HMEF5023 Educational Leadership - Smay19 (Rs & MREP)

HMEF5023
Educational Leadership
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

HMEF5023
EDUCATIONAL
LEADERSHIP
Assoc Prof Dr Yousof @ Saat Md Yasin
Dr Ashley Ng Yoon Mooi AMN

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Table of Contents
Course Guide xi–xvi
Topic 1 The Nature of Leadership 1

1.1 Interpretation of Leadership 2
1.2 Leadership and Management 4
1.3 Leadership Roles 6
1.3.1 Figurehead 7
1.3.2 Spokesperson 7
1.3.3 Negotiator 7
1.3.4 Coach 7
1.3.5 Team Builder 7
1.3.6 Team Player 8
1.3.7 Technical Problem Solver 8
1.3.8 Entrepreneur 8
1.3.9 Strategic Planner 8
1.4 Traits of Effective Leadership 9
1.4.1 The Communicator 11
1.4.2 The Educator 13
1.4.3 The Envisioner 14
1.4.4 The Facilitator 15
1.4.5 The Change Master 16
1.4.6 The Culture Builder 17
1.4.7 The Activator 18
1.4.8 The Producer 20
1.4.9 The Character Builder 21
1.4.10 The Contributor 22
1.5 Leadership and Power 24
1.5.1 Power – A Focus on Individuals 25
1.5.2 Power – Shared Leadership 25
1.6 Changing Perspectives on Leadership 26
1.6.1 Charismatic Leadership 27
1.6.2 Transactional and Transformational Leadership 30
1.6.3 Instructional Leadership 34
1.6.4 Moral Leadership 37
Summary 39
Key Terms 40
References 40

iv ▶ TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 2 Effective Leadership Behaviours and Attitudes 44

2.1 Trait Theories 45
2.2 Behavioural Theories 46
2.2.1 Theory X and Theory Y 46
2.2.2 Ohio State University 48
2.2.3 University of Iowa 48
2.2.4 Managerial Grid 49
2.3 The Leadership Style 51
2.3.1 Situations Style 51
2.3.2 Conclusion 54
2.4 Selecting the Best Leadership Style 56
2.4.1 Principal Leadership Style and Achievement 56
2.4.2 Conclusion 60
2.5 The Ethical Practice of Educational Leadership 61
2.5.1 Concept of Ethics in Leadership 61
2.5.2 Conclusion 64
Summary 65
Key Terms 66
References 66
Topic 3 Contingency and Situational Leadership 70

3.1 FiedlerÊs Contingency Theory of Leadership Effectiveness 71
3.2 The Path-goal Theory of Leadership Effectiveness 73
3.2.1 The Assumptions of Path-goal Theory 75
3.2.2 Choice of Leadership Behaviours 75
3.3 The Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Model 77
Summary 80
Key Terms 80
References 80
Topic 4 Leadership and Motivation 82

4.1 What is Motivation? 83
4.2 Leadership and Motivation 84
4.3 Motivation Theories 85
4.3.1 McClellandÊs Motivation Theory 85
4.3.2 VroomÊs Expectancy Theory 87
4.3.3 Locke and LathamÊs Goal-setting Theory 89
4.4 Behaviour Modification and Motivation 93
4.4.1 Behaviour Modification 93
4.4.2 Stages of Management of Behavioural Change 95
4.4.3 Conclusion 98
Summary 99
Key Terms 100
References 100
TABLE OF CONTENTS ◀ v
Topic 5 The School as a Social Organisation 102

5.1 The School as a Social System 103
5.2 The Rise of Weberian Bureaucracy and Structures 105
in Schools
5.2.1 Division of Labour 106
5.2.2 Impersonal Orientation 106
5.2.3 Hierarchy of Authority 106
5.2.4 Rules and Regulations 106
5.2.5 Career Orientation 107
5.3 The Benefits of Bureaucracy 107
5.4 Criticisms of the Weberian Bureaucratic Model 108
5.5 Functions and Dysfunctions of the Weberian 109
Bureaucratic Model
5.6 Role Theory 111
5.6.1 Sources of the Role of the Principal 111
5.6.2 The PrincipalÊs Role 112
5.6.3 A Model of Role Relationships 113
5.6.4 Role Expectations 114
5.7 Value Theory 117
5.7.1 Value Analysis 117
5.7.2 The Relationship between School and Society 120
5.7.3 Current Educational Trends 124
5.8 Decision-making Theory 127
5.8.1 Problematic State and Awareness of the Situation 129
5.8.2 Information 130
5.8.3 Value Orientation 130
5.8.4 Perception Screen 131
5.8.5 Selection of Alternative Decisions 131
5.8.6 Decision Choice 131
5.8.7 Implementing and Evaluating the Decision 132
5.9 Models of Decision Making 132
Summary 135
Key Terms 136
References 137
Topic 6 Tactics for Becoming an Empowering Leader 139

6.1 The Definition of Empowerment 140
6.2 Empowerment in Education 141
6.2.1 Obstacles in Empowerment 142
6.2.2 Reasons for Empowerment Failure 142
6.3 The Nature of Empowerment 143
6.3.1 Classroom Empowerment 143

vi ▶ TABLE OF CONTENTS
6.4 Ingredients for a Successful Empowerment 145

6.4.1 Building Trust 146
6.4.2 Leadership Issues 147
6.5 Effective Delegation and Empowerment 149
6.5.1 Creating Life-long Learners 150
6.5.2 Participative Management and Decision Making 150
6.5.3 Self-managing Work Groups 151
6.6 Team Working 152
6.6.1 What is a Team? 152
6.6.2 Commitment of Senior Management 153
6.6.3 Why Team Working? 155
Summary 158
Key Terms 160
References 160
Topic 7 Factors that Contribute to Organisational Politics 162

7.1 Organisational Structure 163
7.1.1 Politics 164
7.1.2 Human Resources 165
7.1.3 Culture 166
7.1.4 Government 167
7.1.5 Regulation 169
7.2 Organisational Structure 170
7.2.1 Conventional Wisdom 171
7.2.2 Performance Assessment 173
7.3 Machiavellian Tendencies 174
7.3.1 The Tendencies of Machiavellian Leadership 175
Measurement
7.3.2 Origins of the Machiavellian Construct 177
7.3.3 Instrument Development 177
7.4 Disagreement 179
7.4.1 Myths or Misconceptions about Disagreement 179
and Conflict
7.4.2 Why Does Disagreement Occur? 180
7.4.3 Strategies for Dealing with Disagreement 182
Summary 184
Key Terms 185
References 186
TABLE OF CONTENTS ◀ vii

Topic 8 Creative Problem Solving 191
8.1 Characteristics of Creative Leaders 192
8.2 Organisational Methods to Enhance Creativity 195
8.3 Self-help Techniques to Enhance Creative Problem 199
Solving
Summary 211
Key Terms 212
References 212
Topic 9 Communication and Skills in Resolving Conflicts 215

9.1 Inspirational Communication 216
9.1.1 Being Effective 216
9.1.2 Recognising Barriers 216
9.1.3 Communicating Positively 216
9.1.4 Achieving Clarity 217
9.1.5 Choosing a Method 217
9.1.6 Cultural Differences 217
9.1.7 Combining Methods 218
9.1.8 Understanding Body Language 219
9.1.9 Communicating by Body Language 219
9.1.10 Reading Body Language 220
9.1.11 Conquering Nerves 220
9.1.12 Cultural Differences: Personal Space 220
9.1.13 Keeping Your Distance 221
9.1.14 Creating an Impression 221
9.1.15 Recognising Gestures 221
9.1.16 Cultural Differences: Nonverbal Language 222
9.1.17 Giving Body Signals 222
9.1.18 Showing Attentiveness 223
9.1.19 Listening Skills: Putting Methods into Practice 223
9.1.20 Points to Remember 224
9.1.21 Interpreting Dialogue 224
9.1.22 Using Neurolinguistic Programming (NLP) 224
9.1.23 Listening and Mirroring 224
9.1.24 Asking Questions 225
9.1.25 Knowing What to Ask 225
9.1.26 Choosing Questions 225
9.1.27 Striking the Right Tone 226
9.1.28 Conclusion 227
viii ▶ TABLE OF CONTENTS
9.2 Supportive Communication 227

9.2.1 Problem-oriented, Not Person-oriented 228

9.2.2 Based on Congruence, Not Incongruence 228
9.2.3 Descriptive, Not Evaluative 229
9.2.4 Validates Rather than Invalidates Individuals 229
9.2.5 Specific (Useful), Not Global (Not Useful) 230
9.2.6 Conjunctive, Not Disjunctive 230
9.2.7 Owned, Not Disowned 231
9.2.8 Requires Listening, Not One-way Message 231
Delivery
9.3 Cross-cultural Communication 232
9.4 Resolving Conflicts 236
9.4.1 Conflict is Normal: Anticipating Conflicts Likely 238
to Arise in the Workplace
9.4.2 Conflict Style and Their Consequences 239
9.4.3 How we Respond to Conflict: Thoughts, Feelings 240
and Physical Responses
9.4.4 The Role of Perceptions in Conflict 242
9.4.5 Why do we Tend to Avoid Dealing with Conflict? 243
Summary 245
Key Terms 245
References 246
Topic 10 Shaping TomorrowÊs Leadership and Organisation 249

10.1 Models For Working and Organising 250
10.1.1 Understanding Change 250
10.1.2 Process for Initiating Top-down Transformation 251
10.1.3 Process for Initiating Bottom-up Transformation 253
10.2 Organising for Strategic Advantage 253
10.3 Working and Organising in a Wired World 255
10.3.1 Multi-tasking 256
10.3.2 Information and Knowledge Management 256
10.4 Leading People in the Organisation of the Future 257
10.5 Strategic Leadership 258
10.6 Knowledge Management and the Learning Organisation 259
10.6.1 Effective Knowledge Management 260
10.6.2 Learning Organisation 261
10.6.3 Knowledge Management and Learning 262
Organisation in the School System
Summary 263
Key Terms 264
References 262

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE ◀ xi
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please refer to the Course Guide as
you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify important study
components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
HMEF5023 Educational Leadership is one of the courses offered at Open
University Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth 3 credit hours and should be
covered over 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all learners taking the Master of Education. The main
aim of this course is to give you the theoretical foundation of educational
leadership and organisation to enable you to understand and utilise the
theoretical concepts in managing and administering your organisation or school
effectively with minimal obstacles.
As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please ensure that you have the
right course material, and understand the course requirements as well as how the
course is conducted.

xii ▶ COURSE GUIDE
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussion 3
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 120
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Explain the concept of leadership in educational organisations;
2. Analyse leadership and organisational theories in their study tasks and

research;
3. Demonstrate the understanding of problem solving in educational contexts;

and
4. Evaluate critically the educational leadership practices in selected case

studies and research for improvement.

COURSE GUIDE ◀ xiii
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic can be listed as
follows:
Topic 1 introduces the interpretation of leadership and its roles. This topic also
discusses the traits of leadership and changing perspectives on leadership. In this
topic, you will learn the differences between leadership in management and
power.
Topic 2 discusses the effectiveness of leadership behaviours and attitudes. Here,

you will be exposed to the early trait theories and modern trait theories and also
leadership styles. Finally, you will learn the ethical practices of an educational
leader.
Topic 3 discusses contingency and situational leadership. In this topic, we will

examine FiedlerÊs contingency theory of leadership effectiveness, path-goal
theory of leadership effectiveness and finally, the Hersey-Blanchard situational
leadership theory.
Topic 4 discusses the context of leadership and motivation. Here, you will be
exposed to McClellandÊs motivation theory, VroomÊs expectancy theory and
LathamÊs goal-setting theory.
Topic 5 examines the school as a social organisation. In this topic, you will learn
about Weberian bureaucracy and structures in school. Finally, you will also
discuss the role theory, the value theory and the decision-making theory.
Topic 6 describes the tactics for becoming an empowering leader. In this topic,
you will learn the definition of empowerment, its obstacles, its nature, its benefits
and also the key points in successful empowerment.
Topic 7 describes the factors that contribute to organisational politics. Here, you
will be exposed to standard performances, Machiavellian perspectives and
potential disagreement.

xiv ▶ COURSE GUIDE
Topic 8 discusses creative problem solving. Here, you will learn the
characteristics of creative leaders, methods to enhance creativity and self-help
techniques to enhance creative problem solving.
Topic 9 examines the communication and skills in resolving conflicts. Here, you
will be exposed to inspirational and supportive communication. You will also
learn about cross-cultural communication and resolving conflicts.
Topic 10 deals with shaping tomorrowÊs leadership and organisation. In this

topic, we will also discuss the models for working and organising for strategic
advantage and finally knowledge management in learning organisation.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you
to solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or
research. It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come
across an Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the
module and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage
yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse,
synthesise and evaluate instead of only having to recall and define.

COURSE GUIDE ◀ xv
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.
REFERENCES
Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York,
NY: Free Press.
Bass, B. M. (1990). Bass and Stogdills handbook of leadership theory, research

and managerial applications (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Free Press.
Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York, NY: Harper and Row.
Grint, K. (1997). Leadership: Classical, contemporary and critical approaches,

Oxford: Oxford University Press.

xvi ▶ COURSE GUIDE
Hersey, P., & Blanchard, K. H. (1982). Management of organization behavior:

Utilizing human resources. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Hickman, C. R., & Silva, M. A. (1984). Creating excellence. New York, NY:
New American Library.
Hoy, W. K., & Miskel, C. G. (1991). Educational administration: theory research

and practice. New York, NY: McGraw Hill.
Hoy, W. K., & Miskel, C. G. (2001). Educational administration: Theory, research,

and practice (6th ed.). Singapore: McGraw-Hill International Edition.
Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (1995). The leadership challenge. San Francisco,
CA: Jossey-Bass.
Sadler, P. (1997). Leadership. London, England: Kogan.
Sergiovanni, T. J. (1992). Moral leadership: Getting to the heart of school

leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Stogdill, R. M. (1974). Handbook of leadership. A survey of theory and research.

New York, NY: Free Press.
Van Maurik, J. (2001). Writers on leadership. London, England: Penguin.
Yukl, G. A. (2010). Leadership in organisations (7th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ:

Prentice-Hall International.
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

DIGITAL LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for
the use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books247, InfoSci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner,
you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this
library.

To pi ▶ The Nature of
Leadership
1
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
Discuss the roles of a leader;
Differentiate between leadership and management;
Discuss the traits of effective leadership;
Explore the importance of a principalÊs instructional leadership;
Explore the role of power in leadership and the leader-follower relationship; and
Discuss the changing perspectives on leadership.
▶ INTRODUCTION
This is the first topic out of 10 prepared for the course entitled „Educational
Leadership‰ which will introduce you to the foundations of leadership and
organisation in general. Whenever applicable, the educational scene will be
focused on and used as an illustration. The theories and concepts will enable
learners for the Master of Education to understand the dynamics of education
which influence the development of a nation. The leader of any organisation
plays a very important role in determining its well-being. If the leader is
effective, then the vision and the objectives of the organisation will be achieved
and the organisation progresses further.

2 ▶ TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP
Many a time, the ineffectiveness of a school is directly related to the inefficiency

of the principal or headmaster. He might have been appointed as the leader just
because of seniority but the measure of efficiency was never utilised for the
appointment. The leader might have not gone through the process of experience
and formally learnt the skills and knowledge of becoming a leader in our schools.
Therefore, this course could be of help to aspiring principals, to know the
theories behind the activities of leading as well as the skills needed to be an
effective leader.
1.1 INTERPRETATION OF LEADERSHIP

In simple terms, a leader is a person who leads a group of people to achieve
certain objectives which might have been agreed on by the followers but set by
the leader or as in a democratic organisation. They might have been derived
through discussions and deliberations by all members including the leader. A
leader plays the major role in ensuring that the group objectives are finally
realised. In every group even though no leader is appointed, a leader would
appear among them naturally.
In a battle, if the leader is killed, the second person in command will

automatically take over the leadership, but if all leaders of the platoon were to
die, the person who provides some ideas and suggestions for their survival and
well-being usually will be accepted by the platoon as their natural leader. This
person, who assumes leadership indirectly not by choice but more so for the sake
of his well- being as well his friendsÊ survival, will rise above others in the
group.
The real meaning of leadership can be understood partly by observing the

behaviour of a person who is perceived as a leader. A person could be termed as
a leader if he inspires, influences and motivates people to achieve certain goals
and makes constructive changes in his organisation. In the case of Tun Mahathir
Mohammad, the current Prime Minister of Malaysia, one could easily come to a
conclusion that he is the leader of Malaysians. During his first tenure as Prime
Minister, he not only inspired the people to achieve higher goals in everything they
did but also made paradigm shifts in the policies of socioeconomic development
projects. These characteristics were also observed in our fifth Prime Minister, Tun
DatoÊ Sri Haji Abdullah Ahmad Badawi.

TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP ◀ 3
The other definition of leadership by some quarters included the criteria of

making a difference. A person will only be esteemed as a leader if what he
exercises makes a difference and this difference can facilitate positive changes. If
an organisation is in shambles when a person takes over the leadership of the
organisation but after a reasonable period of time he manages to turn the
organisation around where it becomes sound financially and positive vibes are
present everywhere in the organisation, then we can come to the conclusion that
the person who caused the positive changes was a leader.
Other interpretations of leadership lead to almost the same conclusion such as a

person is a leader if he has the ability to inspire and stimulate others. According
to
W. Chan Kim and Maubourgne (1992), „ Leadership is the ability to inspire
confidence and support among people who are needed to achieve organisational
goals.‰ We find that this opinion is similar to the other explanations
regarding leadership as explained earlier.
As a summary, we could say that leadership has been defined in many different
ways. Du Brin (2001) cited that there were about 35,000 research articles,
magazine articles and books that have been written about leadership. Some of the
definitions given by him are as follows:
(a) Interpersonal influence, directed through communication toward goal

attainment.
(b) The influential increment over and above mechanical compliance with
directions and orders.
(c) An act that causes others to act or respond in a shared direction.
(d) The art of influencing people by persuasion or example to follow a line of

action.
(e) The principal dynamic force that motivates and coordinates the organisation
in the accomplishment of its objectives (Bass, 1990).
(f) A willingness to take the blame (as defined by legendary football

quarterback Joe Montana) (Zaslow, 1998).

We can sense that leadership is associated with „interpersonal influence,

communication, goal attainment, motivation and coordination and willingness to
take the blame‰. These words and phrases distinguish a leader from others. If a
person in any grouping has that quality and practices the role of a leader, he would
be the natural leader of the group. In most successful organisations, the person
appointed as a leader would have to build his personality by incorporating those
traits as a part of his personality. Usually, a leader is seldom born but made.
Anyone can be a leader if he desires to be one and may adopt all the
characteristics of a good leader as a part of his personality.
After reading the meaning of leadership in its various shades, we should move
deeper into the realm of leadership roles. The roles undertaken by a leader are
many faceted and if we look into them, it seems that every one of us has
undertaken a few of the roles if not all of them. Let us proceed.
1.2 LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT

Are leadership and management the same? Both leadership and management are
about working with people and involve influence. Leadership is about effective
goal accomplishment and so is management. The question of whether leadership
is different from or similar to management is an ongoing debate in leadership
literature. The distinction between leadership and management is critical because
it will enable us to develop our thinking about other concepts such as leading
change in organisations and can lead to a deeper understanding of leadership
theories such as transformational and transactional leadership.
Although leading and managing are conceived as different processes (Rost, 1991)
with Zaleznik (1977) adopting a narrower view that leaders and managers are
distinctly different types of people, there are writers (Bass, 1985; Northouse, 2013;
Yukl, 2002) who argue that the functions of management are consistent with the
definition of leadership set forth in subtopic 1.1.
Table 1.1 shows that the functions of management and leadership are different in
scope but Kotter (1998) argued that both management and leadership are
essential if an organisation is to succeed. For example, an organisation which is
strong in management but has no leadership would have an outcome that is
stifling and bureaucratic. On the other hand, with strong leadership but weak
management, the outcome would be meaningless and lack direction. To be
effective, an organisation needs to be nourished by both competent management
and leadership. Both are two sides of the same coin (Schein, 1997).

Table 1.1: Functions of Management and Leadership
Management Leadership
Emphasis on Order and Consistency Emphasis on Change and Movement
Planning and Budgeting: Establishing Direction:
 Establishing agendas  Creating a vision
 Setting timetables  Clarifying big picture
 Allocating resources  Setting strategies
Organising and Staffing: Aligning People:
 Providing structure  Communicating goals
 Making job placements  Seeking commitments
 Establishing rules and procedures  Building teams and coalitions
Controlling and Problem Solving: Motivating and Inspiring:
 Developing incentives  Inspiring and energising
 Generating creative solutions  Empowering subordinates
 Taking corrective action  Satisfying unmet needs
Source: Northouse (2013)
SELF-CHECK 1.1
What do you understand by leadership? Explain.
ACTIVITY 1.1
Explain what you understand by the following qualities of a leader and a manager:
interpersonalinfluence,communication,goalattainment, motivation and coordination, and
In a crisis, who do you think will become a natural „leader‰ a manager or a leader?
Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum.

1.3 LEADERSHIP ROLES

A leader in any organisation plays a very important role to ensure its well-being.
To understand leadership, we should examine the various roles undertaken by a
leader. Although leadership is not a panacea for all problems found in an
organisation, it can play important roles to alleviate some if not the majority of
them and lead the organisation towards achieving its target.
DuBurin (2001) claimed that researchers in this subject identified nine roles that
are played by leaders as shown in Figure 1.1. These roles are very important for
the survival of a leader in an organisation. If he does not take the lead in those
roles, others would have to take them and in the process it would erode the
leadership base and others would usurp them and the leader would be side-lined
and discarded.
Figure 1.1: Nine roles played by leaders
We will now discuss the nine roles one by one.

1.3.1 Figurehead
The term here does not downgrade the role of a leader. Usually, before a person
is promoted into the leadership role, he would have gone through the mill. He would
have the experience of taking responsibilities of doing the difficult tasks when
still climbing the ladder of the organisation. When a person is appointed as the
Chief Executive Officer (CEO), he has already mastered the nitty-gritty of the
organisation and he does not have to do the job. He attends ceremonies just like
the Governor or the King in a constitutional monarchy.
1.3.2 Spokesperson
Another important role of leadership is to be the spokesperson of the
organisation. One of the criteria of promotion is oneÊs thorough knowledge of
the organisation. Therefore, it is most appropriate for the leader to be the
representative of the organisation.
1.3.3 Negotiator
A leader is judged by his ability to negotiate difficult bargaining situations
especially with trade unions or for bargaining the best deal from vendors or
business partners.
1.3.4 Coach
An effective leader would help subordinates by coaching them to be more
effective. Some of the coaching activities that leaders implement are related to
tips on human relations procedures and skills as well as communication skills.
1.3.5 Team Builder

A very important aspect of leadership is building an effective team where team
members cooperate effectively with each other. The members feel that they all
belong to the organisation and have high group morale. They are also
encouraged to talk about their accomplishments, problems and concerns and
they would try to help and motivate each other in the process of reaching greater
heights of achievements.

1.3.6 Team Player

A leader should also be a team player who has to exhibit appropriate behaviours
such as abiding by the team decision.
1.3.7 Technical Problem Solver

Technical problem solving is usually the responsibility of middle managers and
supervisors. They are usually prepared for higher positions in the organisation,
and among their duties is to help team members to solve their technical
problems.
1.3.8 Entrepreneur
An important aspect of leadership, especially in a private organisation, is the role
of an entrepreneur by contributing innovative ideas on how to attract more
students to enrol into courses offered by the institute.
1.3.9 Strategic Planner

The top management team is always involved in strategic planning after getting
valuable information and data from various sources. Strategic planning is vital in
ensuring a healthy environment with growth projections that are synonymous
with market demands of the future.
After scrutinising all the mentioned roles, we may observe that a leader has to
have not only theoretical knowledge, but also have the right attitudes and the
correct skills. The leader has to be a good actor at first and in the process, absorb
all the traits that are required to be a successful role player in all the nine roles. A
leader who can adapt himself to the roles that are demanded out of him will be
able to bring together his staff to support him and the organisation.

SELF-CHECK 1.2
What is the difference between a „team builder‰ and a „team player‰?
ACTIVITY 1.2
Why is the role of an entrepreneur important?
Select four of the leadership roles that you would consider to be the most important and give r
1.4 TRAITS OF EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP

All the roles mentioned previously that have to be played by a leader could be
measured by various means such as by looking at the result; whether there is
harmony between the staff in the organisation, and whether it makes a profit.
These variables can be measured through questionnaires or by participant
observation. The effectiveness of oneÊs leadership could also be observed through
the traits of the leader himself. McEwan (2003) in his book 10 Traits of Highly
Effective Principals – From Good to Great Performance described that effective
principals who are school leaders, could be observed through the 10 traits. The
accounts by these effective leaders could inspire educational leaders to achieve
higher levels of efficiency.

Figure 1.2: Ten Important indicators of effective leadership
Figure 1.2 show us 10 traits as important indications of effective leadership. All

these traits should be present in an individual leader and they should be part of
the personality of the individual. In order to have a deeper understanding of
these traits, we will probe into each one of them. Benchmarks were set for each
trait and a leader could only be considered as effective if the benchmarks
standards are met. McEwanÊs (2003) strict adherence to her benchmarks ensured
that if the leaders under scrutiny were to fulfil each one of the benchmarks, their
standing as leaders would be solid and there would be few disagreements about
their status.

1.4.1 The Communicator

Communication skills are very important in any leadership function. A leader
has to communicate his ideas and instructions to his subordinates as well as to
others. If the message is not vividly communicated, misunderstandings could
arise and as the result of this inability, he would be rendered as an ineffective
leader. McEwan gave the following characteristics which are used as benchmarks
for this trait.
As a communicator, a leader has to:
(a) Attend to the needs of the staff;
(b) Listen and understand to the grouses and opinions of his subordinates;
(c) Empathise with whatever difficulties encountered by the staff and provide
means to ease them through cooperation;
(d) Disclose himself to others;
(e) Get the whole story;
(f) Ask the right questions;
(g) Say what he means and mean what he says. A leader should be straight
forward and not beat about the bush;
(h) Accept criticism;
(i) Give correction;
(j) Communicate creatively;
(k) Disagree agreeably;
(l) Pay attention to parents;
(m) Connect emotionally and professionally with staff;

(n) Communicate with students;
(o) Can talk to the boss;
(p) Connect in productive, helping and healing ways;
(q) Care enough to send the very best;
(r) Know how to sweet talk; and
(s) Write, speak and teach.
These characteristics of the communicator could be important reminders for each

one of us since we are leaders in various capacities holding many roles at all
times. An aspiring leader would benefit from knowing those important traits
because he needs to immortalise those traits within his personality and mould his
character accordingly.
An effective leader does not necessarily have those characteristics at the optimum
level because it is very rare for a person to excel in everything he does. What is
needed is the awareness of the importance of all those traits and slowly
indoctrinating oneself into those traits and practising the kaizen philosophy
where continuous improvement is a sure way of improving oneself.
ACTIVITY 1.3
What does it mean to „know how to sweet talk‰?

What is meant by „agree to disagree‰?
In your career you would have met and worked under various leaders. Discuss one of these leaders
Share your answers in myINSPIRE online forum.

1.4.2 The Educator

Every one of us is an educator even though we are not professional teachers. We
educate our children to behave and toilet-train our pets. As a leader, this role is
benchmarked against some characteristics that are deemed as the trait of an
educator.
As an educator, he should exhibit the following characteristics:

(a) Believes that all students can learn;
(b) Provides training and support for teachers;
(c) Creates cognitive dissonance to ensure the development of creativity
among the students;
(d) Establishes, implements and achieves academic standards;
(e) Focuses on instruction;
(f) Models continuous learning;
(g) Develops teacher leaders;
(h) Pays attention to what matters most; and
(i) Creates learning communities.
An educational leader must be an educator in order to succeed. His interest is

embedded in the creation of a conducive environment for growth for all; the
students, academic and non-academic staff as well. He is unselfish in sharing his
knowledge and experiences with others in the organisation to ensure the
achievement of the vision of his organisation.
ACTIVITY 1.4
What is „a learning community‰? Explain.

The principal who is classified as „an educator‰ has many positive traits that are useful in lea

1.4.3 The Envisioner

The following are the characteristics of the envisioner:
(a) Has sixth sense and can sense future happenings;
(b) Feels called to make a difference;
(c) Has resolve, goals and life vision;
(d) Can see the invisible;
(e) Knows where they are headed;
(f) Has compelling visions that enables him to use this ability to venture into
unchartered territory; and
(g) Can articulate his visions and then make them happen.
The „envisioner‰ is an important trait for strategic planners for this ability
would enable the organisation to charter future plans accurately and in the
process minimise wastage in time as well as manpower. An organisation which
can do this will be able to withstand changes and uncertainties in the market
place as well as new challenges in the future.
SELF-CHECK 1.3
List the characteristics of an „envisioner‰.
ACTIVITY 1.5
How would an „envisioner‰ react to the changes in the education policy, such as the change of the

1.4.4 The Facilitator

The following are the characteristics of the facilitator:
(a) Bonds people into a community of leaders;
(b) Taps the potential of people;
(c) Says „we‰ instead of „I‰;
(d) Favours people over paperwork;
(e) Builds up emotional bank accounts through understanding, appreciating,

and affirming of another individual;
(f) Cultivates his own well-being and develops an anti-burnout mechanism by

developing his self-esteem;
(g) Values diversity;
(h) Shares the „power pie‰;
(i) Accentuates the positive aspects of his followers;
(j) Promotes parental involvement in school activities;
(k) Celebrates whenever successes are achieved for this will be a motivating
element for the students; and
(l) Spends time with students which will make the students feel that the
principal has an interest in their welfare.
A „facilitator‰ is a person who facilitates the smooth running of affairs

among members within the organisation as well as with outsiders. He sees
people in a positive light and feels that they have potentials for the betterment of
the organisation that others do not see. This trait can be cultivated and made use
for developing organisational well-being. It helps others to see things in a
positive way and boost the possibility of cooperation and collaboration from the
most unlikely people. He can make things happen.

SELF-CHECK 1.4
What does „building up emotional bank accounts‰ mean?
In your own words, explain „the sharing of the power pie‰.
ACTIVITY 1.6
How does a leader „bond people into a community of leaders‰?
If a school is having communication problems among the teachers and between the teachers and the
1.4.5 The Change Master

The following are the characteristics of the change master:
(a) Can handle uncertainty and ambiguity;
(b) Respects resisters which show that the leader knows how to handle difficult
and delicate situations in a change process;
(c) Is futuristic because a leader who designs change actions are usually
forward looking and has the ability to adapt his organisation earlier than
the resisters;
(d) Uses a situational approach;
(e) Knows the power is within oneself;
(f) Values the process because it is an important experience;
(g) Plans for short-term victories for building up confidence;
(h) Procures resources to ensure that the change process would not be hindered;
(i) Trusts his team;
(j) Does not only require his followers to change but he himself is willing to
change because a leader leads by example;

(k) Must also be a motivator; and
(l) Understands the whole change process is a mark of an effective leader.
He knows how to plan for change as well as manage it well to ensure cooperation
from his staff. He knows that changing paradigms are difficult to begin with, and
therefore he anticipates there would be resisters and knows how to deal with them.
In time, the resisters will become supporters when they see the reasons and
rationale for the change.
SELF-CHECK 1.5
Who is a „change master‰?
ACTIVITY 1.7
Where do you think is the best place for the „change master‰ to serve in the Malaysian scho
Explain „futuristic‰ and the benefit of this characteristic.
1.4.6 The Culture Builder

The following are the characteristics of the culture builder:
(a) Understands and appreciates the power of culture;
(b) Knows what a good culture looks like, in order to plan and execute the
cultural building plan of the organisation;
(c) Facilitates the development of core values;
(d) Communicates these values clearly to all team members;
(e) Rewards and cheers those who support and enhance the culture motivating
others to do the same;
(f) Builds a culture that people choose; and
(g) Knows the small stuff is really the big stuff, which helps the organisation to
achieve its objectives faster.

