome
overcome hurdles many extra hurdles in her life.
Poor people in this drought-ridden country fight
fight for survival for survival.
The international community responded rapidly
respond to an emergency to the emergency.

Disaster struck the province last June, when

disaster strikes torrential rains caused mudslides in many areas.
 50. QUANTY AND SIZE

A. Countable and uncountable expressions of quantity:

Collocation Example Comment

A good few students

(informal) used with
A good/fair few are likely to get a first-
countable nouns
class degree.

We spent a good
(informal) used with
A good/fair number number of weeks
countable nouns
planning the project.

A significant number
A substantial/significant (formal) used with
of people pledged their
number countable nouns
support.

We took a significant
A substantial/significant (formal) used with
quantity of provisions
quantity uncountable nouns
with us.

He’ll get a substantial

A substantial/significant (formal) used with
amount of money
amount uncountable nouns
when his father dies.

B. Other expressions about size and quantity:

 The sheer quantity
 Finite number
  Good size
 Unbounded enthussiasm
 Endless supply
 Astronomical fees
 Bumper crop
 Epic proportions
 Massive overdose
 Overwhelming majority
 Inordinate amount
 Wide range
 Wide variety/choice
 An unknown quantity
C. Common errors:

Correct word(s) Collocates with ... Wrong word(s)

minority, amount, number,
small little
quantity, percentage
quantity, amount, number,
large great, big, high
majority
large, high percentage great
great importance, significance high, big
 51. CHANGE

A. Collocations with change as a noun:

 Dramatic changes
 Fundamental changes
 Radical change
 Sweeping changes
 Would make a change
 Make changes
 Changes will be implemented
 Change come about
 Changes taken place
B. Collocation with change as a verb, adjective or adverb:
 Change dramatically, fundametally, radically
 Changes impercaptibly
 Changed beyound recognition
 A changed man/woman
 Adapting to changing circumstances
C. Other ways of talking about change:

Example Comment
the hotel had undergone a
also undergo a revival
transformation since our last stay.

the exchange rate has been = going up and down in an

fluctuating wildly over the last few
days.
we have had a modest increase in
students enrolling on our courses.
unpredictable way (also used with
temperature(s) and share prices)
also a modest improvement, modest
gain, modest recovery, where modest
= slight or small
there has been a sudden shift in
public
amy’s work shows considerable
improvement.
our children’s lives were turned
upside-down when we moved.
elderly people sometimes find it
difficult to move with the times.
also a dramatic shift
one opposite might be: there is room
for improvement in her work.
= changed dramatically, usually for the
worse
= keep up with changes and adapt to
them
 52. STOPPING AND STARTING

A. Stopping:
Example Comment
the accident brought traffic to a halt
often used about transport (trains, etc.)
for several hours.
the union called a halt to the strike = prevent something from continuing
after 21 days. (e.g. military action, protests, etc.)
the chair brought the meeting to a
often used about discussions
close at 5 pm.
the new teacher soon put a stop to used about unpopular activities or
bad behaviour in the class. habits (e.g. crime, antisocial activities)
they terminated his contract since
formal; also terminate a pregnancy
he failed to meet his sales targets.
the government may abandon their also abandon an attempt to do
policy on id cards. something
police called off the search as = cancelled; also call off a match or
darkness fell. other sports event
the council have closed off the street
= block the entrance of a street to stop
while repairs are being carried out
people and vehicles entering it
there.
wait until there is a lull in the = a pause; also lull in the fighting (in a
conversation, then we can leave. military conflict)

B. Starting:
 Dawn broke
 Broke into song
 Broke into run
 The rain set in
  Set off the fire alarm
 Instigated measures
 Opening remarks
 Entered into the discussion
C. News headlines:
 Sparks fears: makes people worry about
 Talks collapse: come to unsuccessful conclusion
 Nears completion: is almost finished
 Dispels rumours: makes a statement to end the rumours
 Clears up confusion: ends confusion
 Allay fears of: stops people worrying about
 Quells unrest: stops disturbance
 Breaks diplomatic relations
 53. CAUSE AND EFFECT

A. Collocations with cause and effect:

 Establish the cause
 Root cause: origin
 Primary cause: main cause
 Desired effect
 Feel the full effect
 Had a knok-on effect: indirect result
 Ill effects: negative results
B. Other words meaning cause:

Example Meaning
the advertising campaign didn’t produce
lead to the results
the results we hoped for.
the finance minister’s decision to raise
caused a lot of public anger
income tax provoked an outcry.
if teachers show favouritism, it breeds makes others feel angry and
resentment. unhappy

mary didn’t believe the rumours about her

made her feel uncertain
boss but they planted doubts in her mind.

the film star’s photo prompted speculation

caused people to suspect
that she may be pregnant.

email rendered the fax machine obsolete. caused to be no longer used

if you want to make an insurance claim, you

can set the wheels in motion by filling in make something start to happen
this form.
this wind will wreak havoc with my
cause a lot of damage to
flowers!
our new neighbours are so noisy, it’s enough
informal, make angry and upset
to drive anyone crazy!
the strike could spell disaster for the
cause serious problems
country.