To build a culture takes time and effort. In the case of building a culture in a
school it takes at least a generation of students, which is approximately five years
of continuous effort. The effort must be sustained and the newly formed culture
has to be nourished and propagated. When new students enter the school, they
must be acculturated into the established culture of the school. The teachers and
the principal are the main participants through leadership by example where
students will emulate them. If a positive and nourishing culture is established,
then it will be easier for it to be sustained and improved upon from generation to
generation.
SELF-CHECK 1.6
Describe what is meant by „understanding and appreciating the power of culture‰?
ACTIVITY 1.8
What would the „culture builder‰ do if he is given the opportunity to head a newly established sec
Share your answer with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum.
1.4.7 The Activator

The following are the characteristics of the activator:
(a) Mobilises people to work towards achieving the target;
(b) Is also an entrepreneurial leader;
(c) Does not want to be told – a proactive indicator of a leader;
(d) Is a risk taker because by doing so he can make the organisation be in the
forefront of the industry;

(e) Asks for forgiveness rather than permission whenever he wants to begin a
new venture;
(f) Runs to daylight as used by McEwan (2003) – meaning taking advantage of

an opportunity (Waterman 1990);
(g) Does not micromanage the teachers because he feels that teachers should be
given the freedom to do things their own way;
(h) Makes things happen;
(i) „He is outrageous‰ in a positive tone which is an indicator of admiration

indicating that he is a rare breed who achieved whatever targets were set
for him and has beaten all odds though he might be eccentric; and
(j) Is a cheerleader because he encourages and motivates.
Original thinkers are usually outrageous and unconventional but they are able to
see things that others cannot. This trait is an advantage because he is prepared
for things to come, leaving others aghast when what he forecasted really
happens. He becomes an effective leader and would change the organisation that
he is heading into a better organisation when he leaves.
SELF-CHECK 1.7
What is meant by „being outrageous‰ as used in 1.4.7(i)?
ACTIVITY 1.9
What do you think will happen to the school if the principal has only the characteristics of a
What would an „activator‰ do when he faces a crisis?

1.4.8 The Producer

The characteristics of the producer are as follows:
(a) Believes that achievement is the bottom line;
(b) Never mistakes activities for achievements because unplanned activities

would not achieve anything;
(c) Is data driven;
(d) Pays attention to individual students;
(e) Has an academically-focused mission;
(f) Makes research-based decisions; and
(g) Holds teachers accountable for all activities by them.
A producer is driven by hard data. He will not waste his time and resources into
something that he does not know will have a chance of winning. This careful trait
ensures that the organisation does not spend time and effort in wasteful
activities.
SELF-CHECK 1.8
The producer „never mistakes activities for achievements‰. Explain.
ACTIVITY 1.10
Compare and contrast the „producer‰ with the „activator‰. Are they compatible?

1.4.9 The Character Builder

McEwan (2003) indicated the following characteristics as an indicator of a leader
who builds the character of his team members. If a leader has all the
characteristics, it is an excellent indicator that the school or organisation is going
to achieve its vision.
(a) He is human; which means that he has his weak moments however perfect
he is in the eyes of his followers;
(b) He is trustworthy;
(c) He has integrity;
(d) He is authentic which means that the leader is real and can be counted on;
(e) He is respectful;
(f) He is generous in giving advice and willing to coach others in the
improvement process;
(g) He hires staff members with character. This means that the staff members
have strong personalities and characteristics which would help him to
achieve the organisational objectives;
(h) He is consistent in his words and actions;
(i) He leads by example; and
(j) He seeks to develop the character of students.
A leader with character is trusted by the organisation as well as his subordinates.

His personality is pleasant and his followers will find it easy to emulate him to
get the respect from him as well as from people who have dealings with the
organisation. Since he leads by example, the students who are in the formative
stage of development will have a good example in him.
SELF-CHECK 1.9
In your opinion what are the five most important characteristics of
„the character builder‰? Why?
Elaborate on the statement, „A leader hires staff members with character‰.

ACTIVITY 1.11
As a teacher in a school that is headed by a principal who is a „character builder‰, how would you
1.4.10 The Contributor

The contributor plays a vital role because he is very concerned with his
customersÊ needs, and he strives to fulfil them. He is very thorough in
everything he does to ensure that whatever changes he wants to implement; they
must go through a rigid inspection and introspection first. Some of his
characteristics are as follows:
(a) Leads by serving others;
(b) Is self-aware and reflective;
(c) Is a good steward for others to trust and follow; and
(d) Has a strong will.
The contributor pays attention to details and this trait ensures that nothing is
missing or misplaced. Costly mistakes can be avoided and his superiors can trust
this leader to deliver the goods on time and miscommunication will be
minimised because he double checks when there is any slightest doubt.
All the mentioned characteristics and traits of effective leaders will, no doubt,
bring about the desired results of any organisation. It seems that a combination of
the earlier traits, are found in various degrees in leaders who were later studied
under a different light using different criteria. The changing perspectives on
leadership studies bring about a new light of understanding of the leadership
types.

ACTIVITY 1.12
After reading the roles and characteristics of an effective leader, you

would have a good idea of what qualities you should have if you were
to be an effective leader of a school and perhaps later on, an effective
education leader in any school system. To test whether you have really
grasped the content of the above materials you may answer the
following questions:
(a) In order to play the leadership roles effectively, a leader should

have acquired the necessary qualities of the nine leadership roles
stated in this topic. How would an aspiring leader acquire those
qualities? Discuss.
(b) Out of the nine roles discussed in this topic, name five of the more
important roles that a principal should have mastered in order to
be an effective leader. Discuss the rational for choosing them.
(c) In our education system, when do you think a leader plays the
role of:
(i) A strategic planner?
(ii) An entrepreneur?
(iii) A figurehead?
(d) Developing positive traits takes time. Do you think leaders can be
trained to acquire the traits of effective leadership through
training courses and workshops? Discuss.
(e) Out of the ten traits of effective leadership, in your opinion, name
three of the most important ones. Give reasons for choosing them.

1.5 LEADERSHIP AND POWER

The element of power appears conspicuous in leadership as power is
fundamentally inherent in the leadership process. The use of power, at its most
basic level, is defined by Dahl (1957) as somebody influencing another person to
do something they would otherwise not do. Most leadership definitions make
references to influencing followers, where some source of power is arguably
needed to be able to influence others.
Yet, power has never been strongly featured in the study of leadership due to its
negative connotations of abusive and bad leadership. The study of leadership in
the absence of in-depth considerations of power and the power asymmetric in
leadership studies and practices has led to the false assumption of leadership as
inherently good and positive (Collinson, 2011; Gordon, 2011). Table 1.2 shows
three sources of power and their links to leadership.
Table 1.2: Influence, Persuasion and Authority
Sources of
Description Link to Leadership
Power
Influence Process of producing an effect on An essential activity of a leader
somebodyÊs behaviour, attitude, and an active use of power to get
vales, etc. somebody or a group to achieve a
set goal.
Persuasion Urging with somebody A particular way a leader can

convincingly to do something or influence others, can be seen as a
believe something. form of political behaviour or
tactic.
Authority The right (legal or positional) to Come with formal positions of
determine control, assign tasks and leadership and management
responsibilities, solve conflicts, set within an organisational hierarchy.
rules and procedures, reward and
punish.
Source: Schedlitzki & Edwards (2014)

1.5.1 Power – A Focus on Individuals

Power is described as the ability of an individual or group to influence another
individual or group. This is linked to different mechanisms of influencing, such
as coercive, remunerative and normative. These mechanisms are likely to
produce different reactions from those who are influenced, such as commitment,
compliance or resistance (Etzioni, 1988). Most leadership theories (Topic 2, Topic
3 and Topic 4) take this view of power and seek to give leaders advice on what
types and sources of power they have and how they can use these in the light of
how their followers will react to it (Yukl, 2010).
This view of power is behavioural as it focuses on the individualÊs use of power

and interaction with others. Such a view is concerned with observable,
behavioural actions and reactions and the active use of power to resolve conflicts
and make decisions. Such power gains its legitimacy through the hierarchy and
rules within the organisation (Jackson & Parry, 2011). As a result, such power is
usually associated with the managerÊs power over his subordinates in line
with the supervisory role and the organisationÊs rules of conduct.
1.5.2 Power – Shared Leadership

With recognition given to distributed leadership, the focus of power has shifted
from the individual to that of equal distribution between leaders and followers
(Gordon, 2011). With this dispersed leadership movement, there arises a totally
different way of looking at the relationships between the leader and the
followers.
Collinson (2011) echoes GordonÊs (2011, p. 185) view that the power relations
between the leader and the follower are „likely to be interdependent and
asymmetrical, ambiguous, frequently shifting, potentially contradictory and
often contested‰. This recognises that despite the asymmetrical power
relationship, followers are not entirely powerless (Schedlitzki & Edwards, 2014).
Shared leadership, or often known as distributed leadership, is practised when
subordinates are given the opportunities to make decisions that affect them in the
organisation.

1.6 CHANGING PERSPECTIVES

ON LEADERSHIP
So far we have been looking at leadership from the traits and role perspectives
which are traditional in nature. Most of this theory development and research
which follows a traditional model occurred before 1980s and a lot of research had
been generated, and many theories were developed such as the Leader Behaviour
Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) studies which started at Ohio State University
in the 1940s.
It was originally developed and refined by John K. Hemphill and Alvin Coons in
1950, and in 1952 it was later refined by Andrew Halpin and B. J. Winter (Hoy &
Miskel 2001). There were four major findings that emerged from the Ohio State
University LBDQ studies (Halpin, 1966). Halpin summarised their findings in the
following words:
(a) Initiating structure and consideration are fundamental dimensions of leader

behaviour.
(b) Effective leader behaviour tends most often to be associated with frequent
behaviours on both dimensions.
(c) Superiors and subordinates tend to evaluate the contributions of the leader
behaviour dimensions oppositely in assessing effectiveness. Superiors tend
to emphasise initiating structure; subordinates are more concerned with
consideration.
(d) Only a slight relationship exists between how leaders say they should behave
and how subordinates describe that they do behave.
From the four major findings, we can observe that the common ground
between the leaders and their subordinates are limited and they have very little
in common to share. Leaders seemed to emphasise initiating the structure while
the subordinates are more concerned with consideration, and if both sides go
different ways then the relationship stops to function and the organisation breaks
down. In order for the organisation to run smoothly to achieve its objectives, the
common ground for both sides to interact actively must be broad enough so that
both sides would perceive that their interests were taken care of. Only then the
leadership becomes effective.

This pattern of leadership studies slowly began to change and, in the 1990s, a
new paradigm in leadership studies emerged. It was termed as „The New Leadership
‰. In the early 1990s, charismatic and transformational leadership theories
provoked a high level of interest among scholars and practitioners, and by the
end of the decade, dozens of research studies were conducted (Conger, 1999).
This new approach towards leadership was different from the traditional
approach (Hoy & Miskel, 2001). The following discussions on the new approach
towards leadership will provide a better picture and understanding of their
positions.
1.6.1 Charismatic Leadership

Max Weber (1947) first conceptualised charisma as a mode of influence based
on the followersÊ perceptions that the leader displayed exceptional qualities.
Whenever a leader displays the ability to solve a problem through an envisioning
of strategic plans and deliberations on how to go about doing it, especially in a
crisis, he would have a following. If his solutions to the problem bring about the
desired results, then his followers would show strong and intense loyalty to the
leader. In history, we have seen leaders such as Hitler of Germany, Soekarno of
Indonesia and Mathma Ghandi of India as examples of charismatic leaders. Their
followers showed intense loyalty towards them and would follow the
instructions of these leaders.
From the examples given, we know that charisma does not differentiate between
good and evil (House & Howell, 1992) and these charismatic leaders emerged
during crisis. In the case of Hitler, there is very little disagreement that he was a
charismatic leader with negative and evil connotations.
House (1977) defined charismatic leadership as distinguishable from other

leadership by its characteristics. Charismatic leaders are characterised by
dominance, self-confidence, need to influence and strong conviction in the moral
correctness of their beliefs. These charismatic leaders would be able to bring about
positive changes in society to achieve their visions successfully, if their policies
and visions are based on a sound philosophy and principles.
On the other hand, if these charismatic leaders based their philosophy on false
notions and destructive philosophies, then the societies they lead would create
anarchy as what happened to Hitler of Germany during the Second World War
and Radovan Milosevic of Serbia after the break-up of Yugoslavia in 1990s.

House and Howell (1992) refined the personality traits of charismatic leadership
which were first constructed by House (1977). The refined personality traits
include the following:
(a) Achievement-oriented;
(b) Creatively- and innovatively-oriented;
(c) Very energetic and has a high level of involvement;
(d) Self-confident;
(e) Has a need for social influence with concern for the moral use of power;
(f) Takes high risk and has a deep work involvement; and
(g) Nurturing, sensitive socially and considerate towards followers.
From these personality traits, we would envision that the charismatic leaders as
characterised by House and Howell (1992) are sought after leaders because those
traits are necessary ingredients for successful organisations. In an educational
context, we would be able to achieve better academic results, while the creative
and innovative traits of the principal would lead the way for the teachers and the
students to follow. Any paradigm shifts that were to be implemented would
have the least resistance from the followers. The leaderÊs deep involvement and
willingness to take risks would bring about intense support from the staff and
the possibility of achieving the objectives are very likely.
To judge whether a leader is charismatic or not depends on the followers. It is the

followers who determine whether their leader is charismatic or otherwise.
Conger and Kanungo (1988) explained that the attribution of charisma gradually
begins to form as followers observe the leaderÊs behaviour. Charismatic leaders
engage in behaviours that create a sense of leader success. The leader can sense
his success and in the process, his support becomes stronger from his followers.
Both Conger and Kanungo (1988) summarised that charismatic leaders show the
following behaviour:
(a) Has a future vision;
(b) Manages impressions;
(c) Makes self-sacrifices;
(d) Takes personal risks;

(e) Models behaviour for followers to imitate;
(f) Engages in unconventional behaviour for followers to imitate; and
(g) Shares power.
This summary shares similar characteristics described by House and Howell

(1992). Before Conger and Kanungo (1988) and House and Howell (1992), in 1977,
House had hypothesised that charismatic leaders have the greatest influence on
followersÊ emotions. Michael Jackson, the King of Pop could be cited as a
charismatic leader in the pop music world, whereby millions of his followers and
supporters all over the world were hysterical at the news of his release from all
wrong doings.
Shamir and Howell (1999) contended that charismatic leadership is more likely to
emerge and be effective in weak situations. In the case of Indonesia during the
war for independence from the Dutch, the country was unstable and weak. The
country may have disintegrated into small independent states along ethnic lines
but President Soekarno was able to forge a united Indonesia through his ability
to persuade the people of Indonesia to remain within the Republic.
His success in this area enabled him to have a large group of staunch followers
all over the country who were willing to listen to his lengthy speech for hours
and they emulated him in his oratory ability as well as his dressing. The people
of Indonesia still have warm regards for him and remember him as instrumental
for achieving independence and unity for Indonesia. The likelihood of having a
charismatic leader in a developed democracy is most unlikely, because people
have all the basic needs and have no threats within their society. Therefore, there
is no need for a charismatic leader to sway them to achieve grand visions or to
climb greater heights. They are already there!
Charismatic leaders seemed to become rarer at the turn of the 21st century due to
the globalised environment including third world countries. However, on a
smaller scale and in a more localised manner, it does occur from time to time.
What these leaders possess is not fully charisma but rather a combination of
various forms of characteristics and styles.
Leaders have become more „normal‰ and down-to-earth and they can easily be
accessed by their followers. As such, whatever charismatic qualities they have
seemed to dissipate and the real qualities become apparent to their followers. As
the result of this perception change, other types of leadership were coined to
describe the new changes in the leadership styles which are more suited to the
new democratic process as people become more educated worldwide.

In our school system, sometimes there exist schools that have a combination of
problems due to many factors. Sometimes the problems might be caused by
neglect by all sides – the principal, teachers, parents and students as well as the
department of education. Where the neglect continues for a long period of time it
develops into a negative culture that can destroy the school. To rehabilitate the
school takes a lot of effort and time. Probably this is the time and place when the
services of a charismatic leader is needed.
SELF-CHECK 1.10
What are the refined personality traits of a charismatic leader according to House and Howell (1992
ACTIVITY 1.13
Some people contend that most charismatic leaders are ineffective. Do you agree with them? Discus
Where do you think a charismatic principal would serve best? Give reasons.
Is charismatic leadership acquired or inborn? Elaborate your answer.
Can an individual who aspires to be a leader develop some charismatic traits? If he can, how?
1.6.2 Transactional and Transformational Leadership

There are two other leadership types that are classified as the same category but
positioned at different points on the same continuum. They are classified as
transactional and transformational leadership approaches. Bernard M. Bass (1985)
on the basis of James MacGregor BurnÊs (1978) ideas of transactional and
transformational political leaders was among the first who made an attempt to
deliberate on the characteristics of transformational leadership.

According to Burns (1978), transactional leaders motivate their followers by

exchanging rewards for the services rendered. In an organisation, the employees
and the employers do barter trading where the services and goods rendered by
the employees are exchanged for the wages at the end of the month. This analogy
illustrates the transaction between the leaders and the subordinates. When this
transactional leadership mode is applied to schools, the leaders recognise what
the followers want and the leader tries to provide them with this. In exchange for
the reward, the teachers will provide their services through teaching and
involvement in co-curricular activities.
Kuhnert and Lewis (1987) summarised transactional leaders as giving followers

things they want in exchange for things leaders want. If the expectations of the
leaders and the followers are congruent with each other, then the organisation
would be in harmony and the objectives set would be met but there is a limit to
this type of transaction. In a dynamic organisation where new things need to be
developed and paradigm shifts need to be made to face the challenges in the
market place, a different type of leadership is needed.
In contrast to transactional leaders, transformational leadership goes beyond

exchanges and inducements for desired performance and products or services
(Bennis & Nanus, 1985). Transformational leaders would use other means of
motivating their followers to be self-motivated and empowering themselves to
produce unexpected performance beyond what they themselves could
envisage. According to Yukl (1998) transformational leaders build commitment
into the organisationÊs objectives and empower followers to achieve those
objectives. He cited that transformational leaders are expected to:
(a) Define the need for change;
(b) Create new visions and muster commitment to the visions;
(c) Concentrate on long-term goals;
(d) Inspire followers to transcend their own interests to pursue higher order
goals;
(e) Change their organisation to accommodate their vision rather than work
within the existing one; and
(f) Mentor followers to take greater responsibility for their own development
and that of others.

These six actions that are taken up by transformational leaders are actually
qualities of effective leaders, which have been deliberated upon earlier, who are
open to paradigm shifts and innovations. Willingness to adopt new ways of
doing
„other things‰ as well adopting innovations in doing the „traditional things‰ is a
sign of a transformational leadership.
Transformational leaders feel that there is a need for change in the organisation
and the needed change is defined in specific and measurable terms to ensure that
the process of ongoing evaluation could be implemented to measure the success
of the change process.
Transformational leaders also mentor their followers to empower themselves

by taking greater responsibility for their own development and others in the
organisation. This mentoring process enables the subordinates to be more
effective through the process of learning new knowledge, skills and instilling the
right attitudes before they can really be empowered by the leaders.
Bass (1998) and Avolio (1999) contend that transactional leadership forms the
basis of a sustainable leadership system. In any organisation the qualities of a
transactional leader enable the organisation to face dynamic challenges and help
them not to succumb to the onslaughts of globalisation. Instead, the process of
globalisation would transform the organisation into a desired vehicle to spread
its strategic plans and visions in difficult-to-access places.
In the process of leadership, the practise of transactional leadership is the

beginning of a higher form of leadership namely transformational leadership
which is at the higher end of the same continuum. When an organisation has
become more effective through transactional leadership, it is a sign that the
organisation could be positively transformed further through the implementation
of transformational leadership.
The source of transformational leadership is in the personal values and beliefs of

the leaders. These values and beliefs lead to a strong desire to transform the
organisation into a new entity and the strong beliefs and values would sustain
the momentum needed to achieve the strategic objectives.

Bass (1998) views that transformational leaders go beyond transactional leaders

by employing the four Is as shown in Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3: Four Is of transformational leaders
When transactional leaders move further within the same continuum to

become transactional leaders they have to go some steps further. The influence
that they want to have on their followers should be strong enough so that the
followers would idealise it and willingly follow the footsteps taken by these
transformational leaders. The motivation that they devise is of a type that
inspires them intellectually and the experience that the followers have is
individualised. The experience would be more meaningful through the
individualisation process.

In the context of the school, these transformational leaders should inspire the
teachers to believe in themselves through the process of strategic planning as
well as implementing the visions and sharing equally the successes of the change
strategy that they have achieved. The teachers would feel that they belong to the
successes as intensely as the leaders themselves. The leaders should have pride in
their followers and feel that they belong to the same community as the followers.
As society progresses, the style of leadership approaches also moves with the
changes in society. At the time when it was effective to use transactional
leadership, it was widely used in managing subordinates in organisations As
society progressed and workers were more educated than before, the
transactional leadership approach moved to a higher and more enlightened level
into the transformational leadership stage. Malaysian education, for example, is
actively involved in the reengineering process of the school system to prepare for
2020 when Malaysia will achieve its developed nation status.
Primary school teachers and headmasters are being retrained to higher education
so that by the year 2020 all of them will hold at least a bachelor degree which would
make them experts in their specialisation of teaching elementary students in
the primary schools. This process of change needs both transactional and
transformational leadership styles to ensure an everlasting change through
effective implementations of programmes to achieve the objectives of Vision 2020
in education.
1.6.3 Instructional Leadership

A critical role of a school leader is that of an instructional leader, although the
principal alone is not solely responsible for leadership of instruction (Hoy & Hoy,
2003). Teachers deliver classroom instruction as they have the subject expertise,
but it is the principalÊs responsibility to create an environment and develop a
school climate that facilitates quality instructional programmes conducive to
providing the very best instructional practices. Thus, the onus falls on the
principal to forge a partnership with teachers with the primary goal of the
improvement of teaching and learning.

Hallinger (1982) developed 10 job functions that reflect the areas of responsibility
of the principal as an instructional leader as shown in Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.4: The 10 job functions of an instructional
leader Let us now discuss the 10 job functions in greater detail.
(a) Frame the School Goals

The principal determines the areas in which the school focuses its resources
during a given year with emphasis on student achievement. All school
resources are mobilised to achieve a few but well-coordinated objectives.

(b) Communicate the School Goals

Goals are effectively communicated to teachers, parents and students to be
realised. The principal discusses and review these goals with teachers on a
regular basis. Such communication can be through school bulletins,
newsletters, school handbooks and during assemblies.
(c) Supervise and Evaluate Instruction

Goals of the school are being translated into practice in the classrooms.
Classroom instruction is evaluated and instructional supports to teachers
are provided. Classroom instruction is monitored through numerous
informal classroom visits.
(d) Coordinate the Curriculum

Content taught in classes and the student assessments are closely aligned
with school curricular objectives.
(e) Monitor Student Progress

Test results are analysed, interpreted and discussed in a concise form with
staff at an appropriate time.
(f) Protect Instructional Time

Teachers are provided with blocks of uninterrupted time so that they are
able to implement better classroom management and instructional skills.
(g) Maintain High Visibility

Interaction between the principal and students as well as teachers increases
with the principalÊs visibility in the school and classroom. It also has a
positive effect on student behaviour and classroom instruction.
(h) Provide Incentives for Teachers

Teachers are rewarded through praises, compliments, promotion
opportunities and monetary gain when they deserve them.
(i) Provide Professional Development

The principal arranges and provides relevant opportunities for staff
development, especially in improving instruction. Such programmes are
closely related to the schoolÊs goals.
(j) Provide Incentives for Learning

The principal plays an important role in creating a school-learning climate
with emphasis on academic achievement. StudentsÊ achievement should be
rewarded and recognised by peers and teachers.

SELF-CHECK 1.11
What are expected out of transformational leaders?

What do you understand by the phrase, „There are two other leadership types that are classifi
ACTIVITY 1.14
How would you explain why the transactional and transformational leadership approaches are
Can all leaders acquire transformational leadership traits through training? Explain.
Describe how a transformational leader executes the mission and vision of a school that he lea
1.6.4 Moral Leadership

Transformational leadership would be more potent if it was accompanied by
certain values and beliefs that are used as guiding principles. The other form of
leadership that are based on values and beliefs which complement and
strengthen transformational leadership is termed by Sergiovanni (1991) as moral
leadership.
The proponents of moral leadership believe that leadership practice should not
only be considered legitimate if it is only based by secular authority, science and
deductive reasoning and logic which at present dominate management thinking.
That criterion is not wholesome due to other elements that guide human actions
and thinking. Therefore, it should also include sense experience, intuition, sacred
authority and emotion. In many societies, they form the basis of leadership
actions where secular authority is of utmost importance.

We should also ask the question, „What motivates and inspires leaders and
followers to work in extraordinary ways? Is it for the money?‰ The answer lies
in something else. It is connected with emotions, values and our connections with
other people which count a great deal but are downplayed as sources of
motivation.
As an illustration, we can cite the example of a billionaire who makes billions of

dollars but he travels economy class, does not employ a driver and lives in a
modest house. He spends millions of dollars annually on helping the poor. He
finds satisfaction in doing that and his ability to help the poor and others who are
in need motivates him to work in extraordinary ways. He feels that it is a
religious duty for him to work in the best means he can and whatever profits he
earned is a trust from God that should benefit the society he lives in, where he is
a part of it.
Sources of authority for leadership are also important. In a traditional sense,

bureaucratic authority, psychological authority and technical-rational authority
are cited, but Sergiovanni (1991) considered moral authority also as important.
Moral authority which is based on sacred authority would make a leader walk
the extra mile. The leader is willing to do the ordinary chores such as cleaning the
toilets as he believes in „leadership by example‰ which is the basis for moral
leadership. In other words his motivation is intrinsic in nature. His rewards do
not come from worldly things but in the hereafter.
When moral values become part of leadership, then leadership will become less
important and schools will be transformed from organisations into communities
where professionalism is viewed as statement of competence and as a virtue.
When this situation has become a tradition, every member of the community will
be self- motivated and the motivation is mostly driven by their moral intrinsic
values. Theoretically, the organisation would function well even though there is
no designated leader.
In a school setting, collegiality among the teachers will be an important

characteristic of moral leadership. Collegiality is a professional virtue which comes
from within the teachers themselves where they would help each other to strive
for greater heights in achieving the objectives that were also set by them. By
building shared values, empowerment in all areas of concern, collegiality among
all staff members would make schools more effective and whatever transformation
that the school desired would achieve its targets.
Transformational leadership with the principles of moral values would probably

make the leader and the organisation more effective. The problem of indiscipline
among students and staff would be less severe and more manageable if the
students value the moral principles that govern their behaviour as well as the

leadership style of their leaders.

In modern secular societies moral values are relative and, as the result of this stand,
they tend to be overlooked and side-lined whenever major paradigm shifts have
to be implemented. It sometimes causes a breakdown in family and societal
values that can result in grave social problems. The same thing can occur in our
education system if we were to exclude moral values. Before we are able to
inculcate moral values among our students, the school leadership and the
teachers should be the prime examples of moral virtues.
These moral values should be present in all decisions, management,

communication and relationships between every individual in the schools. The
effectiveness of any programme depends on the right combination of variables
which include the right fundamental philosophy and values of the organisation
and individuals, a sound vision, strategic plans, the right knowledge and skills of
the members and a leader who is wise, knowledgeable, knows what leadership
approaches to adopt and withholds high moral values.
SELF-CHECK 1.12
What is moral leadership?
What do supporters of moral leadership believe in strongly?
ACTIVITY 1.15
„If the administration of a school does not base itself on moral values, it will face grave proble
Are Malaysian schools lacking in moral leadership? Give your views. Share your answers with
 Leadership is associated with interpersonal influence, communication, goal

attainment, motivation and coordination and willingness to take blame.
 The distinction between leadership and management is critical but to be

effective, an organisation needs to be nourished by both competent
management and leadership.

 The nine roles of a leader are figurehead, spokesperson, negotiator, coach,

team builder, team player, technical problem solver, entrepreneur and
strategic planner.
 This topic looked into the leader from a solo perspective, based on the great
man theory, where leadership is seen to be practised by one person who
occupies the top position.
 An effective leader possesses 10 traits: a skilled communicator, an educator,

an envisioner, a facilitator, a change master, a culture builder, an activator, a
producer, a character builder and a contributor.
 The idea of leadership as an influence process evolved from the solo leader
concept when leadership is viewed as charismatic, transformational and
transactional.
 Moral leadership is considered important and by incorporating moral values

and beliefs, transformational leadership would be more potent.
 Instructional leadership is an important leadership style in education setting.

It is linked to student achievement and school performance.
 The leader who exercises position, power and influence in leadership

differentiates the types of leadership.
Charismatic leadership Transactional leadership

Leadership Transformational leadership
Moral leadership
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To pi ▶ Effective
Leadership
2 Behaviours and
Attitudes
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Compare the leadership traits which were gathered by the earlier studies on leadership with the p
Evaluate the relationship between leadership behaviours and achievement studies conducted wo
Discuss the possible explanations on the effectiveness or the ineffectiveness of the leadership beh
Discuss the ethical concepts in school leadership.
▶ INTRODUCTION
Knowledge about effective leadership behaviours and attitudes is vital especially
for leaders or would-be leaders so that they would know what personal qualities
to develop within themselves as well as management approaches utilised to
achieve the best possible cooperation from their subordinates, and in the end the
total achievement of the organisational objectives.
The general characteristics of effective leaders described in Topic 1 earlier would

be incorporated within your approaches as leaders utilising one of the styles or a
combination of a few which might work in some situations while in others,
different approaches might be needed. Let us read and understand the following
deliberations on some more theories that may provide us with more information
on leadership behaviours and attitudes.

TOPIC 2 EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS AND ATTITUDES ◀ 45
2.1 TRAIT THEORIES

In the 1920s and 1930s, leadership research focused on trying to identify the traits
that differentiated leaders from non-leaders. These early leadership theories
were content theories, focusing on „what‰ an effective leader is, not on „how‰ to
effectively lead. The trait approach to understanding leadership assumes that
certain physical, social and personal characteristics are inherent in leaders. Sets of
traits and characteristics were identified to assist in selecting the right people to
become leaders.
(a) Physical traits include being young to middle-aged, energetic, tall and
handsome.
(b) Social background traits include being educated at the „right‰ schools and
being socially prominent or upwardly mobile.
(c) Social characteristics include being charismatic, charming, tactful, popular,

cooperative and diplomatic.
(d) Personality traits include being self-confident, adaptable, assertive and

emotionally stable.
(e) Task-related characteristics include being driven to excel, accepting of

responsibility, having initiative and being results-oriented.
Trait theories identify traits to assist in selecting leaders since traits are related to
leadership effectiveness in many situations. The trait approach to understanding
leadership supports the use of tests and interviews in the selection of managers.
The interviewer typically attempts to match the traits and characteristics of the
applicant to the position. For example, most interviewers attempt to evaluate
how well the applicant can work with people.
Criticisms of the Traditional Trait Theory

Trait theory has not been able to identify a set of traits that will consistently
distinguish leaders from followers. Instead, trait theory posits key traits for
successful leadership (drive, desire to lead, integrity, self-confidence, intelligence
and job-relevant knowledge) yet does not make a judgment as to whether these
traits are inherent in individuals or whether they can be developed through
training and education. No two leaders are alike. Furthermore, no leader
possesses all of the traits. Comparing leaders in different situations suggests that
the traits of leaders depend on the situation. Thus, traits were de-emphasised to
take into account situational conditions (contingency perspective).

46 ▶ TOPIC 2 EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOURS AND ATTITUDES
Though trait theories were developed during the earlier part of the 20th century,
they are still useful to some extent in selection of personnel because they can
give an indication of the suitability of the candidates for the organisation. The
combination of these trait theories with other more recent leadership theories can
give us a thorough knowledge of the important leadership theories that would be
of great help to all leaders.
2.2 BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES

The behavioural theorists identified determinants of leadership so that people
could be trained to be leaders. They developed training programmes to change
managersÊ leadership behaviours and assumed that the best styles of leadership
could be learned.
2.2.1 Theory X and Theory Y

Mc Gregor (1960), described Theory X and Theory Y in his book, The Human Side
of Enterprise. Theory X and Theory Y each represent different ways in which
leaders view employees. Theory X managers believe that employees are motivated
mainly by money, are lazy, uncooperative and have poor work habits while
Theory Y managers believe that subordinates work hard, are cooperative and
have positive attitudes.
(a) Theory X
Theory X is the traditional view of direction and control by managers.
(i) The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will
avoid it if he can.
(ii) Because of this human characteristic of dislike of work, most people

must be controlled, directed and threatened with punishment to
get them to put forth adequate effort toward the achievement of
organisational objectives.
(iii) The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid

responsibility, has relatively little ambition and wants security above
all.

Theory X leads naturally to an emphasis on the tactics of control – procedures

and techniques for telling people what to do, for determining whether they
are doing it and for administering rewards and punishment. Theory X
explains the consequences of a particular managerial strategy. Because its
assumptions are so unnecessarily limiting, it prevents managers from
seeing the possibilities inherent in other managerial strategies. As long as
the assumptions of Theory X influence managerial strategy, organisations
will fail to discover, let alone utilise the potentialities of the average human
being.
(b) Theory Y
Theory Y is the view that individual and organisational goals can be
integrated.
(i) The expenditures of physical and mental effort in work are as natural
as play or rest.
(ii) External control and the threat of punishment are not the only means
for bringing out effort toward organisational objectives.
(iii) Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with

their achievement.
(iv) The average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to
accept but also to seek responsibility.
(v) The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination,

ingenuity and creativity in the solution of organisational problems is
widely, not narrowly, distributed in the population.
(vi) Under the condition of modern industrial life, the intellectual

potentialities of the average human being are only partially utilised.
Theory YÊs purpose is to encourage integration, to create a situation in

which an employee can achieve his goals best by directing his efforts
toward the objectives of the organisation. It is a deliberate attempt to link
improvement in managerial competence with the satisfaction of higher-
level ego and self- actualisation needs.
Theory Y leads to a preoccupation with the nature of relationships, with

the creation of an environment which will encourage commitment to
organisational objectives and which will provide opportunities for the
maximum exercise of initiative, ingenuity and self-direction in achieving
them.

2.2.2 Ohio State University

The first major investigation into leadership behaviour, also called leadership
styles, was conducted in 1945 by researchers in the Bureau of Business Research,
Ohio State University. From their research, they identified two distinct
dimensions of leadership; task behaviour and relationship behaviour. The task
behaviours which were referred to as „initiating structures‰ focused on
behaviours such as organising work, allocating responsibilities and scheduling
work activities. The relationship behaviours called „consideration‰ included
behaviours such as building mutual respect and trust between leaders and
subordinates.
Figure 2.1: The Ohio State Leadership

Quadrants Source: Hersey & Blanchard
(1982)
The researchers concluded that the two dimensions were separate and distinct
and therefore leadership behaviour was plotted on two separate axes (see Figure
2.1). These studies led to the development of the Leadership Behaviour
Description Questionnaire (LBDQ), an assessment instrument for the
identification of the leadership orientation of the leader.
2.2.3 University of Iowa

Another approach to leader behaviour focused on identifying the best leadership
styles. Work at the University of Iowa identified democratic (participation and
delegation), autocratic (dictating and centralised) and laissez-faire styles (group
freedom in decision making).
2.2.4 Managerial Grid

Blake and Mouton as cited in Hersey and Blanchard (1982), expanding on and
refining the work of the researchers at the Ohio State University, developed
the Leadership Grid, initially called the Managerial Grid. Utilising the same
theoretical constructs of task accomplishments, and the development of personal
relationships as used by the LBDQ, they called the two dimensions of leadership
behaviour „concern for production‰ and „concern for people‰ (see Figure 2.2).
Figure 2.2: The managerial grid leadership

style Source: Hersey & Blanchard (1982)
The Leadership Grid, although similar to the LBDQ that measured how leader
actions were perceived by others, is an attitudinal model for „portraying types of
leadership behaviour and their various potential combinations‰. Thus, it is a
measure of the predisposition of the leader.
The grid consists of two intersecting axes, the horizontal axis measuring concern
for people and the vertical axis measuring concern for production. Each
dimension was measured on a nine-point scale. Therefore, theoretically the ideal
leader would be measured at 9-9 on the scale, that is, high consideration and high
structure (team).

The grid identifies five leadership styles as stated in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Five Leadership Styles Identified by the Leadership Grid
Leadership Styles Explanation

Country Club Emphasis on the needs of people and on relationships.
Impoverished Exertion of minimum effort to get work done is appropriate to
maintain organisational membership.
Team Focus on interdependence and commitment to the organisationÊs
purpose.
Task Emphasis on efficiency with minimum human involvement.
Middle Road Leader balances „the necessity to get out work while maintaining
morale of the people at a satisfactory level‰.
The leadership grid is based on the assumption that there is an effectiveness

dimension that is not extreme at the lower end of the dimensions, but combines
both concerns for production and concerns for people.
Concurrent with and complementing the Ohio State studies were the studies
conducted by the University Of Michigan Survey Research Centre. According to
Moorhead and Griffin (1998), the focus of these studies were to identify the
leadership characteristics that resulted in effective group performance.
These studies identified two basic forms of leadership behaviours that mirrored
those identified by the Ohio state studies. These were production or job-centred
leader behaviour and employee-centred leader behaviour. Summarising the
findings of the Michigan studies:
(a) More effective leaders tend to have relationships with their subordinates
that are supportive and enhance the followersÊ sense of self-esteem than do
less effective ones.
(b) More effective leaders use group rather than person-to-person methods of
supervision and decision making than do less effective ones.
(c) More effective leaders tend to set higher performance goals than do less
effective ones.

SELF-CHECK 2.1
Name the set of traits and characteristics that were identified as traits that can assist in selecti
What are the assumptions of leaders regarding subordinates whose philosophies are based on
What are the leadership styles of the „Managerial Grid Leadership Style‰? Explain.
ACTIVITY 2.1
„Leaders are born, not made‰. Do you agree? Discuss.
„Leaders with Theory Y orientation are more successful than leaders with Theory X orientati
Some people contend that „laissez-faire‰ style of leadership in almost all situations is a
2.3 THE LEADERSHIP STYLE

In this subtopic, we will discuss the leadership style in greater detail by looking
into the situations style.
2.3.1 Situations Style

Shifting the focus from classical leadership styles, traits and behaviours,
researchers began concentrating on the effects of situational variables on
leadership styles. Emerging from this new thinking are the contingency models
and the Hersey and Blanchard (1982) situational leadership theory that focus on
the relationship between the leadership style and the readiness of the
subordinate.

The contingency model of leadership behaviour, also known as the Least Preferred
Co-worker (LPC) theory is based on the instrument developed by Fiedler (1967)
to measure leader effectiveness. It is the most well-known and empirically tested
of the contextual or situational models. In this theory, leader effectiveness is
viewed as a function of leader behaviour and contextual factors. As noted by
Hoy and Miskel (1991), Fiedler was careful in underscoring the critical distinction
between leadership style and leadership behaviour.
As he explained, „important leadership behaviours of the same individual

differ from situation to situation, while the need structure which motivates
these behaviours may be seen as constant‰. Thus, the emphasis was on the
leadership style which was reflected in the behaviour. In this contingency model,
leader personality traits were either task motivated behaviour or relationship
motivated.
Fiedler (1967) identified three major contextual variables:
(a) Leader Position Power

The variable position power based on the extent to which leaders motivate
or punish and is predicated on the degree of authority the leader has: that is
the legitimate authority to hire or promote an employee.
(b) Leader-member Relationship

Leader-member relations refer to group atmosphere, attraction to leaders,
the level of loyalty and the existence of friction within the group.
(c) Task Structure

Task structure refers to the clarity of the tasks, the clarity of roles for each
group member and the clarity of the instruction for task completion.
As alluded to previously, Fiedler developed the LPC as the instrument of

measurement. The contextual variables were measured on a continuum ranging
from most to least favourable. Leader-member relations were measured as good
or bad, task structure as high or low, and position power as strong or weak.
Fiedler and his colleagues maintained that leader effectiveness was contingent
upon the interaction between the leaderÊs personality, or leadership style and the
contextual variables. Therefore, when the relations were good, task structure
high, and position power strong, the context was designated most favourable and
leadership was most effective.

The path-goal theory developed and refined by Martin Evans and House in the
1970s, also adopts the contingency conceptualisation of leadership. The theory
proposes that subordinatesÊ performances, perceptions of work goals, personal
goals and paths to goal attainment are influenced by leadership behaviours.
The model identifies four leadership behaviours. These are directive- and
achievement-oriented behaviours which represent the initiating structure
dimension of the Ohio State LBDQ studies, and participative and supportive
behaviours which find support in the consideration dimension. There has not been
much empirical support for this model and consequently, its utility value is
limited.
The other contingency theory model that created an impact on leadership theory
was Vroom and YettonÊs decision making model which was revised and expanded
by Vroom and Jago in 1974 and again in 1984, and recreated by Vroom and Jago
in 1988 to address issues of validity. The model while similar to the path-goal
theory, in seeking to prescribe the most suitable leadership style to a given
situation, focuses on the extent to which subordinates should be involved in the
decision- making process. In this regard, it proposes that the degree to which
subordinates be allowed to participate in decision making should depend on the
characteristics of the situation. The goal of the model is to ensure quality
decisions and acceptance of these decisions by the subordinates.
An important contribution to leadership theory was the introduction of the

reciprocity of the influence of organisation on the style of leadership. Hersey and
Blanchard (1982) argued that leadership behaviour could affect the effectiveness
of the organisation, and the changes in the organisation affect the next leadership
intervention. In this approach, leadership is defined as „working with and through
people to accomplish a particular organisational goal and suggests that leader
behaviour should vary in response to the maturity or development level that
the follower or followers exhibit on a specific task, function or objective that the
leader is attempting to accomplish‰.
Therefore, it is implied that the maturity level of the subordinate, defined in

terms of job maturity and psychological maturity, influences leader behaviour.
Subordinates are rated in competence and commitment on a continuum from
high to low. A high-maturity subordinate had both high job maturity (that is,
task relevant skills and knowledge) and psychological maturity (that is, self-
confidence and self-esteem), while the low maturity subordinate lacked these
attributes.

According to Hersey and Blanchard (1982) and Hersey, Zigarmi and Zigarmi
(1987) depending on the level of maturity, the leader employed more directive or
more supportive behaviour. As can be seen in Figure 2.3, the theory identifies the
four leadership patterns or styles deemed appropriate for the four situations of
maturity, suggesting that as the group becomes more experienced, more willing
and able to take responsibility for the tasks, the style of leadership behaviours
changes from an emphasis on directing to the delegation of responsibility.
Figure 2.3: The four basic leadership

styles Source: Hersey, Zigarmi & Zigarmi
(1987)
It is a dynamic model of leadership in which the role of the leader is to „provide

the necessary leader behaviour while simultaneously helping the group mature
and assume more of the leadership itself‰.
2.3.2 Conclusion
The challenge remains in identifying the leadership styles and behaviours that
maximise effectiveness-concern, for organisational tasks and efficiency-concern
for relationships. Almost all theorists acknowledge that success of the
organisation depends on both. This challenge is no different for the school as an
organisation.

However, the challenge is even more acute because notwithstanding the various
conceptualisations and the political interpretations of effectiveness, using the
jargon of industry, the production methods of the school are individualised to the
different operators (teachers). Additionally, and adding to the challenge, the final
products are varied, individualised, often cannot be measured and even when
beneficial to the individual, sometimes are not what is appreciated by the wider
society.
It is in this milieu that the principal as designated leader functions. Yet, his role is
critical to the success of the school. Hoy and Miskel (1991), in citing Warren
Bennis, encapsulated this sentiment when they argued that the principal is
responsible for the effectiveness of the school, provides the anchor and guiding
purpose especially in times of change and upheaval, and play a key role in
alleviating the publicÊs concern about the schools.
SELF-CHECK 2.2
What is the „least preferred co-worker theory‰?

What is „the path-goal theory‰? Explain.
What is the „decision-making model theory‰?
ACTIVITY 2.2
Explain the three major contextual variables identified by Fiedler (1967) namely:
Leader position power;
Leader-member relationship; and
Task structure.
Discuss when you would use each of the four basic styles (supporting, coaching, delegating an

2.4 SELECTING THE BEST LEADERSHIP STYLE

Selection of the best style in leadership is not an easy task because different
situations and different subordinates need different styles. The other more
important variable that must be taken into consideration is the leader personality
and inclinations. If the leader is more comfortable with a style, it would be
difficult for him to change into another personality style. The most that he can do
is try to adapt himself to the needs of the situation. If the situation needs him to
be a coach but he lacks the quality of a good coach then he needs to combine it
with other approaches that he is comfortable with because not everybody has the
ability to adopt all of them equally well.
At present, the focus of leadership is achievement of the objectives which has

been planned. The measure of success is usually in terms of studentsÊ
achievement in schools. The following literature review provides us with some
findings on the relationship between leadership styles and approaches and
studentsÊ achievement which can be used as a basis of our reflections on what we
have done as leaders in our own ways.
2.4.1 Principal Leadership Style and Achievement

There is ample evidence to show that there is a direct relationship between school
climate and student achievement in school, and similarly, there is consensus that
the leadership style by the principal is the significant factor in shaping the
learning environment to facilitate student learning. The leader who articulates
clear goals, holding high expectations of students and teachers, and exercising
strong educational leadership were instrumental in the schools achieving their
goals.
Principal leadership behaviours and school achievement at the secondary level

noted the following:
(a) At the secondary level, teacher and principal perceptions about how the
principal governs the school are strongly related to the manner in which
the principal is perceived to organise the schoolÊs programme and to the
principalÊs role in building a productive school climate.
(b) They concluded that the principal, through manipulating a series of

leadership style variables at the school level, can have a positive influence
on school achievement.

(c) Azumi and Madhere (1983) examined principal leadership style as a

determinant of principal effectiveness. They found that principals who
utilised a system which incorporated rich feedback and focused on
socialisation as a way of achieving the organisational goals had greater
teacher conformity and, as a result, higher student achievement than those
who relied on programming and sanctions as methods of control.
(d) Jackson, Logsdon and Taylor (1983) concluded from their research of low-
income public schools in the District of Columbia that city schools could be
effective for low income African-American students. For this study, they
looked at four schools that were instructionally effective for poor students
and four schools of similar student population that were not effective.
Unlike what they observed in the ineffective schools, the principals of the
effective schools maintained firm and centralised control with a strong
task and academic orientation.
Their discipline codes were clear and strictly enforced. They monitored
achievement, were supportive of teachers and students and rewarded
achievement. Using EdmondsÊ (1979) analogy, these principals were
„tyrannical‰ in their expectations and demands for „achievement regardless
of student background‰. They insisted that all students be brought to a
minimum level of mastery of the basic skills.
(e) Andrews, Soder and Jacobson (1986) investigated the relationship between
perceptions of the principal as instructional leader and the average gain in
California Achievement Test Scores. They tested the hypothesis that
children who attended schools administered by principals who were strong
instructional leaders evidenced greater increases in NCE scores for total
reading and total mathematics than children who attended schools led by
those who were not strong instructional leaders.
From their analysis, they found that there were significant differences
in reading and mathematics between the schools in which the principals
received the highest ratings and the other two groups of schools. Based on
these results, they concluded that particularly for schools that catered to the
historically low achieving groups of students, teachersÊ perceptions of the
principal as a strong instructional leader were critical to student
achievement in reading and mathematics.
(f) Heck (1992), unlike most scholars in leadership behaviours, looked at

the leadership performances of principals in high performing and low
performing schools at both the elementary and secondary levels. His
specific interest was the principalÊs instructional leadership interactions
that would best serve as a predictor of school achievement level.

His conclusions suggested that while there existed contextual differences in

principal leadership based on school level, these „were less important than
the differences associated with the performance level of the school‰. The
assumption derived from this finding was that principal instructional
leadership behaviour was predictive of school outcomes.
(g) As Heck (1993) explained, the principalsÊ actions influenced student

outcomes mainly through „activities that coordinate, monitor and enable
teachers to work more effectively with students‰. Heck had investigated the
relationship among contextual variables, in-school processes that focused
on principal and teacher interactions and student outcomes in secondary
schools in Singapore.
His results indicated that despite the effects of context variables such as
school size, type of school and teacher experience on student outcomes,
these variables „did not appear to influence the perceptions of the
principalÊs strategic interactions with teachers in the areas of governing the
school, building school culture/climate, and instructional organisation‰,
areas that have direct impact on student achievement.
This finding verified AndrewsÊ contention that, „teachersÊ perceptions of

their work environment is so important, that the power of the principalÊs
leadership so pervasive, that it has a measurable‰ though indirect „impact
on student learning‰.
(h) Cheng, (1994) using data from the large-scale research project „Education
Quality in Hong Kong Primary Schools‰ investigated the principalÊs
leadership as a critical factor for school performance. For this study, he
integrated Bolman and DealÊs (1991) four leadership orientations in
organisations: structural leadership, human resource leadership, political
leadership and symbolic leadership, and SergiovanniÊs (1984) five
component leadership model of the principal: technical leadership, human
leadership, educational leadership, symbolic leadership and cultural
leadership.
From the mentioned earlier, Cheng (1994) proposed the following five
dimensions of the principalÊs leadership:
(i) Structural leadership: the extent to which the principal thinks clearly
and logically, develops clear goals and policies and holds people
accountable for results.
(ii) Human leadership: the extent to which the principal is supportive and
fosters participation.

(iii) Political leadership: the extent to which the principal is persuasive

and effective in building alliances and support, and solving conflicts.
(iv) Symbolic leadership: the extent to which the principal is inspirational

and charismatic.
(v) Educational leadership: the extent to which the principal encourages

professional development and teaching improvement.
Cheng (1994) measured principal leadership on the five dimensions. In

addition to this, he measured teachersÊ individual performances, teachersÊ
group level performances, organisational factors and student performances
which comprised self-concept, attitudes to peers, attitudes to the school,
attitudes to teachers, attitudes to learning, feeling of homework overload
and intention to dropout.
The results of the correlations between leadership and the school

performance variables showed that there was a significant positive
relationship between all dimensions of leadership and teacher morale, level
of professionalism, disengagement and feeling of unnecessary overload.
Also, all the dimensions of leadership were positively related to studentsÊ
attitudes towards their school. What is significant about this study was the
focus on student performance that was not based on test scores.
(i) Citing the limitations of using test scores as a measure of student outcomes,
Leithwood and Jantzi, (1999) also investigated the relationship between
transformational leadership and student outcomes not based on test scores,
but on student engagement with school.
From Transformational School Leadership Effects: A replication by

K. Leithwood and D. Jantzi, (1999), School Effectiveness and School
Improvement, in their explanation for the selection of the outcome
variables, they stated that the „extent of studentsÊ participation both inside
and outside the school‰ and „the extent to which students identify with
school and feel they belong‰ is a „reliable predictor of variation in such
student outcomes as social studies, math and language achievement‰.
They assessed the direct and indirect effects of transformational leadership

on student engagement in school. The results of the analysis indicated that
transformational leadership had a weak but statistically significant effect on
student identification. Even though the direct effects of transformational
leadership on classroom conditions were negative and weak, combined
with school conditions, they explained 17 per cent of the variation in
classroom conditions.

2.4.2 Conclusion
From the mentioned review of the principal as leader, it is clear that he plays a
critical, even if often fuzzy, role in overall school effectiveness. The principal, in
many cases, did not seem to be really important in the academic process of the
school due to the fact that they did not participate directly in all activities that
contribute to the success of the school. But does it mean that the principal ship
role is unimportant? The answer to this question is obvious because a ship
without its captain will definitely not reach its destination.
Unlike other organisations, there is no clear path to improved production and

efficiency because the end products are people and whatever quality that they
have might not be observable immediately. Besides that, other variables play
their parts in moulding the end products which are very complex. The
complexity and dynamism of the school, and the competing demands on the
principal and the continually changing contexts of schooling often defy anyoneÊs
best type of leadership. However, these same factors of complexity and changing
situations make the leadership the critical stabilising factor in the school.
SELF-CHECK 2.3
Cite the research studies that show the principal leadership styles is significantly correlated with sc
What makes students from low-income families perform well academically?
Name the characteristics of the principals that are related to academic achievement.
According to Andrews, Soder and Jacobson (1986), the number of principals who are strong instruc

ACTIVITY 2.3
Describe the findings of Heck (1992) regarding leadership behaviours and school achievement
Explain what you understand by the statement „⁄ that principals being Âone step removed fro
In about 100 words write a summary of all the research studies on school leadership and schoo
Discuss how the principal plays the role of a structural leader, human leader, political leader, s
2.5 THE ETHICAL PRACTICE OF EDUCATIONAL

LEADERSHIP
In this subtopic, you will be exposed to the ethical practice of educational
leadership.
2.5.1 Concept of Ethics in Leadership

The word „ethics‰ is derived from a Greek word ethos, which means customs,
conduct and character. Ethics is concerned with the kinds of values and morals a
person or a society finds desirable and appropriate. Thus, ethics is concerned
with the virtuousness of a person and their motives. A set of ethics will provide a
system of principles that can guide leaders in choosing the right from wrong
decisions and the good from bad decisions.

Leadership is defined as a process in which the leader influences the others to

reach a common goal. The influence dimension requires the leaders to make an
impact on the lives of those being led. This means leaders carry the ethical
burden and responsibility to be sensitive to how their leadership affects
followersÊ lives.
Ethics and leadership cannot be separated because ethics is embedded in

everything we do, and it is a part of our humanity. Ethics in society enable
the society to regulate activities of individuals and groups to avoid
misunderstandings and conflicts. Rebose (2001) considers ethics as a part of
natural law. According to him natural law „refers to the parameters that define
the milieu of being, what follows from the essential nature of humanity‰. Ethics
have to be learnt because it is not inborn, and our schools are the place where
ethics are taught and practised so as to ensure future citizens are able to live
harmoniously within civilised society.
Schools, are by nature, ethical since they are directed to human improvement, yet
schools are also organisations for interaction between human beings and as such
they sometimes fall short of ethical standards. An ethical school is characterised
by an ethical culture. This means that the ethical nature of the core business of
schools, namely their devotion to the well-being of young people, remains at the
forefront and that ethical concerns embedded in schoolsÊ everyday activities are
explicit, accepted and openly acknowledged.
The concept of ethics in leadership centres not only the moral character of the
leader, but also on the ethical values inscribed in the leaderÊs personal portfolio of
goals, perceptions, expressions and actions. An ethical leader, in the end, is not
only able to maintain integrity within him but is adept at influencing others to act
ethically as well. Furthermore, the more ethical a leader is, the more likely he is
to exhibit superior job performance, exhibit a high level of concern for the
students and set a positive example.
Ethics is an essentially communicative action that progresses through an intricate

methodology arbitrated through a deliberate dissemination of ethical values.
Educational leadership is especially concerned with the integrity of the processes
of ethical decision making and achievement that leaders and followers collectively
put into practice. Schools have consistently been viewed throughout history as
a moral institution designed to propagate and endorse issues of high morality
and appropriate ethical decision making.

Educational leaders are frequently forced to make decisions that place more
value on some morals than on others. Because of this, and the limited power of
the student voice in the overall conduct of educational leaders, the leaderÊs
conduct must be consciously moral and ethical. Hence to truly maintain status as
an ethical educational leader, the responsibility to promote ethical conduct must
be rooted not so much in technical expertise, but in basic human understanding.
Communities continually claim to want stronger school leaders with visions for
change that do not rest comfortably amid the status quo. They want leaders who
are not afraid of change and who understand that the ethical dilemmas of
todayÊs youth are far more extreme than in the past. The educational leadersÊ
personal ethical standards are therefore paramount in facilitating the creation of a
thriving, well-adjusted and morally grounded new millennium generation.
There are five principles that provide a foundation for the development of
sound ethical leadership. The origin of these five principles can be traced back to the
times of Aristotle and their importance has been discussed in various other
disciplines ranging from biomedics to business and from counselling psychology
to leadership in education.
(a) Ethical Leaders are Respectful of Others

Leaders treat others with respect and that means allowing subordinates to
be themselves, valuing their individual differences and being tolerant of
their beliefs, attitudes and values.
(b) Ethical Leaders are Ready to Serve Others

Leaders put the welfare of their subordinatesÊ foremost in their plans. Such
leaders are altruistic and behind this service principle, ethical leaders
believe in contributing to the greater good of others. In practice, ethical
leaders are follower-centred, place othersÊ interest foremost in their work
and act in ways that benefit others.
(c) Ethical Leaders are Just

Ethical leaders are concerned about being fair and just. As resources are
scarce, conflicts often occur between subordinates about fair distribution of
rewards. It is, therefore, important that leaders have a fair way of
distributing rewards. Beauchamp and Bowie (1988) suggested that in the
distribution of rewards, leaders must apply the rules that each person has
an equal share or opportunity; reward according to individual need; according
to that personÊs rights; according to individual effort; according to societal
contribution and according to merit or performance.

(d) Ethical Leaders are Honest

Leaders who are honest do more than tell the truth. They are open to others
and represent reality as fully and a completely as possible. Being honest
builds up trust and that is important for the progress of an organisation.
Thus, it is important to reward honest behaviour within the organisation.
(e) Ethical Leaders Build Community

Good leaders influence their subordinates to achieve a common goal. An
ethical leader is one who takes into account the purposes of everyone
involved in the group and is attentive to the interest of the community. An
ethical leader demonstrates an ethics of caring and does not ignore the
needs of others.
2.5.2 Conclusion
A very important aspect of leadership is ethical administrative behaviour that is
usually correlated with effective management of schools. A principal with strong
ethical norms is a person with principles who can be trusted by all to deliver
results. An ethical principal will ensure that all his promises will be fulfilled. The
school is considered by society as the moral institution where ethics and moral
education is embedded in the curriculum, while teachers are supposed to be the
bastion of high ethical and moral values where society will look up to educate its
children in ethics and morality.
The question that is always playing in our minds as teachers and members of our
society is „Are the school ready to play its role in this matter effectively?‰ The
answer to this question differs from one another because of the different views
aired by various interested parties. What is more important is to ensure that our
schools have principals who are well-trained in managing their schools and have
strong moral and ethical values.
SELF-CHECK 2.4
When you refer to „ethics in leadership‰ what are the important qualities that a leader should ha
Name the areas of management where high ethical standards are needed.

ACTIVITY 2.3
What do you understand by natural law according to Rebose (2001)?
„Schools are by nature ethical since they are directed to human improvement, yet schools are a
What are the ethical norms of the classical world view and the modern worldview? Discuss.
Discuss some of the ethical issues that school leaders must face daily in schools.
 This topic discussed both early trait theories and the more modern trait and
personality theories.
 Various leadership styles are discussed and it is concluded that there are two
orientations in leadership – either toward relationships or task completion.
 The topic also reviewed international research on educational leadership with

its connection to student achievement and school performance.
 The ethical practice of educational leadership is given emphasis and the focus
is on the central issues of ethics with those in the leadership role.
 The topic concluded with a section on how leaders behave ethically – are
respectful of others, are ready to server others, are just, are honest and build
community.

Behavioural theories Managerial grid

Ethics in leadership Situation style
Leadership style Trait theories
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To pi ▶ Contingency
and Situational
3 Leadership
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Apply contingency and situational leadership theories in various situations where their applicatio
Describe the effectiveness of the theories in various situations;
Explain the variables that can influence the effectiveness of the leadership approaches; and
Evaluate the merits and the demerits of each leadership style.
▶ INTRODUCTION
Effective leaders are always open to many options on leadership styles and
approaches to use when confronting problems and situations that need their
attention and participation. Different situations need different treatments to bring
about the intended results. A leader should be able to choose the right option,
and to be able to do this, his knowledge and experience become important
guidelines for him to proceed.
Sometimes a successful leadership approach for a similar situation might not

work in another setting or in a different time frame or era. The contingency
theory is a leader-match theory (Fiedler & Chemers, 1974) where it tries to match
leaders to appropriate situations. It is called contingency because the
effectiveness of the leader depends on how well his leadership style fits the
context. The theories on contingency and situational leadership in this topic were
developed mostly in the 1960s but there are still some adherents to these theories
who kept on developing and using them until the present era. They are still
applicable even though other theories were formulated decades ago.

TOPIC 3 CONTINGENCY AND SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP ◀ 71
3.1 FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY THEORY OF

LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS
Successful leaders must be able to identify clues in an environment and adapt
their leader behaviour to meet the needs of their followers and of the particular
situation. Even with good diagnostic skills, leaders may not be effective unless
they can adapt their leadership style to meet the demands of their environment.
Leadership Theory and Research: Perspectives and Directions (1993) was a tribute
to Fred FiedlerÊs 40 year study of leadership and organisational effectiveness.
The editors, Chemers and Roya Ayman, write of FiedlerÊs contribution: „The
realisation that leadership effectiveness depends on the interaction of qualities of
the leader with demands of the situation in which the leader functions, made the
simplistic „one best way‰ approach of earlier eras obsolete‰.
FiedlerÊs contingency theory suggests that there is no best way for managers to
lead. Situations will create different leadership style requirements for a manager.
The solution to a managerial situation depends on the factors that influence the
situation. For example, in a highly routinised environment where repetitive tasks
are the norm, a certain leadership style may result in the best performance. The
same leadership style may not work in a very dynamic environment.
Fiedler looked at three situations that could define the condition of a managerial
task:
(a) Leader-member Relations

The leader-member relations front refers to the group atmosphere such as
the level of confidence, loyalty and attraction followers feel for their leader.
In a positive atmosphere where there is trust and there is good relationship
between the leader and the subordinates, the leader-member relations are
defined as good. If the atmosphere is unfriendly and there is friction
between members of the group, the leader-member relations are defined as
poor.
(b) The Task Structure

The task structure refers to how the requirements of a task are clearly
spelled out. A completely structured task will give more control to the
leader while vague and unclear tasks would reduce the leaderÊs control
and influence. A task is considered structured when the requirements of the
task are clearly stated, there are few and limited ways to accomplish the
task and the completion of the task can be clearly demonstrated due to its
routine nature.

72 ▶ TOPIC 3 CONTINGENCY AND SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP
(c) Position Power

Position power refers to the amount of authority a leader has to reward or
punish followers. This usually refers to positional power and it is strong
when the leader has the power to hire and fire or has the authority to
reward through raise in pay or promotion. It is weak if the leader does not
have the authority to do these things.
These three situational factors determine the favourableness of various

situations in an organisation. In the most favourable situations where the
leader-member relations are good, tasks are defined with strong leader-
position power. On the other hand, in the least favourable situation where
the leader-member relations are poor, the task is unstructured and not clearly
defined with weak leader-position power. Moderately favourable situations
fall in between these two extremes.
Based on FiedlerÊs contingency theory, leaders who are task motivated will
be effective in both, the very favourable when situations are going along
smoothly and also the least favourable when situations are chaotic and out
of control. Leaders who are relationship motivated are effective in
moderately favourable situations, where there is some degree of certainty but
where they are not completely under their control.
Contingency theories have many applications in organisations. They can be

used to explain why a person fails in one situation when he has succeeded
in another situation. It can also enlighten the person, why he fails despite
his conscientiousness, loyalty and excellent qualifications.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
Compare situations where a task-oriented manager does well.
When do relationship-oriented managers do well?