C. Talking about reasons and consequences:

 Compelling reason: very powerful reason
 Dire consequences: very serious consequences
 Contributing factor
 Give me a reason
 Demand an explanation
 54. DESCRIBING GROUPS AND AMOUNTS

A. Group of animals:
 A pack of dogs, hounds, wolves
 A herd of cattle, elephants
 A swarm of bees/locusts
 A flock of sheep
 A pride of lions, a shoal
 School of fish, sardlines
 A pod of dolphins, whales
 A troop of monkeys, baboons
B. Feelings and behaviour:

Example Comment Futher Collocations

there was a flurry of flurry suggests a sudden, a flurry of
activity as the children short period of interest or interest/excitement/
fetched their paints. activity. speculation/snow
i didn’t detect even a
flicker suggests a brief a flicker of
flicker of emotion in
expression of emotion. hope/interest
his cold eyes.
the company’s figures
are a glimmer of
glimmer suggests a faint
beginning to offer a interest/light/
indication of something.
glimmer of hope for understanding
the future.

there was a touch of a touch of

touch suggests a small
sadness in her voice as humour/irony a touch
amount of something.
she told us her news. of class = sophistication
i’ve experienced the collocates very strongly
whole gamut of gamut means the entire with emotions, though it
emotions from joy to range of something. can also be used about
sorrow. colours or musical notes
 a stroke of luck; he
inviting josé to join our
a stroke of means a never does a stroke of
project team was a
bit of. work (always used with
stroke of genius.
the negative)

C. Food:
 A hunk of bread: thick slice (of cheese, bread or meat)
 Cloves of garlic: one piece taken from a head of garlic
 A bed of rice
 A knob of butter: small lump of butter
 Dollop of cream: large spoonful of jam or cream
 A drop of brandy
 A dash of cream: small amount of liquid
 A sprinkling of cinnamon: small amount of herb or spice
 55. COMPARING AND CONTRASTING
A. Comparing two places:
 Fundamentally similar
 Bear…Little resemblance to: don’t look at all like
 Entirely different
 In marked contrast to
 A world of difference
 Clear distinction
 Yawning gap: an enormous different
 Differ widely
 Exact opposite
 Polar opposites: extreme opposites
 The advantages…Outweigh its disadvantages: are stronger than the
disadvantages
B. Finding a balance:
 Fundamentally different
 Doesn’t bear comparison with: can’t be compared with
 Compares…Favourably with
 Pale in comparision: seem unimportant
 Drew a comparision between
 Strike the balance between
 Bridge the gap
 Subtle distinction: increasing difference
 56. MAKING AN EFFORT
A. Adjective + Noun Collocations:

Collocation Example Meaning

mike has been making a
a determined a very serious and
determined effort to save
effort thorough effort
money.
we made a concerted effort a determined effort,
a concerted effort to meet all our deadlines this usually made by several
week. people working together
i couldn’t have done it on my
done by two or more
a joint effort own – it was truly a joint
people
effort.
the manager congratulated the
done by a group of
a team effort sales force on their
people
magnificent team effort.
olivia has made a valiant
a brave effort in the face
a valiant effort effort to keep up with work
of great difficulty
despite her illness.
strenuous efforts were made
attempts requiring a lot
strenuous efforts to prevent the story from
of effort or energy
reaching the papers.
although kerry didn’t succeed
give it one’s best make an attempt that is
in breaking the record, he
shot worthy of admiration
gave it his best shot.
they made several abortive
an abortive
attempts to climb the formal, failed attempts
attempt
mountain.
i’m exhausted – i’m not used
physical exertion to so much physical hard physical effort
exertion!
it was a hard slog getting my
a hard slog thesis finished on time but i informal, hard work
made it!
 it’ll be an uphill struggle informal, a lot of effort
an uphill struggle persuading your manager to with no certainty of
make the changes you want. success