ACTIVITY 3.1
Analyse the following phrase which is attributed to FiedlerÊs contribution: „The realisation th
As a principal you are posted to a problematic secondary school with disciplinary problems n
3.2 THE PATH-GOAL THEORY OF LEADERSHIP

EFFECTIVENESS
Path-goal theory is a situational leadership theory developed by House and
Mitchell (1974). It focuses on how leaders motivate followers to accomplish goals
and enhance performance and satisfaction. The leader in path-goal theory helps
the followers set goals, then assists them in developing a path to achieving their
goals.
The goal of this theory is to enhance subordinatesÊ performance and leaderÊs

satisfaction by focusing on subordinatesÊ motivation. Instead of recommending
just the task or relationship actions for leaders, this theory recommends four
behaviours that best meet the subordinateÊs needs and will therefore more likely
produce effective leadership. One or another of the four behaviours is employed,
depending on the followersÊ needs. Therefore, a leader needs to be skilful in all
four behaviours:
(a) Directive Leadership – leader tends to give explicit expectations; initiating

structure; „telling‰ style.
(b) Supportive Leadership – leader treats followers as equals; considerate in

behaviour; with an approachable style.

(c) Participative Leadership – leader tends toward shared decision making;

collaborative behaviour.
(d) Achievement-oriented Leadership – leader sets challenging goals; shows

confidence that they are capable to meet them.
Based on assumptions from the expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964), this model
explains how the behaviour of the leader causes expectancies or motivations in
the subordinate, creating effort and satisfaction. The rationale is that followers
will perform better if they think they are capable, and if they perceive the work
will get results and be worth the effort.
(a) A leaderÊs behaviour is acceptable to subordinates or teachers when

viewed as a source of satisfaction, motivational when satisfaction is
contingent on performance, and the leader facilitates, coaches and rewards
effective performance.
(b) Path-goal theory identifies achievement-oriented, directive, participative

and supportive leadership styles.
(c) In achievement-oriented leadership, the leader sets challenging goals for

teachers and students, expects them to perform at their highest level and
shows confidence in their ability to meet this expectation. This style is
appropriate when the teachers and students suffer from a lack of job
challenge.
(d) In directive leadership, the leader lets teachers know what is expected of
them and tells them how to perform their tasks. This style is appropriate
when the teachers or staff have an ambiguous job.
(e) Participative leadership involves leaders consulting with teachers and

asking for their suggestions before making a decision. This style is
appropriate when the subordinates are using improper procedures or are
making poor decisions.
(f) In supportive leadership, the leader is friendly and approachable. He shows

concern for the teacherÊs psychological well-being. This style is appropriate
when the teachers or subordinates lack confidence.

3.2.1 The Assumptions of Path-goal Theory

The following are some of the assumptions of path-goal theory:
(a) Path-goal theory assumes that leaders are flexible and that they can change
their style, as situations require.
(b) The theory proposes two contingency variables (environment and follower
characteristics) that moderate the leader behaviour-outcome relationship.
(c) Environment is outside the control of followers-task structure, authority

system and work group.
(d) Environmental factors determine the type of leader behaviour required if

follower outcomes are to be maximised.
(e) Follower characteristics are the locus of control, experience and perceived
ability.
(f) Personal characteristics of subordinates determine how the environment

and leader are interpreted.
(g) Effective leaders clarify the path to help their followers achieve their goals
and make the journey easier by reducing roadblocks and pitfalls.
(h) Research demonstrates that employee performance and satisfaction are

positively influenced when the leader compensates for the shortcomings in
either the employee or the work setting.
3.2.2 Choice of Leadership Behaviours

In choosing which of the leadership behaviours to use, two variables influence
the choice; the subordinateÊs characteristics and the characteristics of the task.
The leader behaviour is contingent on these characteristics, making this a
situational leadership theory.
No one leadership behaviour works for motivating every person and the leader
supplies what is missing to motivate the follower. After this initial assessment of
the follower and the task, the leader then helps the follower define goals and then
reaches them in the most efficient way.

Leaders may even adapt their styles with an individual during the completion of
a task, if one part of the job needs a different motivation from another.
Although it is a complex and sometimes confusing theory, it reminds leaders to

continually think of their central purposes as a leader: to help define goals, to
clarify paths to get there, to remove obstacles that may exist and to provide
support and encouragement for achievement of goals. Some argue that this kind
of leadership may be counterproductive over time in that it may promote
dependency on the leader.
SELF-CHECK 3.2
How is the path-goal theory of leadership implemented by a leader?
What are the four skills that a path-goal leader needs to master?
ACTIVITY 3.2
Explain VroomÊs expectancy theory.
ExplainwhythesubordinatesÊcharacteristicsandthe characteristics of the task do influence leadership

3.3 THE HERSEY-BLANCHARD SITUATIONAL

LEADERSHIP MODEL
The Hersey-Blanchard situational leadership model is based on the amount of
direction (task behaviour) and amount of socioemotional support (relationship
behaviour). Effective leadership was dependent on a mix of factors. For example,
Fiedler argued that effectiveness depended on two interacting factors; leadership
style and the degree to which the situation gives the leader control and influence.
Three things are important here:
(a) The Relationship between the Leaders and Followers

If leaders are liked and respected, they are more likely to have the support
of others.
(b) The Structure of the Task

If the task is clearly spelled in the form of goals, methods and standards of
performance, then, it is more likely that leaders will be able to exert influence.
(c) Position Power

If an organisation or group confers powers on the leader for the purpose of
getting the job done, the influence of the leader will increase.
Hersey and Blanchard (1977) identified four different leadership styles that could
be adopted to deal with contrasting situations:
(a) S1 Telling (High Task/Low Relationship Behaviour)

This style or approach is characterised by giving a great deal of direction to
subordinates and by giving a lot of attention to defining roles and goals.
The style was recommended for dealing with new staff, or where the work
was menial or repetitive, or where things had to be completed within a
short time span. Subordinates are viewed as being unable and unwilling to
„do a good job‰.

(b) S2 Selling (High Task/High Relationship Behaviour)

Here, while most of the direction is given by the leader, there is an attempt
at encouraging people to „buy into‰ the task. Sometimes characterised as a
„coaching‰ approach, it is to be used when people are willing and motivated
but lack the required „maturity‰ or „ability‰.
(c) S3 Participating (High Relationship/Low Task Behaviour)

Here decision making is shared between leaders and followers – the main
role of the leader being to facilitate and communicate. It entails high
support and low direction and is used when people are able, but are
perhaps unwilling or insecure (they are of „moderate to high maturity‰).
(d) S4 Delegating (Low Relationship/Low Task Behaviour)

The leader still identifies the problem or issue, but the responsibility for
carrying out the response is given to followers. It entails having a high
degree of competence and maturity (people know what to do, and are
motivated to do it).
Figure 3.1: The Hersey-Blanchard situational leadership model

Source: Hersey & Blanchard (1977)

Aside from their very general nature, there are some issues with such models.
First, there is a lot of evidence to suggest that cultural factors influence the way
that people carry out, and respond to, different leadership styles. For example,
some cultures are more individualistic, or value family as against bureaucratic
models, or have very different expectations about how people address and talk
with each other. All these have impact on the choice of style and approach.
Second, as we saw earlier, there may be different patterns of leadership linked with
men and women. Some have argued that women may have leadership styles that
are more nurturing, caring and sensitive. They look more to relationships. Men
are said to look to task. However, there is a lot of debate about this. We can find
plenty of examples of nurturing men and task-oriented women. Any contrasts
between the styles of men and women may be down to the situation. In
management, for example, women are more likely to be in positions of authority
in people-oriented sectors – so this aspect of style is likely to be emphasised.
Third, Hersey and Blanchard „focus mainly on the relationship between

managers and immediate subordinates, and say little about issues of structure,
politics or symbols‰.
SELF-CHECK 3.3
When will delegating and telling styles be effective tools for success?
ACTIVITY 3.3
Explain how the Hersey-Blanchard situational leadership model works.

Discuss the four leadership styles identified by Hersey and Blancard (1977).

 This topic introduced and critically evaluated several contingency and

situational leadership theories – FiedlerÊs contingency theory, path-goal theory
of leadership effectiveness and Hersey-Blanchard situational leadership
theory.
 FiedlerÊs contingency theory of leadership effectiveness introduces the need

to identify the environment and leaders adapting their behaviour to meet the
needs of the followers.
 The path-goal theory of leadership effectiveness emphasises how leaders use

motivation to accomplish goals.
 The Hersey-Blanchard situational leadership theory identifies four different

leadership styles that could be adapted to deal with different situations – S1
Telling, S2 Selling, S3 Participating and S4 Delegating.
Contingency theory Path-goal theory

FiedlerÊs contingency theory Situational theory
Hersey-Blanchard leadership theory
Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York,

NY: Free Press.
Bass, B. M. (1990). Bass and StogdillÊs handbook of leadership theory: Research

Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York, NY: Harper Row.
Fiedler, F. E., & Chemers, M. M. (1974). Leadership and effective management.

Glenview, IL: Scott. Foresman.

Grint, K. (1997). Leadership: Classical, contemporary and critical approaches.


House, R. J., & Mitchell, R. R. (1974). Path-goal theory of leadership. Journal of

Contemporary Business, 3 (4), 81–97.
Hoy, W. K., & Miskel, C. G. (1991). Educational administration: theory research

Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (1995). The leadership challenge. San Francisco, CA:
Jossey-Bass.
Northouse, P. G. (2001). Leadership: Theory and practice (2nd ed.). Thousand

Oaks, CA: Sage.
Sadler, P. (1997) Leadership. London, England: Kogan.
Stogdill, R. M. (1974). Handbook of leadership. A survey of theory and research.

Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

To pi ▶ Leadership and
Motivation
4
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Describe what motivation is;
Compare the content leadership and motivation theories proposed by Maslow, McClelland and Ald
Compare the process motivation theories proposed by Vroom and Locke;
Identify how the theories explain the leader motivating employees in an organisation; and
Discuss behaviour modification and motivation.
▶ INTRODUCTION
Why are you doing the Masters of Education? Perhaps with a MasterÊs degree
you will be able to lecture in a college or improve your chances of a promotion or
simply to learn more about education. Surely you have your own reasons and are
interested enough to take courses towards getting a MasterÊs degree. Interest is
an important motivator for a student. So is a desire to learn. Although interest
and desire are important, they may not be enough. Think about this analogy.

TOPIC 4 LEADERSHIP AND MOTIVATION ◀ 83
Yes, the key

In your is motivation.
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is parked a powerful to motivation,
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car with enough fuel,(that
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powerful sport car)with
and equipped is the
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stereophonic doing The
(starting
car hasand
driving it). Similarly, in studying for this course, you may have the intelligence,
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knowledge
ignition, thebase,
carstudy
does skills and time management skills, but if you do not have
not function.
motivation or desire to learn, you will not get far.
4.1 WHAT IS MOTIVATION?

Motivation is a difficult concept to analyse because many different factors
influence the inclination to act. Many factors determine whether employees (for
example, teachers) in your organisation (for example, schools) will be motivated
or not motivated to work. Generally, motivation can be defined as an internal
state or condition which gets your behaviour started and more importantly keeps
it going.
Motivation is important because it affects your arousal level (the intensity or

enthusiasm with which you will pursue something), choice (which of the
alternatives will you choose), performance level (the amount of effort you will
put into your work), persistence (whether you will continue working despite
resistance or just give up).
Motivation affects your emotional state in determining whether you derive

positive experiences and satisfaction such as when most of your students are able
to solve the mathematical problems given, but when you face negative experiences
when doing a particular task (for example, your tutor is unable to make you
understand what he is teaching) you will become demotivated if the negative
situation continues.

84 ▶ TOPIC 4 LEADERSHIP AND MOTIVATION
4.2 LEADERSHIP AND MOTIVATION

The job of an educational leader whether it be in a school, college, university or
training organisation is to get things done through his employees or staff. In
other words, the leader should be able to motivate his employees or staff. Why
do we need motivated employees? The answer is survival. Motivated employees
are needed in any educational institution. Motivated employees are more
productive and more creative. To be effective, leaders need to understand what
motivates employees within the context of the roles they perform. Of all the
functions a leader performs, motivating employees is arguably the most complex.
This is due, in part, to the fact that what motivates employees, changes
constantly. For example, research suggests that as employeesÊ income increases,
money becomes less of a motivator (Kovach, 1987). Also, as employees get older,
interesting work becomes more of a motivator.
But, motivating employees is easier said than done! Despite the abundance of
research and theories on motivation, the subject of motivation is not clearly
understood and in many instances poorly practised. It has been suggested that to
understand motivation you need to understand the whole of human nature.
Obviously, this would be problematic as human nature or human behaviour can
be very simple and yet very complex too. Despite these difficulties, psychologists
and management specialists have attempted to examine human behaviour and
studied motivation in some detail.
Surely, you know the old saying that you can take a horse to the pond of water
but you cannot force it to drink, unless of course it is thirsty. Similarly with
people, they will do what they want to do if they are motivated. For example,
teachers in your school will teach extra classes on a Saturday if they are
motivated to do so, either by themselves or through some external stimulus.

4.3 MOTIVATION THEORIES

You should not be surprised to discover that no single theoretical interpretation
of motivation explains all aspects of employee or staff interest or disinterest. Different
theoretical interpretations do shed light, though, on particular reasons why some
employees in a given situation are more likely to work than others. There is an
advantage of examining these theoretical interpretations because they can serve
as the basis for developing methods and techniques for motivating employees or
staff in your institution. Let us discuss some of these theories.
4.3.1 McClelland’s Motivation Theory

David Clarence McClelland, who taught in many universities until his death in
1998, spent his time studying motivation. He pioneered research into motivation
in the workplace and developed theoretical interpretations of the phenomenon.
His ideas have since been widely adopted in many organisations and he is most
noted for his motivation theory described in his 1988 book, Human Motivation.
What motivates a person to do something? According to the model, a person is
motivated to do something because of a desire or need for achievement,
authority or affiliation or a combination of the three characteristics (see Figure
4.1).
Figure 4.1: McClellandÊs motivation theory (1988)

(a) Achievement Motivation

Achievement motivation (represented by „n-ach‰) includes persons who are
driven by the need or desire to achieve, attain realistic but challenging goals
and advance in their job. Such persons need constant feedback on their
achievement and progress to determine whether they have achieved or
accomplished their goals.
(b) Authority/Power Motivation

Authority/power motivation (represented by „n-pow‰) includes persons
who are driven by the need or desire to be influential, effective and to make
an impact. They have a strong desire or need to lead so that ideas can be
introduced and implemented. There is also a desire to increase their
personal status and prestige in the group.
(c) Affiliation Motivation

Affiliation motivation (represented by „n-affil‰) includes persons who are
driven by the need or desire for friendly relationships and are motivated
towards interaction with other people. The affiliation driver produces
motivation and the need to be liked and be popular in the group.
McClelland further elaborates that in reality people possess and are driven
by a combination or mix of these three types of motivation. These combination or
mix in motivational needs affects a personÊs behaviour and working style.
McClelland was most interested in achievement motivation and suggested other
characteristics and attitudes of achievement-motivated people (Chapman, 1995):
(a) Achievement is more important than material or financial rewards.
(b) Achieving the aim or task gives greater personal satisfaction than receiving
praise or recognition.
(c) Financial reward is regarded as a measurement of success, not an end in

itself.
(d) Security is not a prime motivator, nor is status.
(e) Feedback is essential, because it enables measurement of success, not for

reasons of praise or recognition (the implication here is that feedback must
be reliable, quantifiable and factual).
(f) Achievement-motivated people constantly seek improvements and ways of

doing things better.

ACTIVITY 4.1
A leader with a strong n-affil may be less objective and this may affect
decision making because of his need to belong and to be liked by
subordinates.
A leader with strong n-pow may produce a committed work force but
there is the possibility that he may lack flexibility and people-centred
skills.
A strong n-ach leader may make a good leader but he may demand too
much of employees believing that they are all equally achievement-
oriented and results driven, which of course most people are not.
(a) Do you agree with the three characteristics of leaders mentioned?

Give your reasons.
(b) If you are a leader, which of the three mentioned characteristics best
describes you? Discuss.
(c) Do any of the three characteristics mentioned describe your

leader? Elaborate on your answer.
4.3.2 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

Victor VroomÊs expectancy theory (1964) examines motivation from the
perspective of why people choose to follow a particular course of action. The
employee believes that effort will lead to performance which will lead to
rewards. Rewards may be either positive or negative. The more positive the
reward, the more likely the employee will be highly motivated. Conversely, the
more negative the reward, the less likely the employee will be motivated.
The theory assumes that people consciously choose from among alternatives
with the aim of maximising pleasure and minimising pain or negative
consequences. Vroom was convinced that an employeeÊs performance is based on
his personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities. Have you wondered
why some people are just not interested in going the extra mile and are content
with doing the minimum? Perhaps the individual does not have the relevant
knowledge and skills to do more.

The expectancy theory states that individuals have different sets of goals and can
be motivated if they believe that there is a positive correlation between effort and
reward. In other words, a person completes a certain task (effort) and is
rewarded accordingly which may be a statement by his superior, „That was a job
well done!‰ The reward satisfies an important need (to be recognised for oneÊs
effort). When the need is satisfied, the individual realises that the effort was
worthwhile. The expectancy theory is based on the following three beliefs or
variables:
(a) Valence
Valence refers to the importance people have with regard to the outcomes
or rewards. What do employees value? Is money important to you? Is
recognition of your work important?
(b) Expectancy
Expectancy is the belief that effort leads to performance: If I work harder,
the product will be better. Employees have different expectations and levels
of confidence about what they are capable of doing. What resources or
training do employees need?
(c) Instrumentality
Instrumentality is the belief that if a person performs as expected, he will
get what they desire as promised: „Everything seems to be going on very
well and I am sure to be rewarded‰. Leaders must ensure that promises of
rewards are fulfilled and that employees are aware of that.
Vroom proposed the following formula to predict motivation:
Motivation = Valence  Expectancy

This formula can be used to indicate and predict such things such as job
satisfaction, oneÊs occupational choice, the likelihood of staying in a job and the
effort one might expend at work. Refer to „What motivates a person to recycle
paper?‰ to see the application of the formula in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2: Formula to predict motivation
SELF-CHECK 4.1
Compare and contrast McCllelandÊs motivation theory and VroomÊs expectancy theory.
Give specific examples of the two theories explaining motivation in the workplace.
4.3.3 Locke and Latham’s Goal-setting Theory

Many of us set goals to direct ourselves. However, it is most valuable if the goals
are clear (not vague) and understandable so we know what to do and what not to
do. The goals should also be challenging so as to stimulate interest and also the
goals should be achievable, so that we will not fail as this will frustrate us. If
others are setting goals, than we are much less likely to be motivated to work
hard than if we are involved as we feel we have set or directed the goal
ourselves.

Industrial and organisational psychologists, Edwin Locke and Gary Latham

proposed the goal-setting theory which was based on over forty years of
empirical research. A goal is the object or aim of an action. For example, let us
take the objective of attaining a certain level of proficiency in French. The theory
was more focused in explaining how goal setting affected performance. Goals
affect performance through four mechanisms (see Figure 4.3):
Figure 4.3: Locke and LathamÊs goal-setting theory
(a) Goals serve as a directive function. For example, goals direct attention and
effort toward relevant activities and away from goal-irrelevant activities.
(b) Goals have an energising function. What does this mean? Goals tend to
increase the effort of the staff. High goals initiate a larger magnitude of
effort than low goals. When a goal is set at a difficult level a person is
required to put forth more effort to meet it. Satisfaction is experienced
when a goal is met.
(c) Goals affect persistence. Faced with a difficult task, it is possible to work
faster and more intensely for a short period or to work more slowly and
less intensely for a long period. Tight deadlines lead to more rapid work
pace than loose deadlines.
(d) Goals affect action indirectly by leading to the arousal, discovery and/or
use of task-relevant knowledge and strategies.

Figure 4.4 discusses important issues regarding Locke and LathamÊs goal-setting
theory.
Figure 4.4: Important issues regarding Locke and LathamÊs goal-setting theory
(a) Need for Feedback

When a person is working on the task towards a goal, he needs feedback to
determine if he is succeeding or whether there is need to change direction.
Feedback has been found to be encouraging and motivating. This includes
feedback from the person himself. Negative self-talk is just as demotivating
as negative comments from other people. Do you agree?
(b) Direction
Locke and Latham also argue that the direction and accuracy of goals are
important. The direction of a goal states where we are supposed to go. It
forces a person to focus, narrow his thinking and select beliefs that will lead
to the achievement of the goal.
(c) Accuracy
An accurate goal states the most exact possible conclusion or achievement
of the goal. Accuracy is important because deviating from the goal may be
costly.
So, it is not surprising that people invest more effort in achieving accuracy
goals. When we have an accurate goal, we do not stop at the „good enough‰
stage but continue to search for improvements.

(d) Clarity of Goals

Clarity of a goal has some effect on performance. This is logical because if
an employee does not understand the goal they are trying to achieve, their
performance will suffer. Thus, the clearer a goal is, the more likely a
personÊs performance will reach its full potential.
(e) Application of Goal-setting Theory

The goal-setting theory can be applied to almost any situation in which
performance of an employee is evaluated to assess efficiency. However,
performance is also correlated with other characteristics. Satisfaction in the
personÊs job is a major component in worker performance. Locke and
LathamÊs goal-setting theory may be used to predict job satisfaction. First,
Locke and Latham state that the productivity of a worker is significantly
increased by a high goal, thus establishing a base relationship for an
application to job satisfaction.
Goals are products to strive for and a means of judging satisfaction. When a
person puts forth the effort to meet a goal, that person will not be satisfied
until his goal is met (Locke & Latham, 2002). As may be implied, when a
subject achieves a higher performance level than is required for a goal to be
attained, satisfaction will be increased relative to the amount of
performance. Likewise, the further a subject is from meeting the goal, the
more dissatisfaction will be experienced. These relationships show that
there is a relationship between goal difficulty and job satisfaction. It is this
premise that the current study is based.
SELF-CHECK 4.2
How does goal setting affect performance according to Locke and LathamÊs theory?
How do direction, accuracy and clarity of goals affect performance?
Explain the application of goal-setting theory in motivating employees.

4.4 BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION AND

MOTIVATION
Many of our students in schools do not perform well not due to innate
disabilities but more due to the lack of motivation and the presence of negative
behaviour or habits. You, as a teacher, may have come across students who can
communicate well with their peers and are street-wise, but do poorly in academic
matters. They may have picked up some negative habits which have become a
part of their personalities. These negative behaviours need to be changed or
modified through the process of behaviour modification and motivation.
4.4.1 Behaviour Modification

Behaviour modification is a process where you cause a person to change their
unwanted behaviour into a desirable one. Through this process, an individual is
able to be channelled into performing a desirable behaviour to achieve certain
objectives. An example is a student who is influenced by peers who feel that to be
macho and a leader, one must be able to win a fist fight in a brawl in the streets
and as a reward for winning it, fear would be instilled among his peers and they
would listen and obey whatever decision that the leader made.
In todayÊs „dog-eat-dog‰ world, this culture of brute strength rules the day.
Students who are involved in this culture would not excel in academic matters.
Instead they would be trouble-makers and cause indiscipline in the school. The
school authorities, especially the principal and the teachers would have to find
means to modify these studentsÊ behaviours in order to establish a positive and
effective school culture.
(a) Pavlov is Classical Conditioning

In the late 1890s, Ivan Petrovich Pavlov set up an experiment using a dog as
the subject. Pavlov used the ringing of a bell to associate it with food. He
discovered that after training, the dog would salivate involuntarily to the
bellÊs sound, regardless of whether there was the presence of the food or
not. The dog had become conditioned and this experiment is commonly
known as classical conditioning.
(b) Operant Conditioning

This theory is based on the work of B. F. Skinner (1932) who took classical
conditioning one step further. He thought that individuals are more active
in the learning process than that theory allowed. Skinner identified between
two types of behaviour, the respondent and the operant which is the
extension of the classical concept of conditioning where behaviour is
actually
learnt. Classical Pavlovian conditioning is responsible for our motivation to

respond to any situation, whereas operant conditioning is what we learn to
do to satisfy these motivational states. In classical conditioning, it begins with
stimulus which leads to a response (S R), but in operant conditioning, it
is response – stimulus (R S).
(c) Social Modelling

Albert BanduraÊs social modelling or social learning theory emphasises the
importance of observation and imitating behaviours, attitudes and emotional
reactions of others. He thinks that most learning is the result of imitating
or copying others. This theory stresses upon the importance of external
reinforcers, and also allows learning to happen independent of
reinforcement. Bandura (1977) states: „Learning would be exceedingly
laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the
effects of their own actions to inform them what to do‰.
Fortunately, most human behaviour is learned observationally through

modelling; from observing others one forms an idea of how new
behaviours are performed, and on later occasions this coded information
serves as a guide for action.‰ This social learning theory explains human
behaviour in terms of interactions between cognitive, behavioural and
environmental influences. The processes of observational learning as
observed by Bandura are:
(i) Attention – the learner has to pay attention to the behaviours,

attitudes and reactions.
(ii) Retention – the learner has to remember what he has observed.
(iii) Motor reproduction – the learner has reproduced what he has learnt.
(iv) Motivation – in order for the learner to retain the modelled behaviour
there must be some motivation on his part to continue doing it.
(d) Principals of Behaviour Change

From the mentioned behaviour theories, we can summarise a number of
propositions which are important for teachers who can influence students
for behaviour changes.
(i) Human behaviour is due to learning which is guided by the laws of

learning.
(ii) Since human behaviour is a product of learning, it is liable to

unlearning and correction.

(iii) Human behaviour is also influenced by results or consequences.

Therefore, if it is followed by rewards, it can be strengthened or
weakened by negative consequences.
(iv) Human behaviour is also controlled by internal and external factors

such as significant role models and rewards such as prizes or praise.
(v) Maladjustive behaviour can be changed by changing the environment.
(vi) Human beings are born with a clean slate.
(vii) Behaviour is learnt individually, by training, by conditioning or by

watching others learn.
(viii) Students who need help may show negative behaviour that they wish
to eliminate, or show positive behaviour that they wish others to
follow.
SELF-CHECK 4.3
What is the difference between PavlovÊs classical conditioning and operant conditioning?
When would you use social modelling on your students?
Why do you think that before anyone can successfully implement any behaviour modification
4.4.2 Stages of Management of Behavioural Change

With an understanding of the propositions and theories on behaviour
modifications, teachers can model positive changes that they want the students to
follow. Teachers should strategise a plan for the management and assessment of
behavioural change. The following steps would be helpful in the process of
implementing the strategy:
(a) Identification of the Problem

StudentsÊ problems can be detected through observation, studentsÊ
records and from the students themselves as well as research.

(b) Setting Goals

After establishing the problems, teachers have to set goals that the students
have to achieve. If the students did not perform well in mathematics from
the formative tests, then teachers would have to set goals such as all
students should master 80 per cent of what they have learnt in the
mathematics classes through the process of mastery learning.
(c) Establishment of Baseline Data

The collected data through observation, studentsÊ records, and from research
will become the baseline data. It will be used for designing programmes for
studentsÊ academic improvement.
(d) Intervention Selection

Once the causes of the problem are known, intervention programmes to
remedy the problematic situation are designed and evaluated but only one
of them has to be selected for implementation.
(e) Evaluation
After the programme of behaviour modification has been implemented,
formative evaluation has to be carried out to gauge its effectiveness. If
necessary, the intervention process might be modified to suit the
requirement of achieving the goal.
This process of behaviour modification is a continuous process of attention,

retention, motor reproduction and motivation as suggested by Bandura (1977).
The first three stages of the process namely attention, retention and motor
reproduction can only be sustained if there is a continuous reason for wanting to
do it. It is motivation that sustains the interest of wanting to continue the process
until the objectives have been achieved.
The success of any behaviour modification programme depends on the length of

time it is being followed willingly by the subjects until the new traits, habits and
characteristics have become embedded in their personalities. Then you may have
a group of rejuvenated students with positive attitudes, diligence and self-
confidence. As mentioned earlier, the motivation within is the determinant of the
success.

(a) Motivation and StudentÊs Orientation

Dweck (1986) and other researchers concluded that there are two basic
types of students namely:
(i) Learning-oriented Students

Learning-oriented students are more interested in achieving good
grades and, therefore, are motivated to learn, gain competence and
skills. These students perceive that intelligence is changeable and
believe that they will be smarter if they were to study harder. As a result
of this positive perception towards themselves as well as towards life,
they enjoy learning new things and are willing to take up difficult
challenges even though they do not feel that they are very bright.
(ii) Image-oriented Students

Image-oriented students are more interested to look smart in order to
avoid being looked at as dumb. This conscience helps these students
build their self-esteem. These image-oriented students believe that
intelligence is permanently fixed and doing well is assumed to be due
to brains and not effort, and therefore there is no need for hard work.
As the result of this belief, they do not put much effort to improve
themselves.
They become less motivated, less curious, less interested in new ideas
and in learning. Their self-esteem and pride is based upon good
impression management, not on careful evaluation or estimate of
their ability. This impression leads to less curiosity and avoidance of
testing their limits. Their self-confidence falls further and if they make
any foolish statement, they begin to doubt their intelligence. The
consequence for this orientation is grave even for the high achievers if
they fall into this trap.
Schools that are aware of this phenomenon among the students can
attempt to remedy it by introducing programmes that build studentsÊ
self-esteem by giving lots of positive reinforcement, positive
expectations of the students to do well (self-fulfilling prophecy), but
this attempt cannot be stretched too much. It might be harmful to the
students and jeopardise the objective of the whole process. Rewarding
success on easy assignments will not encourage students to tackle
difficult tasks. They know that their „success‰ is not real and their limits
are not tested. This feeling might be more harmful to their self-esteem.

(b) Attribution Theory and Achievement

Heider (1958) was one of the first people to write about how an individual
thinks about causality „what causes what, or what is attributed to what‰.
Since 1960, many studies were done to understand why some people are
highly motivated to achieve while others are not.
According to attribution theory as proposed by Weiner (1980), a high

achiever will:
(i) Approach rather than avoid tasks related to success because he

believes that success is due to high ability and effort which he is
confident of. Failure is due to something else other than his lack of
ability.
(ii) Never surrender but instead become more persistent when work
becomes more difficult, because failure is considered as the result of a
lack of effort.
(iii) Choose moderate challenges where the success rate is 50 per cent
because the feedback on these attempts tells him how well he is doing.
(iv) Works very hard because the results are believed to be the result of hard
work and how much he tries.
The unmotivated person, on the other hand, has the opposite attitude and the
result of this attitude causes him to slide further into lower self-confidence, self-
esteem and lower achievements.
4.4.3 Conclusion
As teachers in the school, you may find many students who can be categorised
into this group of students who are not motivated and have negative attitudes
towards themselves. What would you do? This question can be answered if you
have read the earlier paragraphs as well as other articles on the subject.
As teachers you can apply many theories and principles of education;

psychology, sociology, curriculum development, leadership, pedagogy and
many others to design programmes for student improvement. The success of the
programmes depend on the seriousness of implementation and the teachers who
are behind them. Effective schools are the result of the principals and teachers
belief that anything can be achieved if they believe in what they are doing.

SELF-CHECK 4.4
What are the differences between „learning-oriented students‰ and
„image-oriented students‰?
What would you do to make „image-oriented students‰ more interested in learning?
What is the relationship between „attribution theory‰ and
„achievement‰?
ACTIVITY 4.2
If you were the principal of a secondary school, how would you plan to modify studentsÊ neg
How would you apply the theories of behaviour modification in the implementation of behav
As a school principal, how would you motivate your students to ensure that they would feel t
Do you believe that the „attribution theory‰ is the determining factor for studentsÊ achievem
 This topic enables students to recognise and apply the differences between
intrinsic and extrinsic rewards.
 Various motivation theories were addressed: McClellandÊs motivation

theory, VroomÊs expectancy theory, Locke and LathamÊs goal-setting theory.
 According to McClellandÊs motivation theory, a person is motivated to do

something because of a desire or need for achievement, authority or
affiliation or a combination of the three characteristics.

 VroomÊs expectancy theory is based on three beliefs or variables – valance,

expectancy and instrumentality.
 Locke and LathamÊs goal-setting theory was focused on how goals affect
performance through four mechanisms – directive function, energising
function, persistence and action.
 Good leaders aim to motivate others by meeting their higher order needs.
 This topic addresses the application of needs-based theories of motivation.
 This topic also addresses the need to motivate and to modify behaviours.
Behaviour modification Pavlov classical conditioning

Lock and LathamÊs goal setting Social modelling
theory
Stages of management of behavioural
McClellandÊs motivation theorychange
Operant conditioning VroomÊs expectancy theory
Bandura, A. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.psy.pdx.edu/PsiCafe/Key

Theorists/Bandura.htm.
Bandura, A. (n.d.). Social learning theory. Retrieved from

http://tip.psychology. org/bandura.html.
Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of behaviour modification. New York, NY: Holt,

Rinehart & Winston.
Hoy, W. K., & Miskel, C. G. (2001) Educational administration: Theory,

research, and practice (6th ed.). Singapore: McGraw-Hill International
Edition.
Motivation. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://mentalhelp.net/psyhelp/chap4/

chap41. htm.

McClelland, D. (1988). Human motivation. London, England: Cambridge

University Press.
Organizational behaviour modification. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.g

abbai.com/Management/Psychology/Psychology_OBMod.html.
Guez, W., & Allen, J. (Eds.). Regional Training Seminar on Guidance and
Counselling Module 4. Behaviour modification. UNESCO, Uganda.
Skinner, B. F. (1976). About behaviourism. New York, NY: Random House.
Vroom, V. (1995). Work and motivation. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Inc.

To pi ▶ The School
as a Social
5 Organisation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Explain how a school is a social system;
Compare the school with other social systems;
Discuss the bureaucratic characteristics of our school system;
Criticise the Weberian bureaucratic model and its functions and dysfunctions;
Apply the concepts and the principles of the role theory, value theory, and the decision-making theo
Discuss the issues faced by our school system in the process of developing effective schools.
▶ INTRODUCTION
The school is not an island by itself. It is a part of a community and, due to that,
it is a social organisation. A social organisation has its own characteristics and
the most common aspect of these characteristics is bureaucracy. It rules the
organisation in almost all aspect of activities. Understanding the bureaucratic
process and characteristics of the organisation enables an individual to plan the
activities to achieve certain goals and objectives without much hindrance. As a
post-graduate student, you are expected not only to understand the concepts of

TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION ◀ 103
a social organisation but also to explain, evaluate and criticise all aspects of it.
Besides that, you are also expected to know some social theories so that you can
apply them in actual situations in the school system in the process of developing
effective schools for the benefit of the students and the future of the nation. What
makes the school a social organisation? It is an organisation because it is made up
of a system of social interactions; an organised whole comprising of interesting
personalities bound together in an organic relationship (Waller, 1932). These
personalities determine the type of school system which may change with the
change of personalities and the approaches towards policy implementation.
5.1 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL SYSTEM

The school as a social system is made up of an interdependence of parts, a clearly
defined population, a complex network of social relationships and its own
unique culture. Hoy and Miskel (2001) summarised the assumption of the school
as a social system from primary literature namely Getzels and Guba (1957);
Getzels, Lipham, and Campbell (1968); Bidwell (1965) and Scott (1992; 1998).
These assumptions are that social systems:
(a) Are open systems;
(b) Have people performing their different roles;
(c) Consist of interdependent parts, characteristics and activities that

contribute to and are received from the whole;
(d) Are goal-oriented;
(e) Are structural;
(f) Are normative to prescribe appropriate behaviour;
(g) Are sanction bearing where norms for behaviour are enforced with reward
and punishment;
(h) Are political;
(i) Have distinctive cultures;
(j) Are conceptual and relative; and
(k) Include all formal organisations.

104 ▶ TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION
The 11 assumptions of a social system can reflect the school system which is
familiar to many of us. If school improvement is to be implemented successfully,
the school as a social system must be understood. The strengths and the
weaknesses of the school must be analysed in order to plan the school
improvement process. The success depends on how thorough the analysis was
made, and, how close the problems identified are to the actual problems. When
the actual problems are identified, the planning and the implementation of the
solutions would bring about the desired results and wastage would be
minimised.
After the deliberations on the subject of the schools as social systems, let us delve
in more detail into the theoretical aspects of the school as a social organisation.
Weber (1947) discussed the concept of bureaucracy and our objective is to relate
his theoretical concepts to our schools.
SELF-CHECK 5.1
Explain the following assumptions made in the context at „the school as a social system‰:
Social systems are conceptual and relative;
Social systems are normative to prescribe appropriate behaviour; and
Social systems are goal-oriented.
ACTIVITY 5.1
Discuss the similarities and differences between a school and a business organisation from the socia

5.2 THE RISE OF WEBERIAN BUREAUCRACY

AND STRUCTURES IN SCHOOLS
After discussing schools as social organisations, let us go into more detail
regarding the structures and administration of our schools. One of the earlier social
scientists who studied about organisations was Weber (1947). He enumerated
that all modern organisations, where schools are one of them, have their own
categories.
This Weberian model of bureaucracy is the basis of organisational structures.

The structures enable these organisations to operate successfully with efficiency
though these management tools could bring about some unintended results
which will be discussed later. He mentioned that a bureaucracy has
characteristics of its own which were classified into five categories as illustrated
in Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1: Characteristics of a bureaucracy

5.2.1 Division of Labour

The first one is „division of labour‰. The tasks of most organisations are too
complex to be performed by a single individual, and because of that a division of
labour has to be devised to divide the tasks and responsibilities for better
efficiency. As the result of this shift, specialisations emerged. As an example,
there is very little specialisation in the primary schools compared to the
secondary schools where the teachers are specialised in the various subject matter
areas which make them more efficient in their own chosen specialisation.
5.2.2 Impersonal Orientation

Weber (1947) argued that in order to be efficient there must be the atmosphere of
impersonal orientation, without hatred or passion which might also result in doing
things without affection and enthusiasm. The bureaucratic worker has to use the
scientific approach in making decisions; based on facts and not on feelings. This
is expected to assure equality of treatment.
5.2.3 Hierarchy of Authority

The hierarchy of authority in a bureaucracy is found in almost all organisations.
If we observe the organisational chart, we can observe at the top of the pyramid
in the chart there is only one box with the name of the chief executive officer; the
head of the organisation, and as we go down, more and more members are
found in each horizontal line of authority. These positions of superordinates and
subordinates attempt to guarantee the disciplined compliance to directives from
superiors in order to ensure that the successful implementation of various tasks
and functions of an organisation become a reality.
5.2.4 Rules and Regulations

Weber (1947) contends that every bureaucracy has a system of rules and
regulations. They are to ensure uniformity and stability of employeesÊ actions.
There will be less misunderstanding between employees and as a result, the
objectives could be met with the least problems.

5.2.5 Career Orientation

Career in a bureaucratic organisation is based on technical and academic
qualifications and, as a result, employees think of their work as a career. Weber
(1947) stipulates that whenever there is a career orientation, there is a system of
promotions based on seniority and achievement. To inculcate loyalty, individuals
with special skills must be protected from arbitrary dismissal or denial of
promotion, and bureaucracies institutionalise protection of employees through
such actions where decisions are made dispassionately.
SELF-CHECK 5.2
Name the five characteristics of a bureaucracy according to the Weberian model.
ACTIVITY 5.2
Do you agree with the arguments and rationale of the bureaucratic characteristics? Give
5.3 THE BENEFITS OF BUREAUCRACY

The following are the benefits of bureaucracy:
(a) Ideally, bureaucracy maximises rational decision making and

administrative efficiency.
(b) Division of labour ensures that every member of the organisation is an expert
in a certain area of specialisation.
(c) This results in more efficiency since the expert would be able to give advice
to his superordinates and others in matters that need expert and
professional opinions before any decision could be made.
(d) When there are experts in all sectors of the organisation, then it will become
self-sufficient and will not need the services of other experts from outside
the organisation.

(e) In a modern organisation, rationality and scientific enquiry within a neutral

environment would bring about sound decisions that will bring about
precise results without wasting any scarce resources.
(f) This process would be enhanced further by the hierarchy of authority,

where subordinates would carry out the duties and responsibilities as
planned by their superordinates.
(g) This compliance would lessen the disagreement by the subordinates since
the line of authority dictates that the subordinates would not question the
decision made by their superiors.
(h) Since there is the presence of hierarchy of authority where there are leaders
as well as followers in an organisation which has developed long term
goals through strategic planning, the employees naturally would have an
orientation of making their jobs as a lifelong career.
(i) This orientation would enhance the quality of the work force and
compliance by the subordinates would be an easier task.
5.4 CRITICISMS OF THE WEBERIAN

BUREAUCRATIC MODEL
The Weberian model has been criticised from many angles. A lot of talk about the
benefits of the model had been put forward and many examples of more
organised work force with motivated workers and greater achievement had been
rationalised to convince sceptics. In most cases, their views were accepted but as
in all things, there must also be the negative aspects that need to be exposed. This
exposure would ensure that bureaucracy can be improved upon for the benefit of
all.
Since most people were more interested in the positive aspects of bureaucracy,
they forgot the dysfunctional features of his formulation. The Weberian model
did not touch on the role of the informal organisation which is actually as
important as the formal one. The discussion of the informal organisation in a
bureaucracy would describe the workings of the bureaucratic model in a more
realistic deliberation which would benefit those who implement the model.

The lack of discussion on the informal aspect of the bureaucracy results in the
neglect of the discussion on the potential internal contradictions of the model.
The following discussions on the functions and dysfunctions of the Weberian
bureaucratic model would allow the reader to have a better picture of the whole
bureaucratic system of an organisation.
5.5 FUNCTIONS AND DYSFUNCTIONS OF

THE WEBERIAN BUREAUCRATIC MODEL
There are the pros as well as cons to all things but it is up to the individual to
maximise the pros and minimise the cons for their benefits to achieve targeted
goals. By knowing well the weaknesses of any tool that are in hand, we can
minimise them and utilise the maximised strengths so as to overcome the
weaknesses. The same formula can be applied in the case of Weberian bureaucratic
model. As we all know very well regarding the Weberian bureaucratic model, it
is able to promote efficiency in goal attainment.
(a) Take division of labour as an example. It provides expertise to the

organisation but it causes boredom due to the repetitive actions of the same
nature which ultimately leads to lower productivity. Many organisations
try to reduce this phenomenon by providing more varied tasks and
responsibilities. The employees are trained to multi-task and with the
changing scene, though the division of labour is relevant, that relevancy has
become blurred.
(b) Impersonal orientation may improve rationality in the process of decision

making, but impersonality is not a natural human trait. As a result, there is
a lack of warmth which may cause low morale among the employees. Low
morale may lead to low productivity and the failure to achieve the
organisational goals.
(c) Hierarchy of authority may promote compliance of subordinates but

please be aware that it may cause disruption in effective and efficient
communication. At every level of the hierarchy there is the potential of a
blockage in the dissemination of information; upwards and downwards.
Blau and Scott (1962) observed the tendency of only conveying the message
that may make them look good or that may make their bosses happy. The
effect of this tendency may bring negative consequences to the organisation
such as the bosses do not know what is really happening in the
organisation and as the result of that many problems that need to be
attended to immediately were ignored, and the organisation can
accumulate problems that may become dysfunctional which are difficult to
resolve.
(d) Rules and regulations do provide stability, continuity and uniformity but
simultaneously they may lead to rigidity and goal displacement. The
employees, who might be so rigid in abiding by the rules and regulations,
may make them as an end, and not as a means to achieve an end. This
rigidity and formalism may make the organisation inflexible and, as a
consequence, it may not be able to adapt to changes easily and it may
interfere with goal achievement.
(e) Career orientation is a healthy element in an organisation due to its

motivational factor. The employees would be motivated to maximise their
efforts to ensure that their effort would be recognised by their employers
and be used as mileage for promotion, but at the same time it may cause
organisational conflict among the employees. This conflict may be caused
by jealousy among the employees because their different communication
styles with their bosses may bring about different perceptions of their
bosses. If the bosses do not use other evaluation instruments for staff
appraisal besides using perceptions, then there is a tendency for biasness.
The Weberian bureaucratic model as proposed by Weber (1947) has become the
guideline for formal organisations around the world even though modifications
have been made to minimise the negative effects of the proposed bureaucracy.
We have heard that the bureaucratic process has been simplified where red tapes
was minimised and the bureaucratic pyramid has been flattened where there is
less hierarchy and more democracy but the principles of organisations still
remain intact.
The next stage of our discussion is deliberating on the „role theory‰. When we
are deliberating about leadership and followership we are actually talking about
the different roles played by individuals within the organisation. Let us read and
think about the explanations and arguments put forward by some researchers
regarding role theory, and try to relate them to our school system.
SELF-CHECK 5.3
What are the benefits of bureaucracy?
What are the functions and the dyfunctions of the Weberian bureaucratic model?

ACTIVITY 5.3
„Besides the given functions and dyfunctions of the Weberian bureaucratic model, there are o
5.6 ROLE THEORY

Every individual has at least one role to play. A studentÊs role is to study while a
teacherÊs role in the school is to teach his students in his class but at home he wears
many different hats which symbolise roles such as that of a father, a husband, a
son, a breadwinner, etc. Every individual cannot escape from playing roles which
have different expectations. The focus of this topic is to deliberate on the roles
played by school principals as leaders as well as a manager of an educational
institution. How well he plays the different roles will determine the health of the
institution he is heading.
5.6.1 Sources of the Role of the Principal

In the Malaysian context, the sources of the role of a school principal lie in the
Ministry of Education and its departments. They determine the roles that the
principal should play. According to Foo (2003), the role played by the manager of
the school is also influenced by the three reformation eras that occurred during
the stages of the educational reformation epoch. These eras are:
(a) Intensification Era (1980–1987)

It focused on centralised administration which is hierarchical in nature to
ensure control by the central authorities as well as compliance by staff and
students. This was a critical period of educational development in the
country which needed centralised planning and implementation to ensure
that the strategic plans in education would achieve their objectives.

(b) Restructuring Era (1988–1995)

It highlights the concept of centralisation, the empowerment of the
professionals and the clientsÊ choices or preferences. This is the era where
they found out that centralised control stifled creativity and the institution
of the schools became rigid. This is not the type of education that they
should foster if the nation is heading towards a fully developed nation.
Therefore with more trained and qualified teachers, the centralised form of
control became more relaxed where the local educational authorities such as
the state education director, the district education officer and the principals
have more control and say about the administration of their schools.
(c) Reformation Era (The Present)

This era stresses on standards, accountability and privatisation of education
(Murphey & Adams, 1998). The third stage of the advancement of
education requires the principals to raise the quality standards of their
schools which can be reflected by the academic performance of the students
in public examinations. This quality also reflects the quality in the
principalÊs management and the administration of other matters, such as
staff and student management. The willingness to be accountable alone can
be a barometer for a more efficient administration. This is also the era
where private institutions of higher learning have left a mark in the history
of education in Malaysia.
5.6.2 The Principal’s Role

The principalÊs role has been discussed and argued for almost a century, the whole
of the 20th century. At one instant, the school administrators were urged to play
the role of an executive bureaucrat while at some other time, they were asked to
play the role of a humanistic facilitator, and at present they are demanded to
function as a leader in the process of teaching and learning (Beck & Murphy,
1993). They were also exposed to training to prepare them for holding positions
as principals but the training was ineffective due to the type of training which
was more suitable for them to maintain the discipline among the students rather
than transforming the school organisation (Hallinger & Bridges, 1997).
Zaidatul Akmaliah and Foo (2003) cited a report by the school inspectorate of
2000 which stated that about 57 per cent of the schools were able to provide a
positive atmosphere for the teaching and learning process at the average level,
while the remainder was weak. Barker (1997) found that the ambiguity of the role
that should be played by the principal was one of the causes for the difficulty in
getting a suitable candidate to head the school.

The role of the principal is closely related to the purpose of the setting up of the
school. In the case of the setting up of the science residential secondary schools in
every state in 1973, the purpose of the schools was to encourage Malay students
from the rural areas to take up Science and Mathematics so that there would be
enough candidates for the science-oriented professional courses such as medicine
and engineering.
The objective of those schools have been met due to their catalystic natures.
Caldwell (1998) proposed that future schools should be able to fulfil the
requirements of many besides formal education, such as for training and
retraining of the workforce of the nation due to the fast pace of the technological
changes which characterised our era.
5.6.3 A Model of Role Relationships

Getzels (1958, 1967) defined roles in terms of role expectations which are the
normative rights and duties that define what a person should or should not do
under various circumstances while he is incumbent of a particular role within an
organisation. Getzels delineated the following characteristics of roles:
(a) They are complementary;
(b) They are determined by the institution;
(c) They are flexible having behaviours in a continuum ranging from „required‰
to „prohibited‰; and
(d) The scope is varied in nature from specific to diffused roles.
The effectiveness of the incumbent is measured by the extent of the person in

fulfilling the rolesÊ demands. The effectiveness of a school principal can be
measured through task approach and the decision-making approach (Lipham &
Hoeh Jr, 1974). For the task approach, the role is described in terms of tasks to be
performed. Although the role of the principal is relatively well-established, but
up to the present, there is no universally agreed-on listing. The roles keep
changing to cater for the needs of individual schools as well as individual
countries.

The decision-making approach in determining the roles a leader plays involves

the authority given to a leader in making decisions. This authority provides a
guide on the actual roles the leader has been empowered with. In order to really
know the specified roles as expected by the incumbent or by his subordinates or
others, a process of role analysis can be used. The process of role analysis can
obtain expectations for a role incumbentÊs behaviour along a relevant
continuum from
„absolutely a must‰ to „absolutely must not‰. This analysis can provide
information on the actual role of a principal and the preferred role of a principal.
5.6.4 Role Expectations

There are at least three dimensions of role expectations of a principal, namely:
(a) The principalÊs perceptions of the teachersÊ expectations for the

principalÊs role;
(b) The principalÊs self-expectations for the principalÊs role; and
(c) TeachersÊ expectations for the principalÊs role.
Figure 5.2: Role expectations and role perception relationships

Source: Lipham & Hoeh (1974)

Figure 5.2 explains the role expectations of a principal from three dimensions.
From the analysis of the three dimensions we can have a more accurate picture of
the roles played by a school principal.
(a) Interceptive Distance

The difference in perceptions between „principalÊs perceptions of
teachersÊ expectations for the principalÊs role‰ and „principalÊs self-
expectations for the principalÊs role‰ is termed as „interceptive distance‰.
It simply means that both perceptions come from within the principal
himself. He may perceive that the teachers expect the principal to give
guidance in their teaching methodology, pay more interest in what they are
doing, and give a good appraisal of their performance at the end of the year,
but the principalÊs expectation of his role as a principal might be a different
one.
For example, the principal does not believe in giving a good appraisal to all
his staff and he believes that the teachers should be independent and there
is no need for him to know what his teachers do. This interceptive distance
may cause some disharmony in the organisation and it can be avoided if the
interceptive distance is minimised through knowing what the actual roles
of the principal and the teachers are.
(b) Communicative Distance

The difference in perceptions of expectations between the „principalÊs
perceptions of teachersÊ expectations for the principalÊs role‰ and the
„teachers expectations for the principalÊs role‰ may create more serious
misunderstanding between both parties. This problem is created because of
the „communicative distance‰ between the parties concerned. Take the
mentioned example where the „principalÊs perceptions of teachersÊ
expectations for the principalÊs role‰ is different from the
„teachersÊ expectations for the principalÊs role‰.
The principal perceives that he is expected to give pedagogical guidance to

the teachers and enters the classroom to do just that, but to his surprise the
teacher does not enjoy it and does not like to be bothered in such matters
because the teacher perceives that he is an expert in his academic discipline
and knows better regarding the best method of teaching to be used. This
difference is due to „communicative distance‰. The principalÊs role in that
aspect is not accepted by the teachers and this problem could be ironed out
if there is effective communication between both parties.

(c) Existential Distance

There is a problem of „existential distance‰ when the „principalÊs self-
expectations for the principalÊs role‰ is different from the
„teachersÊ expectations for the principalÊs role‰. Both parties should be made
known on the roles of the principal through effective communication.
A check list of the roles, responsibilities and duties of the principal should
be made known to the teachers and vice-versa. This is a simple process of
making sure the problem of miscommunication does not occur and if it
does occur from to time, there should be a mechanism to resolve it before it
develops into a hindrance to good governance in the education system.
The importance of knowing oneÊs role in an organisation cannot be emphasised

more. This knowledge enables an individual to know what is expected out of him
and if every staff member knows his specific roles, there would be harmony
within the organisation. Misunderstandings and conflicts can be avoided. When
roles are blurred or conflicting roles have to be played by the same individual,
then problems might arise. To avoid this phenomenon, individuals who have just
joined an organisation need to be inducted into the system.
The induction course or briefing helps to spell out the roles of each individual
though they might share some of the roles especially in the present environment
where multi-tasking is a norm in most organisations. In the educational
institution, the principal, the teachers and the supporting staff have different
roles to play. The teachers who have specialised in their own subject areas have
their own roles to play to ensure that the objectives, mission and the vision of
their school are achieved as planned.
SELF-CHECK 5.4
Explain the meaning of the following phrases:

Existential distance;
PrincipalÊs self-expectations for the principalÊs role;
TeachersÊ expectations for the principalÊs role; and
PrincipalÊs perceptions of teachersÊ expectations for the principalÊs role.

5.7 VALUE THEORY

Every society has its own value system that become the guiding posts for all
activities of the members of the value system. Though many societies share many
similar values, their practice and implementation may differ from one another.
An effective organisation reflects the process of the harmonisation of the values
of the society within the organisation. An effective leader must understand both
the cultural-institutional relationship and the cultural-individual relationship.
Due to fast-changing scenarios in almost everything that affects our lives, we

might lose perspective of the changing culture. To have a proper bearing so that
we know where we are, we have to look back at our values, namely sacred,
secular and operational values of our society. These values are manifested in the
major mechanisms whereby these values receive expression in the form of legal,
structural and operational guidelines of our institutions, including our schools.
As a principal, one must be aware of his value system and its interface with the
value systems of others. Understanding both viewpoints would help the
principal to lead others within the organisation as well as outside it.
5.7.1 Value Analysis

Malaysia is a multi-racial and multi-cultural nation which result in many value
systems which could cause value conflicts at all levels of society. Broudy (1965)
observed, „In one way or another value conflicts at all levels, metaphysical,
societal, personal, within value domains and among them, sooner or later come
to roost on the shoulders of the school, and because the highest responsibility
rests with the administrator, he must inevitably divide his attention between
coping with value conflicts on an institutional basis and acting out his own role
as a value witness‰.
As a leader of the school, how should he interpret the analysis of his own and
othersÊ values? There are several approaches to the analysis of these values
which are of several types, based on the opinions of several experts.
(a) Battle (1954) and Goldman (1961)

They represented values in 10 dimensions; religious, economic, political,
aesthetic, altruistic, social, hedonistic, physical, ethical and theoretical.

(b) Harman (1970)

He described and compared belief value positions in terms of US middle-
class, new humanistic, behavioural science and American origin value
system. Reich (1970) described changes in values in the US in terms of three
types of consciousness, namely „The American Dream‰ „The Corporate
State‰ and „The New Generation‰.
Whatever terms they use to explain the value system of the American society,
they discussed these based on the three levels of the value system as were
described by Lipham and Hoeh (1974); the core or sacred values, the secular
values and the operational values. The following Figure 5.3 summarises the three
levels of the values explained in this subtopic.
Figure 5.3: The dynamics of cultural values


Now, let us discuss these values one by one.
(a) The Core or Sacred Values

Every society has its core or sacred values which are based on religious or
belief systems. These values are embedded in society and have become a
part of peopleÊs conscious and subconscious minds. In some societies, the
individuals adhere strictly to these values while other societies interpret
them liberally and are more inclined towards secular values. Democracy is
a core value for Malaysians, just like the citizens of other countries that
subscribe to it, and it had become embedded in our society, which is
manifested in the form of secular values.
Lipham and Hoeh (1974) summarised that the sacred or core values serve
as a source for the legal and political structure of our society and receive
expression in the Constitution and charter provisions of the state
governments, and local governments; law and ordinances; judicial
decisions and interpretations by the courts; executive decisions in the form
of orders, and administrative regulations. The sacred values serve as a filter
for their manifestations in the forms mentioned which constitute the secular
values.
(b) The Secular Values

The core or sacred values manifest themselves in the form of secular
values once they become the structures of our society. These Level II values
are subject to wide interpretation and different implementations. Getzels,
Lipham and Campbell (1972) mentioned that the secular values have been
and continue to be in transition as conditions in society change.
Traditionally these values include a work-success ethic, a future-time

orientation, independence or the autonomous self and moral commitment
but these traditional values had given way to the secular values of
sociability, present-time orientation, group conformity and moral
relativism. These American values might be different from other secular
values practised by other societies which are at different levels of social
development, but at a different time when the other societies reach the
same level those values might be shared by them too.
(c) The Operational Values

Though the core values might be similar, the different orientation of the
society alters the secular values to suit their tastes, Also, when these secular
values are subjected to greater differences in behavioural manifestations as
one implements, there will be more varied values which are termed as
operational values.

As an illustration, let us take our sacred value of sharing and cooperating at

Level I which is fully understood by all members of our society. When it
reaches Level II we have the various legislative enactments and executive
decisions that interpret those values differently. In the case of schools, we
have different types of schools using different medium of instructions
where the students are separated physically and cooperation between
ethnic groups would be more difficult.
Later at Level III at the operational values level, there is more variety and
as in the case of Malaysia becoming more developed, the tendency of
the operational values to become the opposite is ever present. As society
becomes more affluent, individualism becomes more prominent and the
core value of cooperating between members of society becomes less
frequent, and slowly the shift of core values begin to occur and in time to
come, a new set of the three levels of values might become entrenched.
5.7.2 The Relationship between School and Society

As in the case of the US, schooling is a sacred value of the society. Lipham and
Hoeh (1974) mentioned that there is an existence of certain dominant cultural
themes that might be cited as basic principles of the American education, which
are also applicable to Malaysia. The five principles are presented in Figure 5.4.
Figure 5.4: Five basic principles of Malaysia education

(a) The Schools Belong to the People

Since the right to have an education is guaranteed to all citizens of
Malaysia, the school belongs to the people. In the 1960s, Malaysian schools
were run by a Board under the Unified Teaching Scheme which actually
represented the people but due to administrative difficulties because of the
rapid development of the school system, it was centralised at the Ministry
of Education. Once the educational development has reached the level of
maturity where education becomes universal, most probably it will be back
with the people who will determine the curriculum as well as the nature of
the school system.
(b) Education is a Function of the States

In the case of the US, the schools are controlled by the states but in the case
of Malaysia they are controlled by the Federal Government. The objective of
federal control is to ensure that education is available to all sections of our
society and the funding by the Federal Government ensures that all schools
will have equal treatment.
This sacred value changes when it becomes secular values because though
in theory they have equal treatment, in practice, the urban schools are more
advantageous because of the availability of other resources that may help
the students to have better education than those in the rural areas. This
secular value will become more diversified when it, in turn, becomes
operational values due to many more different variables that exist in
Malaysian society.
(c) Education is of Federal Interest

When education is thought of as a right for every individual and as a
lifelong quest, the Federal Government is seen as playing a greater role than
just providing education to the youths of the nation. Now lifelong
education is an extension of the normal education where every citizen has
the opportunity to pursue whatever education that they missed in the past.
Lifelong education is also available to all irrespective whether they are
citizens or foreigners. As the nation matures lifelong education will become
an integral part of the psychology of the people.

(d) Education is in Terms of the Individual

„Education is for everyone‰, „Education is compulsory for every child‰,
„Every individual should pursue education from the cradle to the grave‰.
These phrases are only clichés because they are nice to say but problematic
when implementing it. The nation might not be able to implement the
policy of providing places for all citizens who want to have an education at
the highest level due to financial constraints. Either the nation cannot afford
it or a large portion of the people do not have the financial means to send
their children for education. What is vital here is ensuring that every
individual in society who wants to have an education but lacks the financial
means to do it, must be given the opportunity to seek financial aid.
To cite Malaysia as a case study, it is trying its very best in providing

opportunities for all its citizens to pursue higher education because
education at the primary and the secondary level is universal. To ensure
that all citizens of Malaysia have an equal opportunity to higher education,
the government established 17 public universities and many more are
being planned and developed for future demands. Simultaneously, private
institutions of higher learning, colleges and universities, have mushroomed
to cater to the needs of the nation as well as those from neighbouring
countries.
Though Malaysian education may look bright, there are shortcomings that
need to be addressed. Since 2003, meritocracy has been implemented
to replace the quota system for higher education. The quota system was
originally introduced to ensure that the disadvantaged groups such as
the Bumiputras or the indigenous citizens from the rural areas would
have an equal opportunity to tertiary education. With the introduction of
meritocracy, every candidate for public higher institutions needs to
compete for limited places at these universities. A few questions arise due
this policy such as:
(i) Can rural students from the disadvantaged groups compete with
students from the developed urban areas for places at some of the
prestigious faculties such as medicine and engineering?
(ii) With meritocracy, are we subsidising the well-to-do families to send

their children to study at prestigious public universities since the fees
are much lower?

(iii) Are we widening and deepening the gap between the well-to-do and
the have-nots of the country?
(iv) Are we depriving the poor from pursuing higher education to favour
the rich?
Discuss these questions from all angles, and find out other alternatives to
address the problems posed by those questions and rationalise them.
Such questions touch the basic rights of a citizen to pursue higher education
since it is the fundamental value of the nation. At this juncture of
educational development in Malaysia, this dilemma could bring about a
more enlightened future with the system of meritocracy or by reverting to
the older policy of the quota system which might also hinder a more just
society that we want to create with a higher level of productivity.
(e) Education is Equally Available to All

Is education equally available to all Malaysians? The answer is in the
affirmative, but if we were to analyse it more in-depth, we begin to feel
uncomfortable. In general, we can safely say that education is equally
available to all, but do all those who want to have an education which is
available have it? A student who badly wants to be an engineer and has the
qualifications to pursue the course is not necessarily offered a place at the
public university of his choice because he has to compete with other
candidates.
Of course, he can pursue his ambition at another university, a private one,

but he may not be able to afford it. Individually it might not affect the
nation, but if the majority who were unable to pursue higher education in
the public universities are of one ethnic group who were socioeconomically
disadvantaged, then it becomes an issue and a destabilising force. If
education is to be made equally available to all, then not only sufficient
educational infrastructure needs to be built to cater for all needs, but also
the funding of students who cannot afford it.