B. Careers advice:
 Offer advice
 Provide a solution
 Requires effort
 Devote energy to
 Follow our advice
 Heed our warnings: listen to
 Reap the rewards: be rewarded
 Ignore our advice
 Doomed to failure: sure to fail
 Desperate desire
 Pin your hopes on: repy on
 Stood the test of time: been proved successful over a long period of time
 Worth a try
 57. SOCIAL ENGLISH
A. Conversations:
 Didn’t have much luck
 Bright ideas
 Thought occurred to me
 Gone to any trouble
 Had a go at
 Really got to her: made her very upset
 Mean any harm: intend to do or say anything hurtful
 Wouldn’t lose any sleep: wouldn’t worry
 News travels fast
 It came as a bit of a shock
 To be brutally honest
 A welcome relief
 Know the feeling: feel the same
 Glad to see the back of: happy to see someone leave
 Are you up for: would you like to
 Give him a… Good send-off: do something special to say goodbye
 Been on the go: been very busy
 Face the thought of
 Feeble excuse
 Give me a ring: phone me
 Drop me an email
B. Common errors:

Example of Error Correct Sentence

i hope i didn’t bring you any trouble.
i’m very looking forward to seeing
you.
i hope i didn’t cause you any trouble /
put you to any trouble.
i’m really / very much looking
forward to seeing you.

i sincerely / very much hope you will

i strongly hope you will apologise.
apologise.
i’m very delighted by your i’m absolutely delighted by your
invitation. invitation.
it’s a big pleasure to hear from you it’s a great pleasure to hear from you
again. again.

58. DISCUSSING ISSUES

A. Political interviews:
 Gave repeated assurances
 Broken your promise
 Offer an expanation
 Betrayed the trust
 Reject that charge
 Keep our…Promise
 Offer an explanation
 Betrayed the trust
 Reject that charfge
 Go back on your promise: not kept, or changed in some way
 Made a commitment
 Reaffirm that commitment: strongly state again
 Give a straight answer: direct and honest
 Dodging the question: avoiding
B. Discussing communication:
 Channels of communication
 Frame the question: formulate
 Fielding questions: dealing with
 Confronting the issues
 A fair comment
 Establishing coummunication
 With all due respect: used before the speaker disagrees with or criticises
the person they are addfresing
 Missing the point: misunderstanding the idea someone is expressing
 Face a grilling: face a lot of tough questions
  I take your point: accept that you have a serious opinion worth
considering
 Issue a denial
 Give a full apology
 Enter into a contract

59. NEGATIVE SITUATION AND FEELINGS

A. Common problems and difficulties:
 Nasty shock
 A fit of jealousy
 Sick with worry
 Harebrained scheme
 Shattered…Confidence
 Take exception to
 Fills me with dread
 Gave vent to his frusstration
 Admit defead
 Bottle up your feelings
 Increase your stress levels
B. International problems:
 Outpouring of grief: widespread expression of sadness caused by
someone’s death
 In a state of shock
 Inconsolable grief
 Hastened his death: made him die sooner
 Lapse of judgement: poor judgement
 Disparaginf remarks: unpleasant comments
 Fuealled fears: made people feel more adfraid
 At the hands of
 Left with little alternative
 Hurling insults
 Taking a…Sideswipe: making a critical remark about one thing while
talking about some thing else
 Laughable idea
 Pose a threat
 Be in for a shock: get a nasty surprise
 60. POSITIVE SITUATIONS AND FEELINGS
A. Good feelings:

Example
you should have a great sense of
achievement at having
reached the last unit of the book.
john has always had a very strong
sense of purpose in his life.
laura heaved a sigh of relief as she
saw ben step off the plane.
tamara felt a shiver down her spine
as she heard the orchestra tuning up.
as i stood up to speak i felt a surge of
adrenalin.
Meaning
feeling of having succeeded
feeling of having a clear aim
happy feeling that something bad has
not happened
feeling of excitement
(or sometimes fear)
a sudden feeling of nervousness
(or sometimes excitement)

i had a sudden burst of energy and

a feeling of being full of energy
decided to spring-clean the whole flat.

we are all in a state of euphoria after

a feeling of excited happiness
our fantastic exam results.
i just loved my day at the beauty spa.
a feeling of calm happiness
it was sheer bliss.

B. Interview with a film star:

 Heart leapt
 Lifelong ambition
 Dream come true
 High hopes
 Jumped for joy
 Dead keen: (informal) very keen
 Found happiness
 Doesn’t live up to expectations: isn’t good as eccpected
 Work to his advantage: be of benefit to him
 Pure luck
 Cautiously optimistic
 Takes delight in
 Profound admiration
 Get the recognition he deserves
 Derive pleasure from: (formal) find great