5.7.3 Current Educational Trends

Education development in Malaysia is dynamic as new policies and
improvisations were introduced one after another to meet the societal and global
challenges. The following events that are educational in nature reflect the current
trends in education:
(a) The establishment of the National Board of Accreditation or in Malay it is

better known as LAN (Lembaga Akreditasi Negara).
(b) The establishment of the Division of Private Education in the Ministry of

Education (1996).
(c) The proliferation of private institutions of higher learning (1996).
(d) The introduction of smart schools (2000).
(e) The introduction of Vision Schools (2000).
(f) The introduction of English as a medium of instruction in the teaching of

Science and Mathematics at all level of education (2003).
(g) The introduction of meritocracy in education (2003).
(h) Making Malaysia an educational hub of ASEAN (2003).
(i) The establishment of the Ministry of Higher Education (2004).
(j) The implementation of lifelong education by all public universities (2005).
(k) The introduction of Open Entry (2006).
(l) The introduction of „To Uphold Bahasa Malaysia and To Strengthen the
English Language‰ policy (MBMMBI) (2011).
(m) Launch of 1 Student 1 Sport initiative (2011).
(n) The introduction of Primary School Standard Curriculum (KSSR) (2011).
(o) The School Based Assessment (PBS) begins with Year One students (2011).

(p) The launch of Trust Schools Malaysia (2012).
(q) The directive on Protecting Instructional Time (MMI) in schools (2012).
(r) The implementation of Transformation of Vocational Education (TVE)

programme (2012).
(s) The expansion of Preschool Education in public primary schools (2012).
(t) The launch of Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013–2025 (PPPM) (2013).
(u) The introduction of Secondary School Standard Curriculum (KSSM) (2014).
(v) The launch of Malaysia Education Blueprint (Higher Education) 2015–2025

(2015).
(w) The launch of the Higher Education Institution Entrepreneur Action Plan
2016–2020 by the Higher Education Ministry (2016).
(x) The launch of Computational Thinking and Computer Science integration

in the schools formal curriculum which begins in 2017 (2016).
These innovations and changes in the Malaysian educational policy reflect the
current and future trends of education. Some of the changes were strategically
planned while others were implemented in a hurry which could affect the future
of our children.
The proliferation of private institutions of higher learning which began as the

result of the currency crisis, as well too much money flowing to other countries
due to the presence of Malaysian students there, caused the change of
government policy regarding private education. Colleges and universities were
established to cater for the needs of these students and as the result of this policy
change Malaysia has become an important centre for education. This is a positive
move since many more Malaysians are able to pursue higher education with the
establishment of these institutions. So the Malaysian dream of making Malaysia
as an educational hub is nearly becoming a reality.

The earnest intention of making Malaysia an education hub is reflected in the

establishment of the Department of Private Education and the Ministry of Higher
Education. To ensure that private education is of quality, the National Board of
Accreditation was formed to inspect and check whether these institutions have
met the standards that were set by the Ministry of Education. The introduction of
lifelong education should provide opportunities for working adults to learn new
skills and acquire new knowledge for the benefit of the organisations where these
people work.
The introduction of Vision Schools is a long-term process of integrating the

different primary schools which were taught in different mediums of instruction,
namely the national primary schools where Malay is the main medium of
instruction, the national type primary school (Chinese) and national type primary
school (Tamil) where the respective languages are the medium of instruction. The
uniqueness of this concept is that all the three types of schools are housed within
the same complex but having different headmasters.
The students from the different schools study separately where they use the
vernacular languages, but for the common subjects where the medium of
instruction is common such as English, Mathematics and Science they can study
in mixed classes of students from different schools. They are also encouraged to
play together during games and sports activities. At present, this is futuristic
because only a few schools were built based on the vision concept and parents
are not very receptive at present, but in the future there is the potential that these
schools would become showcases of integration not only for this country but for
the world.
SELF-CHECK 5.5
Explain the core values, secular values and the operational values.
What are the current educational trends?
What do you understand by the statement that „Education is available equally to all‰?

ACTIVITY 5.4
Discuss the role of value orientation of society in determining the success or failure of an educ
What are the obstacles faced in using the English Language as a medium of instruction in the t
Discuss how Vision Schools could be implemented nation-wide successfully.
5.8 DECISION-MAKING THEORY

The ability in making a decision is very important to leaders for this is the
symbol of power. Decision making is a process of choosing an option and hoping
to apply that option in the hope of achieving the perceived outcome after a
problematic state has arisen. This process is influenced by information and
values which influence the alternatives among which a choice is made.
The process implies a set of behaviours that are continuous which are made up of
stages of activities and operations. The process formulations are usually logical in
nature where the first step serves as a basis for the next step. Since the limits of
the problem define the decision to be made, the process may be entered at any
stage. In other words, as more information is gathered, the decision to be made
may be altered and the decision maker may enter the process at the most
appropriate stage. Thus, Lipham and Hoeh (1974) stated that „In decision
making, incremental judgements are made concerning whether to continue,
terminate, or change the major or minor decisions made. Contrary to typical views,
recycling may and often does occur at any time or many times in the decision
process‰.
Therefore, to come to the most appropriate decision in overcoming a problem is a

skill that requires knowledge, skills, information, values which are both societal
and individual, and the perception the decision maker holds. Figure 5.5
summarises the process of decision making.

Figure 5.5: Model of the decision making process


5.8.1 Problematic State and Awareness of the

Situation
When a problematic state arises it may catch the whole organisation off-guard
and unaware. The whole organisation may be complacent until the leader
realises that the problem has become a hindrance to the efficient management of
the organisation and if it is not rectified promptly, it would destroy itself and
become redundant and cease to operate.
Awareness is the first stage of the decision-making process. This awareness

ranges from an intuition to a specific evidence. Bernard (1966) was among the
first person to observe that the nature of a problem is an important consideration
in deciding whether one should or should not attempt to solve it. He indicated
that there are three occasions when one should make decisions:
(a) Authoritative communication from superiors;
(b) Cases referred by subordinates; and
(c) Cases originating on the initiative of the individual concerned.
Griffiths (1960) gave the following typology of decisions to differentiate one from
the other for easier analysis:
(a) Intermediary decisions;
(b) Appellate decisions; and
(c) Creative decisions.
Both intermediary and appellate decisions are a function of the organisational role
structure and since they originate from outside the person of the decision maker,
it is seldom a problem of not recognising the awareness of the problem.
Creative decisions are created by the decision maker, not necessarily as the result
of an actual problem occurring within the organisation. Creative decisions which
originate within the decision maker may represent a change in goals, policies,
procedures or relationships. Though the present situation does not need a
change, the decision maker feels that a change would bring about better results in
the output of the organisation which may bring it to the forefront of the industry.

To be able to make creative decisions the decision maker has to have personality
variables such as mental ability, interception, training and experience as a
decision maker, and simultaneously holds situational variables such as power,
resources and role relations with others within and outside the organisation
(Lipham & Hoeh 1974).
5.8.2 Information
The information that is of worth to the decision maker is the amount, form and
flow of the information. Research should be able to reveal the amount of useful
information which could be in various forms, such as face-to-face, telephone, or
by e-mail. A problem may arise especially when the decision maker is not
perceptive of the information that may affect the organisation negatively.
Another factor that is considered as important is the flow of the information. Is
the information readily available to the organisation especially the decision
maker? The smooth flow of the information in an organisation enables the
decision maker to decide what action to be taken as the need arises.
5.8.3 Value Orientation

The value orientation of the decision maker may colour the decisions made. The
decision maker may feel that there is no problematic state even though the others
in the organisation feel there is a problem. The discrepancy between these two
situations reflects the different value orientations of the different sides. The
decision maker with the value orientation of McGregorÊs Theory Y is definitely
different from another person who has the orientation of McGregorÊs Theory X.
This situation would bring about confusion and to avoid this situation, the value
orientation of the decision maker and the members of the organisation should
not be an issue if a mechanism of check and balances is emplaced in the
organisation.
To illustrate this situation is the example of a school principal who refuses to

make any decision on more strict discipline in the school because he feels that by
doing so the objectives of education would be stifled and the students who enter
society would be robots who are good at following orders but are unable to think
for themselves. On the other hand, the teachers feel that the students cannot get
the benefit of education due to indiscipline. This value discrepancy can be
rectified by having common guidelines for the decision maker as well as other
members of the organisation.

5.8.4 Perception Screen

The perception screen is the combination of various factors such as the value
orientation, intelligence, abilities and skills, creativity and need dispositions of
the leader as well as the training and the experience of the decision maker. All
these factors influence the decision maker in the other areas of the decision-
making process. The decision taken by the decision maker might be of a better
quality if his perception screen enables him to see all the challenges and threats
that his organisation faces for he is able to prepare the alternative solution that is
able to overcome all of them.
5.8.5 Selection of Alternative Decisions

Once the problematic state and the generation of alternative decisions have been
analysed and discussed, then the decision maker has to make a choice. Making a
choice depends on some pertinent factors such as whether the decision could be
implemented successfully, whether there is enough funding to implement it or
whether it would bring about the change as expected. This conflicting situation is
resolved through a thorough analysis using the criteria against which possible
outcomes will be assessed such as the validity, reliability, objectivity, relevance,
scope, credibility, efficiency and effectiveness (Lipham & Hoeh, 1974).
5.8.6 Decision Choice

The selection of the decision to be implemented is termed as the decision choice.
The involvement of judging the outcomes of each alternative will reduce the
problem of confusion. The choice depends on the individualistic orientation of
the decision maker but in a formal organisation the agreement on the choice is a
collective responsibility based on organisational or collaborative decision. The
later format would lay the burden of making the decision on all the members and
this might make the individuals involved more willing to pursue success.
Another important factor is the timing of the decision. The better timing of the
decision enables the potential of the choice to be realised, but if there is mis-
timing then the objectives might not be achieved as desired. Sometimes, a
decision cannot be made due to insufficient information and seeking of new
information becomes a required exercise which must be done fast. At other times,
making a decision is delayed due to various reasons including perhaps they
think that the problem would vanish by itself. We must also remember that not
making a decision is also an alternative to making it.

5.8.7 Implementing and Evaluating the Decision

Once a decision has been made and a choice of an alternative action has been
confirmed, the decision maker with the help of the staff members who will
implement the action, will have to ensure that the action plans are carried out
according to the plans. Continuous formative evaluation will be carried out and
wherever necessary, revisions for improvement will be carried out. If the
decision making is based on the collaborative process, usually every member of
the implementing team will feel responsible for whatever actions taken by the
group. This cooperation helps the team to achieve the objectives faster as
planned.
5.9 MODELS OF DECISION MAKING

According to Hoy and Miskel (2001) there are four types of models in the
decision- making process which are classified under the following:
(a) Classical Model
(i) This model requires the objectives to be set first before generating
alternatives. The ends are determined first before the means to obtain
them are sought.
(ii) A good decision is determined by the achievement of the objectives. If

it is the best mean to achieve the objectives, then the decision is a
good one.
(iii) The process involves in a comprehensive analysis where all

alternatives and consequences are considered.
(iv) This model relies heavily on theory.
(b) Administrative Model
(i) This model also requires the objectives to be set first before generating
alternatives.
(ii) Typically it is also a means-end analysis but occasionally as the result

of analysis, the objectives can change.
(iii) A good decision is judged by the way it achieves the end. If it is

judged as a satisfactory means to achieve the end, then the decision is
a good one.

(iv) It engages itself in the search of reasonable problem solving

alternatives until they are identified.
(v) This model relies on both theory and experience.
(c) Incremental Model
(i) This model sets objectives and generates alternatives simultaneously.

Analysis of means and ends is inappropriate because they are not
separable.
(ii) When decision makers can agree that an alternative plan is in the
right direction when the existing decision is proven wrong, then the
decision is considered to be good.
(iii) Many alternatives are ignored and as the result it limits the search and
analysis, and it focuses on alternatives that are similar in nature.
(iv) This model reduces the need for theories.
(d) Mixed Scanning Model
(i) Before generating alternatives, broad policy guidelines are set.
(ii) Decision making is based on broad objectives and tentative means to

achieve them.
(iii) A decision is considered good if it can be shown to result in a

satisfactory decision which is consistent with the policy of the
organisation.
(iv) It limits the search and analysis for alternatives closely related to the
problem, but it evaluates alternatives related to broad policy.
(v) It uses the combination of theory, experience and comparisons.
These models are useful as guidelines for a decision maker. With experience, a
decision maker will be able to know what model to use to expedite the process of
decision making. In the fast changing environment of the 21st century, decisions
have to be made at a faster rate than before because delay may cause the decision
to be obsolete by the time the implementation process begins.

In the Malaysian education scene, policy changes were often made which upset
some quarters of Malaysian society but the policy makers felt that these changes
had to be implemented to cope with the dynamic changes in society. Take the
examples of the most controversial decisions made by the Ministry of Education
in 2002 when English was made the medium of instruction for the teaching of
Mathematics and Science at all levels of the Malaysian education system.
The stated aim of this policy change was to improve the English proficiency
among Malaysian students. Though publicly the criticism was not vocal, in
private it became a hot issue. Many questions were raised such as:
(a) Can students improve their command of the English Language by using
English as the medium of instruction for teaching Mathematics and
Science?
(b) Can students from the rural areas and from the lower socioeconomic
background benefit from this policy change?
(c) How much English is used in the teaching of Mathematics and Science?
(d) Are there other better means to improve the English Language proficiency
among Malaysian students?
(e) If students are unable to master the English Language, is using English to
teach Mathematics and Science a calamity to these students?
(f) Is there any country that excels in education because of using two mediums
of instruction in the school system?
Discuss these questions by answering them. Please rationalise each answer to the
above questions and the alternative answers may reflect the actual rationale for
the policy change.
These questions are important for the decision maker to answer. The answers
could only be available after at least one cycle of students entering the school
system has left it after their School Certificate Examination which takes about
eleven years of schooling.

SELF-CHECK 5.6
Name the important factors that need to be taken into consideration in the process of makin
What is the relationship between „value orientation‰ and
„perception screen‰? Explain.
Name the similarities and differences between „the classical model‰ and „the administrat
ACTIVITY 5.6
If you were a decision maker, how would you make the programme of using English as a med
Share your answer in myINSPIRE online forum.
 The school is considered a social system where bureaucracy becomes a part of

the organisation.
 The school is a social system and, as a social system, it is important to know

how it differs from other systems.
 The school system is characterised by its bureaucratic set up, which is much
in line with that of the Weberian bureaucracy.
 There are advantages as well as the disadvantages of bureaucracy and by

knowing both sides of the coin, one can optimise the usage of bureaucracy to
achieve organisational objectives.

 It is important to know the functional and dysfunctional aspects of

bureaucracy.
 The Weberian model of bureaucracy has become an integral part of any

organisation after modifying it to suit the needs of our modern organisations
where the democratisation process has reduced red tape, making the place of
work a conducive environment to achieve organisational objectives.
 The three social theories are the role theory, the decision-making theory and
the value theory. These theories will help a leader to understand the
processes of any organisation and by knowing and understanding them you
can optimise your organisational output.
 Knowledge of value theory is important as it enables the school principal to

understand the dynamics of cultural values.
 Knowledge of decision-making theory is useful and leaders need to

understand the decision-making process.
 As schools are organisations where teaching and learning takes place,

principals need to know their specific roles to be effective school leaders.
 In the school system, the principal needs to know how to make an accurate
timely decision and know his own roles as well as the roles of his teachers.
This knowledge enables him to be a more effective principal in
achieving the mission and the vision of our schools.
Decision-making theory Social system

Role theory Value theory
Social organisation Weberian bureaucracy

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candidates. NASSP Bulletin, 85–91.
Beck, L., & Murphy, J. (1993). Understanding the principalship: Metaphorical

Themes 1920s–1990s. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Bernard, C. I. (1966). The functions of the executive. Cambridge, MA: Harvard

University Press.
Blau, P. M., & Scott, W. R. (1962). Formal organizations: A comparative

approach.
San Francisco, CA: Chandler.
Bidwell, C. E. (1965). The school as a formal organization. In J. G. March (Ed.).

Handbook of Organization (pp. 972–1022). Chicago, IL: Rand McNally.
Broudy, H. S. (1965). Conflicts in Values. In Ohm R. G., & Monahan, W. G. (Eds.).

Educational administration – Philosophy in action . Norman, OK: College of
Education.
Caldwell, B. (1998). Strategic leadership, resource management and effective

school reform. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American
Educational Research Association, San Diego, California, USA.
Foo, Say Fooi. (2003). Pengurusan dan keberkesanan sekolah. In Zaidatol

Akmaliah Lope Pihie & S. F. Foo (Eds.), Pengurusan dan Kepimpinan
Pendidikan – Satu Langkah Ke hadapan 2003 (pp. 166–180). Serdang,
Selangor, Malaysia: Penerbit Universiti Putra Malaysia.
Getzels, J. W., & Guba, E. G. (1957). Social behavior and the administrative process.
School Review, 65 (4), 423–441.
Getzels, J. W., Lipham, J., & Campbell, R. F. (1968). Educational administration as

a social process: Theory, research, and practice . New York, NY: Harper &
Row.

Getzels, J. W. (1967). Administration as a Social Process. In A. Halpin (Ed.),

Administrative theory in education (pp. 150–165). New York, NY:
Macmillan.
Hallinger, P., & Bridges, E. (1997). Problem-based leadership development:

Preparing educational leaders for changing times. Journal of School
Leadership, 7 (6), 592–608.
Hoy, W. K., & Miskel, C. G. (2001). Educational administration: Theory

research, and practice (6th ed.). Singapore: McGrawHill.
Lipham, J. M., & Hoeh Jr., J. A. (1974). The principalship: Foundations and
functions. New York, NY: Harper & Row Publishers.
Murphey, J., & Adams, J. (1998). Reformong americaÊs schools: 1980–2000. Journal
of Educational Administration, 36 (5), 426–444.
Rriffiths, D. (1960). Administrative theory. New York, NY: Appleton.
Scott, W. R. (1998). Organizations: Rational, natural, and open systems (4th ed.).
Waller, W. (1932). The sociology of teaching. New York, NY: Wiley.
Weber, M. (1947). The theory of social and economic organizations . In T. Parsons

(Trans.). New York, NY: Free Press.
Zaidatul Akmaliah, & Foo Say Fooi, (Eds.) (2003). Pengurusan dan kepimpinan
pendidikan: Satu langkah ke hadapan. Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia: Penerbit
Universiti Putra Malaysia.

To pi ▶ Tactics for
Becoming an
6 Empowering
Leader
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Describe what empowerment is;
Explain how empowerment is applied to education and specify the obstacles when implemen
Explain the reasons why empowerment fails to materialise in the education sector;
Identify the ingredients for successful empowerment; and
State precisely the issues faced by leaders in the conduct of their organisations.
▶ INTRODUCTION
An organisation of the new millennium requires a leader who empowers his
subordinates to execute their multi-tasking duties and responsibilities effectively.
In an era where people with higher education diplomas and degrees are in
abundance and with the rise of a more transparent bureaucracy, most of the staff
members are well-trained executives. These executives are able and willing to
take up more responsibilities and multi-task. In the past, there would be
stenographers to type and take dictation from the boss and peon to carry-out
mundane duties such as posting letters and cleaning the tables of the bosses.
Now the executives

140 ▶ TOPIC 6 TACTICS FOR BECOMING AN EMPOWERING LEADER
are willing to take the responsibility to carry out these simple tasks as well as
analyse problems and make decisions for the organisation. This ability is an asset
to the organisation, and this capability is achieved through the process of
empowerment of staff members.
6.1 THE DEFINITION OF EMPOWERMENT

Empowerment, although used mainly in literature on teacher empowerment, can
also be defined as:
(a) The opportunities a student has for autonomy, choice, responsibility, and
participation in decision-making in organisations (Lightfoot, 1986).
(b) Jenkins (1988) stated „To empower others is to give a stakeholder share in
the movement and direction of the enterprise‰ (p. 149).
Jenkins (1988) and Short and Greer (1989) agreed that students who are able to
initiate and carry out new ideas by involvement in decision making should, in
turn, take more responsibility for their learning and exhibit higher levels of
engagement of learning experiences.
Traditionally, students have been passive listeners to what the teachers have to
say and as the result of this tradition, students get detached little by little to what
is happening in many classrooms. They might become unmotivated and little
learning would result. With student empowerment, learning will be handed to
the students and this will free them from the shackles of the classroom, and as a
result, they can achieve more than what the teachers can give. The teachers will
be the agents of change, and the facilitators of the studentsÊ learning process.
Zimmerman and Rappaport (1988) described empowerment as a construct that

ties personal competencies and abilities to environments that provide
opportunities for choice and autonomy in demonstrating those competencies.
Dunst (1991) suggested that empowerment consists of two issues:
(a) Enabling experiences, provided within an organisation that fosters

autonomy, choice, control and responsibility; and
(b) Allow the individual to display existing competencies as well as learn new
competencies that support and strengthen functioning.

TOPIC 6 TACTICS FOR BECOMING AN EMPOWERING LEADER ◀ 141
When the two issues mentioned here become permissible, then empowerment
will bring out the best of everyone in the school organisation. Teachers become
braver to experiment with their skills and expertise to produce better outcomes
from among the students. Students, in turn, would stretch their ability to display
their competencies which will further strengthen their capacities to produce their
best.
6.2 EMPOWERMENT IN EDUCATION

Empowerment is the word that was presumed to be the „magic‰ wand for
education reforms of the 1980s. From the historical perspective, both
empowerment and participative decision making are synonyms but actually they
are two distinct steps in the process of empowerment (see Figure 6.1). We could
say that both steps are on the same continuum where participative decision
making is the one of the earlier processes for preparing subordinates for
empowerment. Before empowerment could be established, the staff members have
to take responsibility by acclimatising themselves to leadership roles.
Figure 6.1: The process of empowerment
The training ground for taking responsibility was through participative decision
making. By taking part in the process the individual who did play a role in
making the decision would feel responsible for the implementation of the
decision as well as make sure that the decision taken would achieve the desired
objectives.
In short, empowerment carries the meaning of giving power by a leader to an

individual, usually a subordinate or a group of subordinates, to carry out certain
responsibility or duty in place of the leader. A successful empowerment exercise
would create a feeling of collective responsibility by all staff members and more
work could be done as the result of the process.
The same scenario can also be applied to our schools. Schools have become more
sophisticated with the presence of trained specialised teachers, educated parents,
and well-informed students with the presence of Internet facilities in homes and
schools. These teachers could be empowered by the principals so that whatever
skills they have could be made use to achieve their schoolsÊ objectives.

Principals have become more enlightened and more professional in outlook,

while many of them have already achieved their post-graduate degrees –
MasterÊs and PhDs. The democratic process in all social and governmental
activities encourages empowerment in schools.
6.2.1 Obstacles in Empowerment

Empowerment is not a simple process that can easily be accomplished overnight.
To be successful in implementing empowerment, teachers, staff members, parents
and the principals must have mature judgement (Short & Greer 1977). Not all
schools were successful in the implementation of empowerment. The authors
cited that nine schools participated in the empowerment study for three years.
Three schools were judged unsuccessful in their empowerment efforts. Although

at first it seemed that the scenarios of each of the unsuccessful school are different
from each other, closer investigations showed that the principals simply did not
yield and share the decision-making process and responsibilities with their
teachers.
6.2.2 Reasons for Empowerment Failure

The following are the reasons for empowerment failure:
(a) The failure of empowerment was due to the unwillingness of the

principals to yield and share the decision-making process.
(b) Not training the people who are empowered by the leaders to take
responsibilities successfully.
(c) Not enough time is given to planning and implementing the process so as to
familiarise the subordinates with the new responsibilities. After they have
proven themselves to be able to carry out those responsibilities successfully,
only then they are empowered to carry out certain leadership tasks.
(d) The leader gives a free hand to his empowered subordinates right from
the start and due to inexperience they might fail to carry out their
empowered responsibilities. The leader should mentor them until a time
when they become familiar with the processes and then they can stand own
their own.

6.3 THE NATURE OF EMPOWERMENT

Our school system is based on a Western model of the past era where teachers
were subservient to their bosses, the principals and other officers especially those
who were working in the offices of the Ministry of Education. Frase and
Sorrenson (1992) noticed that as the result of this lack of authority and power
these teachers lose their creativity, commitment and energy which otherwise
could be used to contribute to the betterment of the school.
The interaction between teachers would promote better teaching, better

curricular and co-curricular activities that can lead to an easier change process
and shifts of paradigms where there is an urgent need to do so. The 21st century
is a fast-pace era, faster than the past century, where changes occur more
frequently than before.
In order to cope with the fast changes so that the nation is able to change with the
times, we have to involve every individual in society to be ready for the changes.
Individuals in society will be ready with the task if they are empowered with the
right knowledge, skills and attitude. These individuals depend on the type of
education that they received when they were in schools and later in the institutions
of higher learning. Here is where the teachers play their proper role.
If teachers do not have the power and authority to carry out their responsibilities
in schools, then they just behave like mere robots; following orders and
directions from their superiors. Their direct superiors, in turn, have to obey what
they have been directed to do. The whole process of the education system is not
just obeying orders. If this process is the norm in any organisation, then there is
no way for the education system to pave the way for coping with the changes
and become the catalyst for the changes themselves. Even though the teachers
have post graduate degrees, the school system will remain the same.
6.3.1 Classroom Empowerment

The type of empowerment that the teachers have in our schools is the so-called
„autonomy‰ in using methodology of teaching in the classroom, complete control
of students in his class, class content and evaluation in the classroom, but they
have very little say in what happens in his school outside his own classroom.
Teachers have no say in determining who should be their principals, in setting
their own schedules as well as deciding what should be taught in the classroom.

Short and Greer (1997) stated that in American schools „Teachers often find
themselves teaching in situations where important decisions are made by persons
far removed from the actual activities of the school, decisions that limit the
teachersÊ abilities to meet the educational needs of students and their own needs
for feelings of significance and self-worth.‰ If we were to observe our Malaysian
educational practices, we will find that a similar situation is occurring even
though attempts have been made to improve the situation.
There are many issues that are raised by our teachers as well the public that
reflect the lack of empowerment in the teachers in various matters that affect
their lives as well as their students. The following issues are very familiar to
many of us:
(a) Is it the teacherÊs responsibility to teach the students or to complete the

syllabus provided by the Ministry of Education?
(b) Should co-curriculum activities be considered as merit for university

entrance?
(c) Should a teacher teach subjects that are not their specialisation?
(d) Do teachers have a say in selecting their school principal?
(e) Do teachers have a say in confirming the post of a principal and a senior
assistant?
These are some of the questions that need an affirmative answer if teachers are to
be empowered. At present, the Malaysian education system is not flexible
enough to empower the teachers in the above areas of concern. Although the
issue mentioned in item „a‰ has been debated for a long time, the answer has
always been mixed. There are teachers who teach the students to master the
curriculum according to their best ability irrespective of whether they finish the
syllabus or not but they are reprimanded by their conservative principal.
At the same time, there are also principals who are willing to experiment various
methodologies in the teaching and learning process to achieve the targeted
objectives. All the mentioned questions are issues because teachers or even
principals are not empowered to make independent decisions. They will remain
as issues for the present Malaysian education system for the time being but needs
and requirements change with time.

ACTIVITY 6.1
1. Explain why participative decision-making process is an

important exercise for individuals in an organisation before they
can be empowered to certain tasks and responsibilities.
2. Discuss the reasons for the failure of empowerment.
3. Besides the five issues that are faced by our schools and teachers,
there are other important problems that hinder the development
of our school system to compete with the best schools in the
world. Name them and explain.
4. Give your opinions on the following issues:
(a) Should co-curriculum activities be considered for university

entrance?
(b) Should a teacher teach subjects that are not within their area
of specialisation?
(c) Do teachers have a say in selecting their school principal?
(d) Do teachers have a say in confirming a principal and a senior

assistant?
6.4 INGREDIENTS FOR A SUCCESSFUL

EMPOWERMENT
In order to implement a successful empowerment exercise in the process of making
an organisation more productive, the leader of the organisation must lay out the
right environment before it can thrive. It is very important to build trust between
the parties of implementers and the people who will support the empowerment
process. The understanding between all parties will make the paradigm shift
exercise an easier task. Let us look at the various factors and understand how
they play their respective roles effectively.

6.4.1 Building Trust

Trust between the parties where empowerment is to be implemented is vital for
its success. In schools, principals are the key factors in building a trusting
environment. If the principal presents himself as the authority in all matters of
the school, then a trusting environment is not possible. Even though the principal
may declare that he is willing to share the responsibility with his staff in all
matters, it is not necessary that in reality he is really willing to do so.
The principal might utter as reported by Short and Greer (1997), „IÊve spent four
years studying for my doctorate just so I could make the decisions in the school
‰ just to tell his colleagues that he had really worked so hard to earn his
doctorate, might indicate that he is not willing to empower his subordinates.
Another phrase that indicates that the principal is the person who will have a
difficult time building an atmosphere of trust is „but if anything goes wrong, IÊm
the one who will be held responsible.‰ According to the findings of a research by
Short and Greer (1997) such principals were identified as those who had problem
in releasing control. It was found that some principals, regardless of their verbal
support for empowering teachers and shared governance, just could not give up
any of their power to control.
(a) Empowerment can Only be a Productive Tool if a Trusting Relationship

Exists between Various Parties
The following trusting relationships are considered important in ensuring
the right atmosphere exists before implementing empowerment.
(i) Principals trusting teachers;
(ii) Teachers trusting principals;
(iii) Trust in bureaucracy;
(iv) Trust between an autonomous-school principal and the district office;
(v) Trust among teachers;
(vi) Trust between teachers and students;
(vii) Trust in the school culture; and
(viii) Trust in the healthy organisation.

The trusting relationships mentioned earlier can be established if the

governing authority, in the case of Malaysia, the Ministry of Education
takes the lead by preparing the individuals for the bigger responsibility of
being empowered to implement whatever policy changes that the Ministry
would like to introduce. Policy changes have to be made and training of
individuals to be empowered should go through various critical processes
to gain experience, knowledge, skills and most important of all attitude
change through paradigm shifts.
(b) Signs of a Healthy Organisation

The following are the explanation for signs of a healthy organisation:
(i) An organisation in which critical processes are well-developed and

effective is known as a healthy organisation (Miles, 1965).
(ii) Schmuck and Runkel (1972) cited that among the critical processes are
communication, decision making, goal setting, problem solving and
conflict management.
(iii) In the healthy organisation, challenges are addressed, solutions to

problems are found and innovations and new methods of doing
things are initiated by the organisation.
(iv) Once a high degree of trust is established between the parties then
empowerment would most likely be successfully implemented.
Now let us look at the theoretical point of view of the business of empowerment
where leadership issues and trust go hand in hand before success could be
achieved.
6.4.2 Leadership Issues

Studies have shown that the most successful principals are the trusting
individuals who have strong visions and strong principles for their schoolsÊ
future. They are strong leaders who clearly understand where they want their
schools to go; they know what strategies to use to achieve their objectives as well
as what objectives to achieve. Theoretically, these principals can be classified
under Theory Y principals (McGregor, 1960). According to Short and Greer
(1997), they believe that:
 Work is natural as play or rest.
 Persons will exercise self-direction when working toward meaningful

objectives.

 Commitment is related to the rewards associated with achievement.
 Individuals learn to accept and seek responsibility.
 The capacity to help the organisation solve its problems is widely distributed
among the members of the organisation.
 In most organisations the intellectual potential is only partially utilised.
(a) Theory Y Inclination

The following are the explanations for Theory Y inclination:
(i) A principal with the Theory Y inclination is more trusting of others

and as the result of this inclination he would be more likely to
empower his subordinates and to trust them to carry out the
responsibility of being empowered.
(ii) The belief that their subordinates can be successfully empowered

would enable the teachers who have been empowered by their
principals to have self-confidence and self-esteem to carry out their
ideas and experiments.
(iii) This freedom due to the empowered process enables the schools to
progress towards achieving their objectives which if this freedom does
not exist then there would not be any changes that could lead to better
education for all.
(iv) The knowledge and skill of these teachers who have achieved post-
graduate degrees could be made use for school improvement.
(b) Theory X Inclination

On the other hand, principals with the Theory X inclination are those whose
attitudes are the result of their belief that people basically do not like to work
and therefore are not to be trusted to do their jobs without close supervision.
As the result of this inclination, they would not implement what Theory Y
principals implement.
These principals will not empower their teachers and, if empowerment is to

be introduced, they are unable to empower their teachers.
To ensure a successful process of empowerment of teachers, it is best to

select principals who are inclined to Theory Y but if the teachers need close
supervision then principals who are inclined towards Theory X would be in
a better position to succeed.

ACTIVITY 6.2
What do you understand by the following statements?
Trust in the school culture; and
Trust in the healthy organisation.
What is the meaning of „empowering students‰?
What are the benefits of empowering students? Discuss from the perspectives of the student
What are the merits and demerits of those leaders who are inclined towards Theory Y?
When will leaders be inclined towards Theory X?
6.5 EFFECTIVE DELEGATION AND

EMPOWERMENT
Once the decision on empowering the teachers and the students has been made,
the school authorities would have to create opportunities for them to get used to
the idea of being empowered. Short and Greer (1997) stated that the major thrust
to empower school participants take the form of providing teachers with the
following:
(a) A significant role in the school decision-making process, therefore,

developing a sense of shared governance;
(b) Control over their work environment and work conditions; and
(c) Opportunities to contribute to the school in a range of professional roles:

teacher, administrator, curriculum developer, mentor and learner.
The delegation of some of the responsibilities to the teachers empowers the

teachers to be more responsible and in the process they will be more deeply
involved in ensuring the schoolÊs objectives meet their targets.

The empowerment of teachers will facilitate the empowerment of students. Once

the teachers are empowered they, in turn, will provide more opportunities for
students to become empowered through decision making including more choices
and responsibility for their own learning.
6.5.1 Creating Life-long Learners

Once teachers and students have more control on what they want to do they will
have a strong desire for more learning. Empowerment has created a craving for
more learning and as the result of this desire we are able to create a society of
lifelong learners. Peters (1987) predicted that with the advent of self-managing
teams and problem-solving networks in the work place, the collective
knowledge, skills and creative energy of a group of individuals will be the
structure used for task completion in effective organisations.
The jobs at present are already demanding organisational participants who are
flexible in both thinking and action, as knowledge expands and job requirements
shift to different paradigms. Participants in the workplace must be able to work
in collegial, collaborative problem-solving teams that function with great
independence (Dede, 1989). Participants in any work group who are lifelong
learners will be more self-motivated and satisfaction is derived from the
information and knowledge that they gain from the quest.
As a result of this change in the mindset, participative management and decision

making will become more successful and productive. Empowerment also creates
work groups that are self-managing. As the result of this change, leaders in
organisations will have more opportunities to be more creative in experimenting
with new ideas.
6.5.2 Participative Management and Decision Making

The following are the explanations for participative management and decision
making:
(a) Crane (1976) defined participative decision making as a management

approach which allows and encourages subordinates to participate in
making decisions that will affect them.
(b) Lowin (cited in Dunstan, 1981) has found that participative management is
an organisational operation by which decisions are reached by including
those persons who are to execute those decisions.

(c) Erickson and Gmelch (1977) reported that the overall benefits of adopting a
team-management approach to school governance include improving the
quality of communications and decision-making practices, staff motivation,
and the enhanced coordination of tasks and plans.
In an era of administrative enlightenment where leaders are more willing to

empower their staff, research findings have shown positive outcomes of the
process. More leaders are willing to empower their staff and leaders who are
more inclined towards Theory X have begun to shift their paradigms.
Teachers in Malaysian secondary schools are more highly educated with at

least a basic degree, and as now many teachers are pursuing a higher degree,
empowerment of these teachers should be a practice in schools. With the
projected plan of making at least 50 per cent of the primary school teachers
graduate teachers by 2010, the process of empowerment to bring our primary
schools to a higher level of effectiveness will become more urgent.
At present, OUM is playing a leading role in making sure that at least 7000 of
these primary school teachers annually will enter OUM degree programmes
which are specially developed for them.
6.5.3 Self-managing Work Groups

Empowerment of teachers and students will bring about self-confidence and self-
esteem among them. They will believe that they can provide the expertise and
experience to the work groups in their schools. After a few successes, as the result
of this empowerment process, they can self-manage their work groups. The
school principal does not need to check them all the time and breathe down their
necks to ensure that the school projects are completed on time.
In self-managing work groups, employees take personal responsibility for the

outcomes of their work, manage their own performance and monitor, reinforce,
and reward the work of the group (Hackman, 1986). Kasten, Short and Jarmin
(1989) have found that interdisciplinary teaching teams in secondary schools are
an example of self-managing teams.
With creative and innovative thinking becoming an integral part of our school
curriculum, empowerment has become a very important tool to ensure whatever
theory they learn about the processes of innovative and creative thinking are
implemented. Empowerment can be made a vehicle for creativity and
innovation. This skill will become a very important trait in later life where it is
needed in the workplace. A nation can only be at the top of any competition
through the ability of its people to generate creative and innovative products and
ideas.
6.6 TEAM WORKING

In the context of Asia, team working is still an integral part of society. In the
Malay language, the term „gotong-royong‰ which means working together in a
group to help with whatever the community has decided to do, such as cleaning
up the village to get rid of the breeding grounds for mosquitoes or to prepare for
a wedding feast, is still being practised.
This approach is the most effective way to complete a heavy task. In modern
organisations, team working has been introduced, in one form or another, and
many have been amazed by the positive differences it has made, but for others
they have been disappointed by their results. To succeed, it is important that
organisations consider all factors that make team working successful.
Before one considers introducing team working in his organisation, one needs to
understand some very important fundamental lessons. A successful team
working is the result of collaboration between team members through
collaborative management of the work team. The reality is that much of the
organisationÊs work is accomplished directly or indirectly through teams where
work team culture exerts a significant influence on individual behaviour (French
& Bell Jr., 1999).
6.6.1 What is a Team?

Homer explained what a team could do: „Light is a task when many share the toil‰.
Also consider the classical definition as given by Bernard Babington Smith: „A
group in which the individuals have a common aim and in which the jobs and
skills of each member fit in with those of others as – to take a very mechanical
and static analogy – in jigsaw puzzle, pieces fit together without distortion and
together produce an overall pattern‰.
From these definitions, we might say that team members complement each other
and the team can produce more than the sum of individual components. Team
working can provide for an organisation a way of achieving more from the same
resources. An effective team is defined as one that achieves its aim in the most
efficient way and is then ready to take on more challenging tasks. Let us read
Case Study 1, following the section on Commitment of Senior Management,
which illustrates a success story of „empowerment‰.

6.6.2 Commitment of Senior Management

The factor that is of paramount importance required for the successful
introduction of team working is that senior management must be committed and
enthusiastic. Cane (1996) cited that if the senior management has a positive
perception towards team working, then it is more likely for the organisation to be
successful than if they consider that the teams do not add anything to the
organisation except confusion. Those perceptions are:
(a) A very successful way of getting the best from individuals;
(b) A way to tap creativity and increase commitment by encouraging close

relationships and added responsibility; and
(c) A way to higher productivity, better quality and greater efficiency.
If the senior management subscribes to team working, then the foundation of

empowerment to the team members has been laid out. From this foundation
team working can produce the desired results. Effective teams could be instituted
by establishing the characteristics that made up an effective team. Parker (1990)
developed a list of characteristics of effective teams as cited by French and Bell Jr.
(1999, p. 157). The following are the characteristics of an effective team:
(a) Clear purpose – defined and accepted vision, mission, goal or task and an
action plan.
(b) Informality – comfortable and relaxed atmosphere.
(c) Participation – everyone is encouraged to participate.
(d) Listening – effective listening skills by all members which are reflected by
questioning, paraphrasing and summarising.
(e) Civilised disagreement – does not suppress disagreement and comfortable

with it.
(f) Consensus decision making – substantial agreement through in-depth

discussions and avoidance of voting.
(g) Open communication – transparent and few hidden agendas.
(h) Clear roles and work assignments – work evenly divided and clear
expectations.

(i) Shared leadership – everyone shares in effective leadership behaviours.
(j) External relations – team members help each other to develop outside
relationships.
(k) Style diversity – team members have a wide range of skills.
(l) Self-assessment – assessment of the team is made periodically to assess

their team function.
The formal team leader plays a leading role in ensuring that all team members
understand their roles well and inculcate themselves with all the skills that are
needed in establishing an effective team.
Let us now refer to the following case study that shows empowerment and team
working.
Case Study 1
In this secondary school, significant changes that began during the second
year of the project indicated a growing focus on student empowerment. It was
at this time that several teachers wrote and received a grant providing the
school with technical assistance and stipends for teachers, working with
consultants, to implement whole language instruction. A retreat was held
during the school semester break, with the district education officer, the two
assistant district education officers, and the TESL subject matter expert in
attendance.
One of the teachers provided the key information presented during the
retreat. As a result, a number of changes occurred in the instructional
programme. Many of the changes emanated from teacher identification of
significant issues and concerns about meeting the needs of students at the
school. Instead of complaining about those concerns, the teachers shifted their
focus toward generating ideas for solutions and forwarded those problems to
the Empowerment Committee.
This presented a radical change from the manner in which teachers addressed
concerns early in the project. It appeared that involvement in the decision
process created more of a sense of problem ownership on the part of the
teachers. For example, teachers implemented the portfolio assessment process.
They had experimented with the concept through a project mini-grant the
past year and found strategies that made portfolios useful to them. In
particular, they discovered that though individual videos prepared for
portfolios were expensive, parents were eager to contribute blank videos at
the begging of the year to be used in the year-long videotaping of children for

individual portfolios.

The teachers saw videos as valuable in documenting students who exhibited

some of the characteristics of an empowered child; responsibility, creativity and
group leadership. Most important to the teachers was the use of portfolios for
student self-assessment purposes. Students would have conferences with their
teachers and assess their work in the portfolio. In fact, students chose their „best
pieces‰ for a showcase section of their portfolio and were able to discuss
why they chose those particular examples of their work.
In addition, the teachers sought an increased emphasis on whole language

instruction, and the strategy was adopted by additional grade levels. Finally,
the multi-age team adopted cooperative learning strategies with great success.
In the first semester of the third year, the teachers and students made a video
about the school and their attempts to empower teachers and students. The
teachers presented the video at a meeting with the school inspectorate
personnel. According to the principal of this school, the most significant
impact made throughout the empowerment effort was the manner in which
teachers worked together to provide a better place for students to learn. The
level of dialogue and effort to find more effective ways to help students
develop academic skills was enlarged over the three years.
(This case study was adapted from the actual case study provided by Short
and Greer, 1997, p. 169–170)
6.6.3 Why Team Working?

When an innovation is introduced, it is important for the staff members to
understand why the new innovation is to replace or complement the existing
way of doing things. The staff members are used to the old comfort zone and they
might refuse to cooperate but, first of all, senior management needs to be
committed to the idea, that is, the idea of achieving better business performance
through the effective use of teams or else there will be little benefit from team
working. Cane (1996) concluded that when teams are clearly focused they have
been proved to lead to:
(a) Higher productivity;
(b) More new ideas;
(c) Greater employee satisfaction and motivation; and
(d) Higher and more consistent performance.

Let us read the following case studies of companies that have achieved their
objectives through team working:
Case Study 2
Daiichi Hotel
TokyoÊs Daiichi Hotel Annex was voted number one in a recent customer
satisfaction survey and believes that the way it successfully introduced team
working is largely responsible.
The hotel staff is divided into three teams:
(a) Room related;
(b) Eating and drinking; and
(c) Cooking.
Within each team, staff cover all specific job functions. For example, within
the room-related team, the concierge, bell-boy and receptionist all cover for
each other at busy times, or when something unusual happens. The company
training manual compares this approach to that of a successful baseball team
where players with specialist skills also provide support for other team
members. The Daiichi Hotel believes that:
(a) Team working can make an important contribution to customer

satisfaction;
(b) Multitasking can be used to improve service levels; and
(c) Good team members support each other in busy periods.

(Cane, 1996, p. 114)

Case Study 3
Dettmers Industries
US manufacturers, Dettmers Industries, make seating and tables for the

aviation industry. The company is an advanced exponent of team working
and has very successfully developed the concept in a way it has found
appropriate to its own needs. In 1993 it was voted one of the best small firms
to work for by Inc. magazine.
Dettmers believes that employees can be very creative if they are given the
opportunity ⁄ and the education. Too often, they believe, organisations
start from the premise that people are stupid and incapable of
contributing or planning ideas. But by introducing team working and then
focusing the companyÊs education system on these teams, Dettmers have
brought the social element back into learning.
Teams at Dettmers go further than in most organisations; they are responsible

for hiring their own personnel, electing their own leaders, setting their own
schedules and even deciding their own salaries. Organising the workforce into
multidisciplinary teams responsible for the total manufacturing process has
led to improvements in productivity (deliveries, for example, now take 25
days instead of the industry average of 60 days), quality and innovation.
Dettmers gives the team the right to decide when they want to recruit a new
member who is then taken on for a three-month introductory period during
which they are paid less than the market rate. During this period, they learn
the team skills and get to understand the DettmersÊ philosophy. The team
votes after three months whether to include the new member permanently.
From this point on, they will earn their salary in the same way as established
team members and usually make up the deficit within a few months. The
company believes that applicants who are prepared to start at a lower rate are
looking for
„more than just a job‰. Dettmers believes their experience proves that team
working provides tangible business benefits:
(a) Proves that with education and the right conditions employees can and
will make a contribution.
(b) Provides discipline and values to help improve the standards and
performance of all employees.
(c) Team-based pay with a tangible reward for effort can maintain team
performance.
(Cane, 1996, p. 115–116)
ACTIVITY 6.3
As a principal how would you delegate your responsibilities to your teachers with the objective of g
How would you deal with your principal who is reluctant in relinquishing his responsibilities which
If you were to build an effective team, how would you go about selecting team members and trainin
As a principal, discuss how you would implement the process of participative management and dec
How would you empower your students to be highly motivated and independent knowledge seeke
 The term „empowerment‰ has been defined in various ways by different

writers. The main element in empowerment is the opportunity to carry out
new ideas and be involved in the decision-making process.
 Empowerment is linked to leadership roles and one cannot be empowered if

one refuses to take up leadership roles.
 There are various obstacles to empowerment and several elements have to be

present before empowerment can be exercised, such as trust and leadership
opportunities.
 There are benefits when empowerment is practised, such as creating lifelong

learners, participative management and self-management which leads to
autonomy.
 Empowerment is seen in team working, which is important for the success of

an organisation.

 Empowering teachers is an important part of the maturing process of the

school system.
 With the advancement of a knowledge-based society and the implementation

of lifelong learning in the education system, empowerment of teachers and
students has become an important component of the teaching and learning
process.
 With the existence of online learning, the advancement of the Internet

learning facilities and digital libraries, the traditional school has changed its
function permanently.
 A school in the traditional sense gives us a picture of a teacher teaching the

students in front of the classroom while the students listen attentively and
make notes whenever necessary.
 The present scenario differs greatly where teachers have become facilitators
to the process of learning.
 Teachers guide their students, and the students on their own either
individually or as a team of peers, will seek the information needed through
the Internet, physical libraries or by consulting the experts for the answer to
their assignments.
 There is a wider scope of knowledge to pursue and more freedom for the
students to apply whatever knowledge and experience that they have already
gained in their quest for knowledge through various sources. This is only
possible if empowerment of teachers and students have become an integral
part of the education system.
 Empowerment can only be a success if the educational authorities are really

aware that the requirement of a successful empowering process includes
paradigm shifts among the powerful senior officers within the education
system.
 The ideology of trust should exist between the various components of the
education system.
 The policy makers should trust the implementers, the principals should trust
their teachers, and the teachers should trust their students. This trust will
empower them to carry out their responsibilities creatively and, as the result
of this freedom, the potential of every individual may be realised and
productivity in all areas will be manifested and increased.

 The result of this shift in the thinking of future citizens of the nation will be
reflected in the all spheres of life of the nation.
 Optimism and activism will guide the nation to greater heights to achieve
Vision 2020, but all this will only be wishful thinking if we do not prepare our
teachers and leaders to be effective empowering agents.
Effective delegation Self-managing

Empowerment Team working
Lifelong learners Trust
Participative management
Cane, S. (1996). Kaizen strategies for winning through people . London, England:
Pittman Publishing.
Dede, C. (1989). The evolution of information technology: Implications for

curriculum. Educational Leadership, 47 (1), 23–26.
Dunstan, J. F. (1981). An ethnographic study of decision-making processes and

leadership behaviour at the schoolwide level in selected secondary schools.
Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin-Madison, Wisconsin Research and
Development Center for Individualized Schooling.
Dunst, R. (1991, February). Issues in empowerment. Paper presented at the annual

meeting of the ChildrenÊs Mental Health and Service Policy Convention,
Tampa, Florida, USA.
Erickson, K. A., & Gmelch, W. H. (1977). School management teams: Their

structure, function and operation. Arlington, VA: Educational Research
Service.
Frase, L. E., & Sorrenson, L. (1992). TeacherÊs motivation and satisfaction: Impact
on participatory management. NASSP Bulletin, 76 (540), 37–44.

French, W. L., & Bell Jr., C. H. (1999). Organization development – Behavioural

science interventions for organizational improvement. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall.
Hackman, J. R. (1986). The psychology of self-management in organizations. In

M. S. Pollack & R. O. Perloff (Eds.), Psychology and work: Productivity
change and employment (pp. 85–136). Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.
Jenkins, K. (1988). Metaphor and mindset for educational leadership. The

Educational Forum, 52(2), 143–151.
Kasten, K. L., Short, P. M., & Jarmin, H. (1989). Self-managing work groups and
the professional lives of teachers: A case study. The Urban Review, 21 (2),
63–80.
Lightfoot, S. L. (1986). On the goodness of schools: Themes of empowerment.

Peabody Journal of Education, 63 (3), 9–28.
Parker, G. M. (1990). Team players and teamwork: The new competitive business
strategy. San Francisco, CA: Josey-Bass.
Peters, T. (1987). Thriving on chaos: Handbook for a management revolution.

New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf.
Short, P. M., & Greer, J. T. (1989, April). Increasing teacher autonomy through
shared governance: Effects on policy making and student outcomes. Paper
presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research
Association, San Francisco, California, USA.
Short, P. M., & Greer, J. T. (1997). Leadership in empowered schools – Themes

from innovative efforts. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Zimmerman, M. A., & Rappaport, J. (1988). Citizen participation, perceived

control, and psychological empowerment. American Journal of Community
Psychology, 16 (5), 725–750.

To pi ▶ Factors that
Contribute to
7 Organisational
Politics
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Explain the aspects of organisational structure in the school system;
Discuss the standards and performance for improving organisational politics in the school system;
Describe the emotional insecurity in the school setting;
Criticise Machiavellian tendencies; and
Discuss the issues and strategies to resolve disagreements in our school environment.
▶ INTRODUCTION
An „organisation‰ can be defined as an entity that comprises of elements
with varied functions that contribute to the whole and to collective functions.
Different theories of organisational structure, human resource, culture and
politics focus on different elements and functions. To examine the relationship
between politics and accountability, it helps to characterise these theories and
suggest how they apply to schools. Consideration of these different
organisational perspectives also helps to clarify the idea of „politics‰ in the
context of accountability.

TOPIC 7 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS ◀ 163
7.1 ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE

Structurally, schools are relatively closed systems with explicit inputs, processes
and outcomes. Two central issues are how to divide and coordinate the work.
Schools are organised by classes that are classified as „standard‰ for the primary
school and „form‰ for the secondary school and sometimes by curriculum or type
of student (academic, vocational or special needs).
Different types of facilities to suit the specific needs of the primary or secondary
schools are needed. Vertical lines of control run from the Ministry of Education,
the state education officers, the district education officers, the inspector of
schools, principals to the academic staff. There are explicit rules and procedures
for providing instruction, delivering services and administering the system
whereas plans, budgets and accounting systems help to monitor school
operations.
A number of factors influence structure. Bigger schools tend to require more

coordinating mechanisms and clearer lines of authority. The „core technology‰
– teaching and learning – and beliefs about cause and effect relations are
important factors. For example, vocational and higher education preparatory
programmes often involve different curricula, equipment needs, instructional
techniques, kinds of students and student learning outcomes.
The socioeconomic background and the location of the schools can influence
student performance in the schools. Different school goals will produce different
structures, for example, academic excellence, citizenship, character development,
efficiency or equity. An emphasis on equity where students are treated according
to their needs might result in highly diverse classrooms, collaborative teaching
styles and a wide array of services for disadvantaged students with differentiated
teaching and learning. An efficiency goal to standardise instruction might
encourage tracking and sorting of students according to their abilities.
In the Malaysian context, the structure of the schools depends on the types of
schools which are categorised under the medium of instruction as well as the
specialisation of the schools such as technical and vocational, residential, urban
or rural schools. Malaysian primary schools provide education in at least three
medium of instruction: namely Malay for the national schools, while Mandarin
and Tamil for the vernacular schools.

164 ▶ TOPIC 7 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ORGANISATIONAL POLITICS
When these students graduated from these schools they would be joining
government-owned secondary schools using Malay language as the medium of
instruction, but if the parents would like to pursue private education in the
Chinese language they can do so by joining private secondary schools
administered by the schoolsÊ Board of Directors. Since 2006, the Government
relaxed the rules regarding the opening up of international schools where it
introduced a ruling that any international school can enrol Malaysians up to 40
per cent of their student total enrolment. This freedom has given Malaysians a
choice to pursue the type of education that their children should have.
Since these schools are governed by their respective controlling bodies, their
organisational structure differs. These differences cause some conflicts among the
communities but the democratic nature of the education system tends to lead to a
healthy competition if viewed from the positive side of the situation.
7.1.1 Politics
Schools in Malaysia are set up by the government and fully controlled by the
Ministry of Education. Therefore politics in schools is minimal in this sense. They
do not have to compete with one another for funding as well as for human
resource. Annual grants are allocated by the Ministry of Education fairly based
on the size of the schools as well as to their types. Teachers are sent by the
Ministry of Education based on the schoolsÊ requirements. Even though these
schools are less political in procuring funding and staffing, but in other areas
„politics‰ cannot be avoided.
Principals and principals to-be would lobby the Ministry of Education for
coveted posts especially posts that they consider as conduits for higher positions,
such as working in high-profile positions. They would prefer to work at the
headquarters rather than holding posts in remote areas. Those working in Putra
Jaya feel that they have the power of influence in policy matters and as a result
they would be recognised for promotion to higher positions. Back-biting and
bad-mouthing colleagues are sometimes used to promote one-self. They have to
play „politics‰ to survive.

Funding and human resources are two important factors to ensure the schoolÊs
success. To procure funding and the right mix of trained, talented and dedicated
teachers requires the principal of a private educational institution to play
„politics‰. He has to compete with other institutions for these two scarce resources.
Funding in a private school is either through endowment by a philanthropist(s)
or through fees by students. The heads of these institutions have to develop
strategies to gain the confidence of the public to enrol in their institutions.
These strategies include the inclusion of personalities that will attract potential
customers. These personalities often are political in nature, and were at one time
or another close to the seats of power or who were politically powerful. As a
consequence of this situation, quality might be brushed aside in the squabbles for
power. The wrong person for the job might lead the institution due to his
political clout.
From the positive side, this intense politicking might bring out the best in a
person. If this politicking produces intense competition in the improvement of
academic programmes to attract students, then one day we may have private
institutions that are at par with the Ivy League universities such as Harvard, MIT
or Oxbridge.
7.1.2 Human Resources

Human resource management is an important factor in successful organisations
which is discussed in other topics of this module. The human resource personnel
should have the skills of managing people to produce their potentials for the
benefit of the organisation as well as their own welfare. The human resource
managers in the schools should harmonise the needs of schools with the needs of
people who work in them.
One opinion assumes that managers direct and control the work of subordinates,
who prefer to be led and who resist change (Theory X). Another opinion has the
view that managers must arrange conditions so that the employeeÊs self-interest
coincides with the organisationÊs interests (Theory Y). In practice, managers may
find it difficult to achieve harmony. As people mature and develop they become
more independent, attain a broader perspective and range of skills, and develop
a longer time perspective. This developmental process appears to be true not
only for teachers, but also for other professionals who provide education
services.

However, organisations often treat people like children by requiring higher level
managers to direct and control subordinates and as the result this domination
can result in psychological failure, passivity and dependence. When this tragedy
occurs, the organisation might become stagnated and, in the long run, collapse.
7.1.3 Culture
„Evaluation is a ritual whose function is to calm the anxieties of the citizenry and
to perpetuate an image of government rationality, efficiency and accountability.
The very act of requiring and commissioning evaluations may create the
impression that government is committed to the pursuit of publicly espoused
goals, such as increasing student achievement ‰ (Floden & Weiner, 1978, cited
in Bolman & Deal, p. 284). Due to the very fact that evaluation serves the
purposes mentioned previously, it has become a culture of life in any society.
Meanings of symbols, artefacts, happenings and the interpretation of their

experience in organisations depends on culture. Although a realist may dismiss
these cultural symbols, rituals, or myths, the symbolic point of view values
„meaning‰ more highly than „reality‰. The more ambiguous and uncertain a
situation, the less easy it is to be rationally analysed, and the more likely that
people will create symbols that support faith rather than facts to avoid
unpredictability and to establish predictability.
Diplomas, textbooks, tests, grades, report cards, whiteboards and the like are, in
fact, symbols that all have one kind of meaning for a school planner. They are
also deeply embedded symbols that define what many people expect from a
„school.‰
The performance report of a school relies on the meanings people put on the
accountability for responsibility, integrity and trust that people have on the
school. People entrust their children directly to schools because they have
indirectly paid taxes which in part was use for school funding. A report on the
measurable benefits of education for children can have several meanings. The
report can affirm school integrity by documenting the consistency of the schoolÊs
mission, for example, teaching and learning, with the goals of the educational
programme and student outcomes.

The act of reporting can also affirm the schoolÊs willingness to take responsibility
for carrying out its mission. The connotations of integrity and responsibility are
stronger if people perceive schools as accepting accountability. By contrast, if the
perception is of government coercion, the connotation is negative. In the case of
Malaysian schools, school autonomy is minimal and initiatives for achieving
better studentsÊ performance is more of the second nature (coercion) and as a
result the initiatives were always towards meeting the targets set by the Ministry
of Education at the expanse of „real‰ education.
Ideally school performance should be the result of voluntary efforts by the school
personnel, from the principal to the teachers, and the clerical staff. The
achievement would be the product of their voluntary free will and it would be
sweeter and self-sustaining for psychological processes which enrich their
personalities to do better.
7.1.4 Government
In Malaysia, the Government is perceived as an agent that can bring about
changes in the education policy by the public and has a monolithic power to
implement its goals. This act can be seen in many instances such as the change of
language medium for the teaching of mathematics and science in all schools at
the expense of other languages in schools. On the other hand, this perception is
considered as a fallacy by Galbraith (1983) because he proposed that modern
governments do not typically behave as large disciplined units. He distinguishes
three aspects of government namely:
(a) An inner orientation;
(b) An exterior orientation; and
(c) A force that mediates between the two orientations.
These orientations respond to different areas of responsibility and in practice

have different viewpoints on accountability.

The inner orientation refers loosely to the bureaucracy and the many organisations
that administer the tasks of government (see Figure 7.1). Continuity and relative
autonomy characterise the inner orientation. The power of the bureaucracy is in
preparing budgets, overseeing programmes and developing regulations. The
inner orientation also promotes its goals to the public by providing information
in the form of speeches, memoranda, advisories, press conferences, etc.
Figure 7.1: Orientations of governments
According to Galbraith (1983) the exterior orientation comprises the legislature,

voters and many organisations that seek to influence both the legislators and
voters. Organised groups such as teacher unions, administrator associations and
political action committees may seek to influence and sway legislators and voters,
either by lobbying or by public information campaigns. For example, a union
might oppose student assessment in the context of performance reviews, but might
support assessment as a justification for increased funding for schools.

The mediator or the force that mediates between the two aforementationed
orientations are embodied in the chief executive, ministers, cabinet, staff and
appointees who are empowered to control budgets, legislation and have the
persuasive powers to mediate.
7.1.5 Regulation
Regulation is one way that government can exert power and enforce
accountability. Rules and regulations introduced in our Malaysian education
system are meant for controlling our schools to achieve objectives set by the
government. Mandatory programmes originated by the ministry are engines to
ensure conformity among schools and facilitate control from higher levels of the
bureaucracy. These objectives are in line with Malaysian development plans. As
for the year 2016, Malaysia is in its 11th Malaysia Plan.
Historically, government rules and regulations have accompanied new funding

for categorical programmes, such as the establishment of vocational schools,
residential schools for bright rural kids and special education, etc. Perhaps the
pressure for the development of our education is due to the realisation that in order
for Malaysia to advance into a modern era, educational development is a surer
way of establishing a modern vibrant Malaysia. In a developed economy such as
the US, regulations are seen as burdensome and as an ineffective way of attaining
programme goals whatever the original intent.
In a developing economy such as in Malaysia, regulation ensures better

performance by the schools but this mode of regulating our schools and
education system will not be effective once maturity sets in. A mature society
perhaps by 2020 needs more autonomy where a high percentage of the populace
are highly educated with college or university degrees and society is highly
literate and well- informed.
Regulations cannot be effective to create change all the time. Performance reports
are sometimes proposed as an alternative to regulation that can be a more
effective tool for meeting programme goals. However, ThurowÊs (1981) analysis
of regulation suggests that performance reports actually are a kind of regulation.
Further, an attempt to substitute performance reports for existing regulation is
likely to encounter resistance.

ACTIVITY 7.1
Our Malaysian education system subscribes to a multi-lingual school system where the medium of i
English has been adopted as the medium of instruction for the teaching of Mathematics and Science
Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of schools as a private organisation rather than a public one.
Education is an important agenda in Malaysian politics. Explain how it is used by the politicians in e
7.2 ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE

In the US, the Government views performance reports as instruments of policy to
help promote education reforms. Here are quotes on some examples of various
views on performance reports as instruments of policy:
(a) Oakes (1986) wrote „Decisions about desired outcomes and conditions will
determine the nature of any indicator system ... these decisions will be
political‰.
(b) Brown (1990) cited that accountability systems are „very powerful policy
tools‰. „An apparent strategy imbedded in most statesÊ (the states in US)
indicator systems is that they will be used to guide future policy‰.
(c) Oakes (1991) said that an education indicator information system „can be
used by policymakers responsible for defining the nationÊs education agenda
to monitor the education outcomes they consider most significant‰.

(d) Linn (1993) mentioned that the function of an accountability mechanism „is
to oversee (monitor and evaluate) the performance of the education system
and to propose needed changes to policy makers‰.
The earlier mentioned statements presume that there is a relationship between

accountability and politics. Traditionally, educators define accountability as a
system with goals (educational reform), inputs (indicators), processes (reporting,
incentives) and results (school change). How does „politics‰ enter the picture?
How effective are accountability systems?
One barrier to answering these questions is that the traditional view of

accountability tends to mix up political matters (decisions about the use of
limited resources) with structural issues, (roles and responsibilities of
management and staff), with human resource issues, (authoritarian versus need
oriented management styles), or culture, (the symbols, rituals, myths).
For example, Mitchell and Encarnation (1984) consider such diverse „policy
mechanisms‰ as structural organisation, revenue generation, resource
allocation, programme definition, personnel training, assessment and curriculum
– an approach that clusters diverse aspects of organisations into the single
category of
„policy‰.
„Politics‰ is a word that has lost any precise meaning due to the over-use of that
word to mean many other things. A second barrier to answering the questions is
the common view of a singular government, which fails to discriminate the
internal from the external orientations of government and the forces that mediate
between these orientations which was mentioned earlier. These different aspects
of government often have distinct perspectives on policy which sometimes
causes conflicts among them.
7.2.1 Conventional Wisdom

While state approaches vary, there is consensus on the elements of a standard
performance report system having a common opinion on performance (Oakes,
1986; Kagan & Coley, 1989; Blank, 1993). A performance report system begins
with a systemic model based on research of how schools and the education
system function. The model specifies major inputs (financial, staffing and
students), processes (curriculum, instruction and services) and desired results
(student achievement, skills, attitudes, college attendance or employment).

To be useful, the indicators, defined as „measures of the condition of education

‰, must meet certain criteria, for example, measure the central features of
schooling, measure what is actually taught, provide policy relevant information,
focus on the school site, allow for fair comparisons, and maximise usefulness and
minimise burden. Some authorities emphasise outcome indicators (Murnane,
1987), others argue for contextual information (Oakes, 1989), and yet others
recommend measures of process (Porter, 1991).
In Malaysia, it is high time for educational authorities to encourage research in all

areas of education at all levels by providing some funding. We have already
developed our education system from the primary to the tertiary levels. We need
to improve what we have already built and developed such as in the areas of
curriculum, pedagogy, school discipline, class size, facilities such as science
laboratories, sports and games.
Most urban schools are still being utilised as a double session schools which
make it difficult to administer them effectively. These schools are less friendly
due to its gigantic size, and students might not feel that they belong to it.
These research studies would enable experts in their own disciplines, from
among the teachers, to have a deeper interest in their schools and students. They
will carry out the school improvement process more diligently from the findings
of their own studies. The schools can disseminate their findings through proper
channels that can be set up by the schools themselves such as by using their own
websites. The district and state education office can be the instruments to
disseminate research findings for reference of other schools.
Schools can compare their own present to past performance by tracking an

indicator over a period of years provided that the schools keep all records for
future reference. Norms can help to judge school performance in comparison
to an overall population, or to a subgroup of schools that are socially or
demographically similar. Fetler (1991) wrote that school performance can be
predicted by statistical regression using relevant background measures that are
not readily controlled by schools, for example, parent education or economic
status. Salganik (1994) stated that comparisons can also be made after
standardising all school scores to a common (state or national) demographic
mixture.

7.2.2 Performance Assessment

Assessment, at all levels, is seen as the key strategy in bringing about significant
educational improvement and reform. It gives educators more tools to evaluate
the quality of learning – and then make necessary adjustments. Moving beyond
the standardised, multiple choice test as the primary accountability tool, the new
approach to assessment helps educators measure what matters – including a
studentÊs ability to analyse, organise, interpret, explain, synthesise, evaluate and
communicate important experiences as was cited by Mitchell and Encarnation
(1984).
The idea of using assessment to implement reform is relatively new. Cronbach

(1984) omits education reform as a use of tests. In the mid-1980s Mitchell and
Encarnation (1984) summarised the policy goals of testing and assessment in the
US to include student placement, programme evaluation and certification of
competence.
Policy makers had not yet made a strong connection between assessment and
reforms in curriculum, instructional methods or staff development. By the mid-
1990s the terms of the debate had changed. Prominent educators such as Tucker,
Sizer, Resnick and Anrig (1992) viewed performance assessment, in harmony
with curriculum and staff development, as a way to implement educational
reform.
There is a move towards performance-based assessment as the educational

system moves toward a more holistic assessment of the students. The change
from Penilaian Menegah Rendah (PMR) to PT3 for Form 3 students, where course
works feature predominantly is an example of performance-based assessment.
This is the assessment of not only what students know, but also how they use what
they know to produce the tasks given.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
The Malaysian education system has evolved over the decades after independence. Can you c

7.3 MACHIAVELLIAN TENDENCIES

MachiavelliÊs perspectives and views are well-known, most notably such
generalisations as „the ends justify the means‰ and the belief that unethical
behaviour is acceptable, even necessary, if it helps attain goals or protect political
position.
Historically, many philosophers have disagreed on MachiavelliÊs intentions

(Berlin, 1955), but the most popular meaning as understood by these
philosophers of 500 years ago had been widely discussed especially based on
ideas which derived from Elizabethan thought. Berlin elaborates: „He
[Machiavelli] is a man inspired by the Devil to lead good men to their doom, the
great subverted, the teacher of evil, ⁄ the inspirer of St. BartholomewÊs Eve, the
original Iago‰. They condemned his ideas without really understanding what
he actually meant.
Modern scholars have adopted this perspective of Machiavelli to examine and

understand political dynamics in organisations as were done by many scholars
such as Andersson and Bateman (2000); Cheng, (1983); Harrell-Cook et al., (1999);
Harrison et al., (1998); Hochwater et al., (2000); Kumar and Beyerlein, (1991);
Shankar et al., (1994); Vecchio and Sussmann (1991).
One key factor that was often neglected in discussion of Machiavellian beliefs
was MachiavelliÊs conviction that leadership is a pursuit that serves the needs
of the
„common good‰ (Ledeen, 1999). Contemporary political scholar Michael
Ledeen (1999) clarifies the intentions of Machiavelli in his book Machiavelli on
Modern Leadership (1999), which strengthens our understanding of Machiavelli
when he states:
Even after half a millennium, MachiavelliÊs advice to leaders is as contemporary

as tomorrow. He goes to the essence every time. He doesnÊt allow us the
comfort of easy generalisations or soothing moralisms. He wants leaders to
play for the highest stakes of all – the advancement of the human enterprise
and the defense of the common good – and it infuriates him to see leaders of
corporations, religions, armies and nations ignoring the basic rules of power
(p. 185).

Service to others, rather than self-interest, is the purpose of leadership according

to Machiavelli (Berlin, 1955; Ledeen, 1999). His writings were intended for
leaders that were prevalent during his time, who were religious leaders, military
leaders and statesmen. His thoughts were primarily based on the life of Moses,
the Biblical and Koranic Israelite leader who created a new religion and a new
state. This concept of service to others has been all but eliminated from current
Machiavellian thought. Ledeen clarifies:
MachiavelliÊs
Nobody else thoughts on leadership
has dealt with the were moreand
political due to a result
moral of frustration
requirements of at
theleadership
rampant corruption that occurred during his times. He
with such brutal clarity as Machiavelli⁄ Machiavellithought that the only
way to change the
understands theworsening
pathology situation wasfatal
of this often by finding ways
disease of the and
bodymeans,
politic.atHe
any
cost,
hastoidentified
achieve the objectives
and of achieving
catalogued a paradigm
the microbes shiftleadersÊ
that infect in the abolishment
minds and of
corruption and mismanagement.
spirits, dragging us down to ruin. Anyone looking at the modern world
through MachiavelliÊs eyes will see, as he saw in his own day, an epidemic
of corruption, causing a perilous shortage of virtuous leaders and a growing
7.3.1 The Tendencies of Machiavellian
threat to freedom. His diagnosis helps us better understand our own
problemsLeadership
and the qualitiesMeasurement
required of leaders capable of restoring virtue
It is clear that political behaviour is as much a reality today as it was for

Machiavelli. It is very important to have methods for assessment of leadersÊ
capacity for political strength and ability to persevere for the common good, with
moral character and virtue. However, in recent leadership research such as by
Reimers and Barbuto (2002), it was noticed that Machiavellianism has been over
simplified to the extent that most scholars narrowly define Machiavellian
behaviour as manipulative, cruel and self-centred, neglecting the potential
benefits of Machiavellianism as a political skill in organisations.

Due to the negative connotations and tenets associated with Machiavellianism,

many study participants were reluctant to complete the Mach IV questionnaires
and/or receive feedback about political behaviour within their organisations. The
following example illustrates a case in which research participants resisted and
refused feedback of study results because of the inclusion of the Machiavellian
construct.
MachiavelliÊs ideas are so well-known and, at the same time, they have a
negative connotation to them that causes some difficulty for researchers to utilise
the Mach IV, the research measure to assess Machiavellianism as a personality
construct. One such research project was conducted within a nation-wide
insurance organisation in the US to assess leaders and the impact of
Machiavellianism on the relationship between motivation and influence tactics
(Reimers & Barbuto, 2002). 86 per cent of the respondents responded, which is an
excellent rate of return.
Christie and Gris (1970) reported that an agreement was made with the
sponsoring organisation that the results of the study would be shared with the
interested participants as part of a developmental process. The researchers first
presented the results to eight members of the leadership team within the
organisation. In general, the participants were interested and enthusiastic about
the results.
They were particularly impressed that their organisation had scored „so low‰
on the Machiavellian measure, the Mach IV. It surprised the researchers, as the
mean score for this sample was .91, based on a 1–5 Likert scale. An average score
on the normal curve would be expected to be around 2.5. Based on these results,
the organisation was nearly non-Machiavellian. In fact, it appeared the
organisation was almost politically naive. Yet, the leadership team with whom
the researchers met was pleased with this result.
Days went by before the researcher had the opportunity to ask when they might
present the results of the study. The team member of the organisation stated,
„We donÊt want the results of our Machiavellianism scores revealed for
everyone to see‰. The researcher responded, „But why? The organisation scored
rather low in Machiavellianism.‰ The study participant replied, „Yes, but we just
donÊt want to discuss Machiavellianism within our organisation‰. After that the
researchers did not hear anything more about presenting the results of the study
to the group.
This reaction is common whenever the word Machiavellianism is uttered at

refereed conferences, in departmental meetings and even in informal conversation.
The overriding implications are interpersonal manipulation, cruel punishment,
and „ends-justify-the- means‰ thinking.

7.3.2 Origins of the Machiavellian Construct

The contemporary understanding of Machiavellianism begins to make sense
when one examines the origins of the Mach IV, based on Niccolo MachiavelliÊs book,
The Prince (1513/1902). This book was written after Machiavelli had been
stripped of his political power and essentially isolated by the political leaders
of his time. Machiavelli had been an effective statesman for the Republic of
Florence, participating in high-level decisions, negotiating agreements and
commanding battles.
In addition to his official duties and travel, Machiavelli raised seven children and
still found time to write prolifically about power, politics, war and philosophy. It
is because of MachiavelliÊs letters to friends and superiors that we have access to
his thoughts today. But all this came to an end with the downfall of the republic
and the seizure of power by the Medici family in 1512. Machiavelli spent time in
prison and was tortured, but ultimately was allowed to remain in exile at his
country villa just outside Florence. This was where The Prince (1513/1902) was
born, written as a letter to the new power regime, the Medici, in order to gain
employment.
These unfortunate circumstances made people think that his writings were the
result of frustration, but if we were to delve further into his writings we could
sense his genius in ensuring that the vision of the organisation of his time could
be better off if the leaders were to employ the tactics of this visionary.
7.3.3 Instrument Development

Richard Christie developed the 20-item Mach IV in 1970. It has not been revised
since then and it is intended to assess adults, aged 18 to 65 years. The Mach IV
was developed to measure political personality orientation of leaders in
organisations. Political personality, as defined by Christie and Geis (1970), is „a
disposition in which formal and informal power is used to control and/or
manipulate others‰.
Christie (1970) and his colleagues at the Center for Advanced Studies in the
Behavioural Sciences became interested in those who occupied formal leadership
positions and the authoritarian personality. They realised that many formal
leaders were ineffective in political tactics and inflexible in their behaviours.
Those extreme positions barred them from making compromises necessary for
political success.

Through in-depth literature reviews, Christie and his colleagues discovered that
much of the research done on those wielding power over others was
psychological in nature. In fact, much of the research focused on the
psychopathology of such leaders. Because these leaders were in the limelight, it
was a temptation to analyse them for psychological deviation. Christie found that
this line of research is faulty because he felt that those who exerted influence over
others were more prone to psychopathology than those who did not.
Christie and his colleagues developed a psychological construct, based on their

readings, which defined the political leader. Four general characteristics emerged
from their research:
(a) A relative lack of affection in interpersonal relationships (lack of empathy

for others);
(b) A lack of concern with conventional morality (utilitarian rather than moral
view);
(c) A lack of gross psychopathology (instrumentalist rather than rational view

of others); and
(d) Low ideological commitment (focus on task completion rather than long-
range ideological goals).
After the personality characteristics were defined, Christie and his colleagues set
out to discover if individuals with these characteristics actually existed in society.
Using the model outline mentioned earlier, they interviewed respondents about
the people who were responsible for their training. The qualitative interviews
revealed findings consistent with the political behaviour construct as stated in the
four categories given earlier.
SELF-CHECK 7.2
Why are leaders afraid of being labeled „Machiavellian‰?

Do you think that „Machiavellian‰ leadership can be effective in bringing about change and refo
If the four personality characteristics cited earlier exist in school principals, would the school achiev

7.4 DISAGREEMENT
If you seriously disagree with someone, how do you respond? Do you ...
(a) Get mad inside but keep quiet and give the other the „silent‰ treatment?
(b) Withdraw to a safe distance because you do not like to argue?
(c) Get angry, criticise, call names, use sarcasm or some other aggressive
behaviour?
(d) Give in; say „I guess you are right‰ with a big sigh, be submissive in order to
avoid disagreement and conflict.
(e) Deny or pretend that „everything is okay‰ – no disagreement or conflict

exists.
These are common, but usually unsuccessful, methods of coping with

disagreement between family members or friends and in work settings.
7.4.1 Myths or Misconceptions about Disagreement

and Conflict
Conflict and disagreement are the same – FALSE. Disagreement is a difference of
opinion while conflict is more threatening. Disagreement is usually restrained
and fairly calm; conflict is often unreasoned and angry.
Harmony is normal and conflict is abnormal – FALSE. Conflict is natural, normal

and inevitable whenever people interact together.
Conflict is the result of personality differences – FALSE. Personalities do not

conflict – it is peopleÊs behaviour that conflicts. Too often we use „personality
conflict‰ as an excuse to do nothing about the conflict.

7.4.2 Why Does Disagreement Occur?

Studies on human behaviour indicate that some disagreement is inevitable in
human relationships. Clashes often occur more over perceived differences rather
than real ones. People anticipate barriers to achieving their goals that may or may
not be there. Look at Figure 7.2.
Figure 7.2: Causes of disagreement
Disagreement occurs when:
(a) There is a lack of communication. Failure to share ideas and feelings

(between wife and husband for example) allows the other person to „fill in
the gap‰. We „read in‰ what we think the other person will say or anticipate
and how the other person will respond. Then, we often suspect negative
things which provoke anxiety, leading us to look for the worst. If this
continues, trust becomes lower and we may become suspicious and
defensive.

(b) There is a value disagreement in which two people have different attitudes,
beliefs and expectations. These differences may interfere in making
decisions if we are inflexible and hold rigid, dogmatic beliefs about the
„right way‰ to do things. Different values and beliefs influence two
people to choose different goals or different methods to achieve the same
goals. Since each goal requires an investment of time, effort and some
sacrifice, we cannot pursue one goal without sacrificing the other to some
extent.
(c) There is a lack of effective leadership or decision making. Lack of agreement

about „whoÊs in charge‰ or „how we are going to get things done‰ in any
situation can be a source of conflict. For example, if one parent in a family
expects democratic decision making and the other wants to be the boss,
they may not be able to resolve honest differences of opinion. Then when
differences exist, they become side-tracked into a hassle over who will
decide or whose opinion is going to be accepted as the „right‰ one. The
resulting conflict becomes a „win-lose‰ struggle.
(d) There are discrepancies in role performances. Difficulties can arise if two
people see their own and each otherÊs roles differently. For example, if the
wifeÊs and husbandÊs concepts of their roles are very different from each
other, conflict may arise. But, if the manÊs role as a male and husband
matches well with the womanÊs role as a female and wife, conflict will be
minimal.
(e) There is low productivity. To accomplish tasks and achieve goals is a

necessary ingredient in any work or family environment. Also, if the task is
not done, we may get angry. If the other person responds to our anger by
performing the task, a response pattern of anger is established in order to
get results. Couples with low productivity in their marriage may try
nagging, making trade-offs (IÊll do this if you do that), and criticising, but
these tend to produce only short-term success.
(f) Change causes disequilibrium. While change is considered to be a „given‰

for people working and living together, another „given‰ is that people prefer
secure, predictable patterned responses to the unknown.
When changes occur abruptly and unpredictably, conflict may follow, for
example: Out of the blue one night suddenly the wife says „send me back
to my parents‰ which implies a divorce. The wife must have been under
stress due to forces that may have been at work for a long time to cause
such a change, but its appearance was so sudden and provokes anger,
anxiety and confusion.

(g) Accumulation of unresolved prior disagreement. As the number of past

unresolved disagreement increases between individuals and societies, so
does the accumulation of anger and anxiety. Many people shy away from
disagreement management because memories of past conflicts still hurt.
Probably the most lasting of those „scars‰ have been caused by
disagreement with those we are closest to – family, close friends and trusted
colleagues.
7.4.3 Strategies for Dealing with Disagreement

Disagreement alone is usually not the cause of antagonism, hostility and conflict
between individuals and cultures. Usually, failure to listen and allow alternative
views to be heard causes these feelings. There are five broad strategies people
usually use in dealing with disagreement and conflict – power, compromise,
withdraw-avoid, placate-yield and synergy.
(a) „I Win, You Lose‰

This process involves the use of power and winning by force. It may take
the form of just body language, or simply outmanoeuvring the opposition.
If you prefer this style as your main strategy, you view conflict as having
two possible outcomes only – winning or losing. If you win, your self-
esteem is enhanced. If you lose or are „wrong‰, this is a loss of status
because you consider yourself as incompetent or weak. The result is an
aggressive and unreasonable approach to conflict management; where the
objective is to overpower your opponent. This style is used in the family as
well as the workplace.
(b) „I Win a Little, You Win a Little‰

This is a compromise position where „You‰ and „I‰ gain and lose something
after a negotiation where each person makes some concessions to the other.
Within this style, the other person may still be seen as an opponent.
Compromise is seen as a means for making the solution more tolerable to
each party. It is a persuasive and often manipulative conflict management
style in which both ends are frequently played against the middle in an
attempt to serve the „common good‰ (for example: Let us all give a little for
the „good of all members‰).

(c) „I Lose, You Lose‰

The main feature of this strategy is „withdraw and avoid‰ strategy. There is
a feeling of „hopelessness‰. This strategy is designed to protect you from
being tangled-up in endless struggles that cannot be won by both parties.
An expectation of „losing‰ characterises this style and, rather than undergo
such frustration, you will psychologically leave the conflict. It is an escape
route for persons who have unsuccessfully tried other styles and have
decided to „fight another day‰. This strategy usually results in frustration
and resentment.
(d) „I Lose (A Little), You Win (A Little)‰

This is a giving-in style which reflects a concern for the effect of conflict on
the well-being and durability of all relationships you enter. The assumption
is that human relationships are so fragile that they cannot endure the
trauma of working through genuine differences. So the tendency is to avoid
conflict and appease others by ignoring, denying and avoiding conflict. If
you give in to the other side to protect your relationship with the other
party you may preserve this relationship but this situation may frustrate
you, and you might feel that you are being bullied and dominated by the
other side.
(e) „I Win, You Win‰

If this style is a dominant style for your conflict management, then this
synergistic approach attaches major importance to both the goals of the
parties involved and to the well-being of the relationships. This is a
„win-win‰ outcome and assumes that you and others will cooperate
enthusiastically since the total effect is greater than what could be achieved
by individual efforts.
Tolerance for differences and recognising the legitimacy of feelings are vital
for the success of this strategy. Each individual must agree to abide by the
rules of negotiation and agree to solve the conflict constructively. Nothing
is hidden and everything is brought out in the open to be dealt with
effectively.

ACTIVITY 7.2
Disagreement between individuals in an organisation can be a positive factor. Do you agree wit
„You win, I win‰ has a positive psychological impact on stakeholders. How can this be achieved in
How would you build effective communication channels in your school?
 To understand what causes conflicts in schools, one needs to understand the

organisational structure which inevitably leads to organisational politics,
more so, in the Malaysian context where diversity is present in schools in all
aspects.
 Aspects that need to be taken into consideration when studying the

organisational structure and politics are the standards of performance and
the assessment of performance.
 This topic provides an interesting perspective on Machiavellian tendencies as

a platform to look at organisational politics.
 It is important that a leader knows what strategies he can use in dealing with
disagreements.
 The potential for disagreement and conflict exists whenever and wherever
people have contact. It basically involves one or more of the following:
– Threats;
– Incompatible interests or goals; or
– Incomplete understanding or hidden personal feelings.

 In creative management of conflict, all parties need to:
– Recognise and acknowledge that disagreement and conflict exist.
– Facilitate open, accurate communication without hidden agendas, and

active listening.
– Maintain an objective, not emotional position – stay and deliberate on the

issues, not people.
– Negotiation is a cooperative venture where we seek common interests to

ensure everybody wins something.
– Make the necessary adjustments, reinforce, confirm and make the

agreement work.
 Remember the words of Robert Townsend: „A good manager does not try to
eliminate disagreement; he tries to keep it from wasting the energies of his
people‰. Not all disagreements and conflicts can be resolved. Sometimes
individuals do not think it is in their best interest to resolve it because the
price is too high.
 Resolution means negotiation toward a creative solution but if one party is

unwilling to do that, the conflict will continue as mentioned by Sergiovanni
(1992).
Assessment of performance Organisational politics

Disagreement Organisational structure
Machiavellian tendencies Standards of performance

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To pi ▶ Creative
Problem
8 Solving
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Describe the characteristics of creative leadership;
Discuss the method to enhance creativity in our school settings; and
Apply the self-help technique to enhance creative problem solving in schools.
▶ INTRODUCTION
Although creativity and innovation are closely intertwined by the public, they
have often been studied separately using different methodologies and models.
Creativity has been in the domain of psychology, with its emphasis on
individuals and small groups, while innovation has been the focus of
sociologists, economists and others who take a larger, systems perspective.
This separation is unfortunate, because creativity is „producing something for

the first time‰ which represents „a dramatic aspect of organisational change that
may provide a key to understanding change phenomena and ultimately,
organisational effectiveness and survival‰ as was explained by Woodman et al.
(1993).
Innovation, on the other hand, means making changes for the better on a certain
human creation so that the finished product becomes more practical and useful.
In the innovation process, creativity is highly involved and we may be unable to
distinguish between the „creating‰ and the „innovating‰ process. It would
be better if both were to be studied together especially in a social system such as
schools.

192 ▶ TOPIC 8 CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING
Creativity includes the generation of ideas, alternatives and possibilities

explained by Smith (1998). Creativity research has a long history in psychology,
focusing on individual differences in personality, cognitive abilities and problem-
solving styles. However, recent theoretical and empirical work looks at creativity
as something the brain does naturally, that is, creativity is an adaptive
feature of normal cognitive functioning that evolved to aid problem solving
under conditions of uncertainty. Under such circumstances, novel approaches
and invention are highly advantageous. Those were the opinions of Simonton
(2000) as well as Findlay and Lumsden (1988).
8.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF CREATIVE LEADERS

We do know some characteristics of creative leaders. They can be summed up as
follows (see Figure 8.1):
Figure 8.1: Characteristics of creative leaders

TOPIC 8 CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING ◀ 193
Let us now discuss these characteristics in greater detail.
(a) Creative Leaders have Modest Intelligence

In summarising the personal characteristics of creative thinkers, Arieti
(1976) concluded that they must be intelligent. The paradox is that they
generally are not TOO intelligent. Excessive intelligence cripples creativity
by imposing an examination of self and ideas that is too strict, and too „logical
‰.
(b) Creative Leaders are Well-informed

An in-depth and broad profound knowledge of a problem area is needed in
order to understand the limits of current dogma and also to identify those
areas where creative thought will be most fruitful. However, too much
knowledge impedes the creative process because there is a tendency to be
dogmatic where alternative information is blocked which could be used in
the creative synthesis process where alternative solutions could be found.
(c) Creative Leaders are Original Thinkers

Although original thinking is not the same as creativity, it is a prerequisite
for creative thought. Originality requires an active search for something
that is different. This may involve deliberate attempts to come up with
contrasts, opposites, bizarre associations and symbolic thinking. Original
thinking sometimes is just recognising flaws, where something is
recognised as not adequate or needs to be done differently but to complete
the creative process requires more than originality.
On the other hand, original thoughts must be examined critically before

they can be refined into useful and correct concepts whereas less creative
people tend to be too quick to judge or reject ideas. Creative people think
out carefully what they are looking for, and they clarify the reasons for their
reactions to emerging ideas. They tend to search longer for original
thoughts that can improve upon or even replace the emerging ideas.
(d) Creative Leaders Ask (the Right) Questions

Naturally a question asks for an answer or its solution to the problem. The
trick is not only to ask questions, but to ask questions or pose problems in
the most effective ways. Otherwise, the question can limit creative thinking
if it restricts the choices of potential answers. Therefore, it is important to
ask open-ended questions and not make too many assumptions about an
acceptable answer.

(e) Creative Leaders are Prepared to be Creative

The phrase simply means that creative people have a mindset that enables
creativity to happen, as if by chance. We have all heard the famous axiom:
ButChance
the more complete
favours explanation
the prepared is:
mind.
Parkers
In Accident
other words, creative
arises out of people:
purpose.....The essence of invention isnÊt process,
but purpose.
(i) Desire to be creative;
Parkers
(ii) Believe that there is a creative solution; and
(iii) Expect that they will be the ones to find it.
(f) Some Characteristics of the Creative Person are Innate

We know that creative people are self-directed, self-starting and to some
extent, the attributes for creativity are inborn and cannot be „taught and
trained‰. This was reflected by one evaluation of several studies of highly
creative physical scientists by McClelland (1964) which revealed the
following common denominators indicating that creative scientists were
most likely to be:
(i) Males;
(ii) Intensely masculine in interests and outlook;
(iii) From a background of radical Protestantism;
(iv) Not very religious themselves;
(v) Reticent about interpersonal contact;
(vi) Disturbed by complex human emotions, especially aggression;

(vii) Hardworking, to the point of obsession;
(viii) Music lovers, while disliking art and poetry; and
(ix) Interested in analysis and structure of things.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
How would you encourage creativity among your students through curriculum and co-cur
Differentiate between innovative and creative leadership.
„Some characteristics of the creative leader are innate‰. Discuss this phrase.
8.2 ORGANISATIONAL METHODS TO

ENHANCE CREATIVITY
Leaders know that creativity and innovation are the life blood of their
organisation. New ideas can lead to programmes that are superior to those that
are already going on or planned for in the organisation. If there were no better
ideas, the inferior programme would still be offered and the public reception
would decline which will jeopardise the future of the organisation. So, the
mission of every leader is to continually search for ideas and programmes that
are superior to the ones the organisation is currently committed to.
So what can the leaders do to promote creativity and innovation? The most
obvious answer is to use management initiatives to create a work environment that
stimulates the existing staff to be more creative and innovative.
(a) Creativity can be Stimulated by Leaders

Although many people would challenge the notion that leaders can do
anything to foster creativity because they believe creative people are born
and not made, in reality, it can be created. In Japan, they have schools that
teach creativity not only to children but also to adults. In fact, creativity is
innate in every individual as reflected by children, but in the process of
becoming an adult the creative traits begin to wear off and in some cases
they are already gone by the time they become adults.

These creative traits can be brought back if leaders of organisations provide

a permissive environment that can nourish creative traits for the benefit of
the organisation itself. People who have studied the creative process have
learned that everyone of normal intelligence has latent creative abilities that
can be enhanced by training and by a favourable environment. Experiments
where people have been asked to report their thoughts during an episode of
invention led Perkins (1981) to conclude that creativity is a natural process
of perception, understanding, logic, memory and thinking style that may
occur every day.
(b) The Unconscious Mind is Not Supernatural

Some people believe that creativity emerges from unconscious thinking
which might be true but it would not necessarily produce any special
creativity, compared to other aspects of thought and behaviour. Most
thinking operates in the unconscious in everything we do, including
wearing our clothes to driving our car, to countless number of covert
mental processes and activities.
(c) Scratch-pad of the Mind

The first important step in the creative thinking process is to have a clear
understanding of what the problem is and, at the same time, to be able to
state it clearly. The effective thinker begins by first focusing on the structure
of the problem, rather than its technical detail. It is just like writing the
problem statement onto a scratch pad, because the next series of mental
operations occurs in the „scratch pad‰ of the mind, the so-called working
memory of your past experiences.
This working memory will also bring about creative operations that may
help to formulate potential solutions. These ideas come from our
permanent memory store, which is the collection of our lifetime database of
knowledge and experience.
Other potential alternatives are inputs from external sources such as

reading, ideas from colleagues, data bases and other sources. Next, this
information in the form of data and ideas can be processed logically such as
by associating, sorting, and aligning into new or unusual categories and
contexts, or more „illogically‰ by the use of images, abstractions,
models, metaphors and analogies.

After these initial stages the process of thinking involves noticing clues and
potential leads, realising combinations of alternatives that are significant
and finally selecting those thoughts that lead to a new idea. Next, we have
to choose an approach or a combination of approaches among alternative
approaches for finding a solution.
The process involves a progressive narrowing of options in the early stages

of creation and a readiness to revise and reconsider earlier decisions at the
later stages. This narrowing process requires the inventor to break down
and reformulate the categories and relationships of thoughts and facts that
are commonly applied to the problems and its usual solutions.
The creative thinker examines all reasonable alternatives, including many

which may not seem „reasonable‰ to most people. Each alternative needs to
be examined in relation to other alternatives and in relation to the initial
problem expressed in different ways.
The solution to the problem may not be reached instantly for it needs to
reduce the size of the problem into manageable parts and provide time and
space for the alternative solution(s) to emerge. That may well be why one
has to be immersed in the problem for long periods, with subconscious
„incubation‰ operating to help sort through various alternatives and their
combinations.
All these mental activities must occur in the working memory, which
unfortunately has very limited capacity. That is probably the reason why
insight and creativity is so hard to come by. Researchers on creativity
would do better to look for ways and means to create more capacity for our
working memory and to make it more efficient.
The later and final stages involve critical and logical analysis which help to
refine the emerging ideas. Premature ideas should not be rejected outright
for they might turn out to be the binding factors of many outrageous ideas
at the end of the selection process.
Sometimes, analysis will force the realisation that the wrong problem is being
worked or that the problem needs to be restated. Eventually, out of these
processes will emerge the „bright idea‰ that could lead to the final workable
solution.

(d) Creativity Cannot be Strategically Planned

We know that discovery and creative thought cannot be planned by a
leader; such thought just happens, emerging often during the course of
ongoing activity that may have nothing to do with the new ideas. It is just
like the saying, „It comes out of the blue‰.
In reviewing the literature on the creative process, Arieti (1976) concluded

that there are three stages in creative work; an initial analysis that
terminates when a „dead-end‰ is reached, a period of rest, recovery and
relative inattention to the problem, and a sudden and unexpected burst of
insight and solution. Although it seems that this last stage seems to be
sudden, the actual processes described earlier on our mental scratch pad
have probably been going on consciously and unconsciously for quite some
time.
(e) The Way We Classify Things Becomes Blocks to New Ideas

Take, for example, when we classify people into categories that differentiate
our main ethnic groups in Malaysia into stereotypes. Somehow it is difficult
to break them. When we see Malays, we immediately consider them as poor
farmers, while Indians were associated with poor estate workers, but when
it came to the Chinese they were associated with traders and businessmen
who were well to do as compared to others. These classifications led to
stereotypes which became entrenched in the Malaysian minds. To make it
worse, these stereotypes became a belief system where those categories led
to the belief that Malays or Indians would not be able to be successful in
business ventures because they believed that „the Chinese were genetically
endowed with the business acumen‰.
There are many examples of this kind from many parts of the world. Take
the case of intelligent tests conducted on the African-Americans which
showed that they were inferior mentally to the Caucasians. Based on that
finding, they concluded that the African-Americans were unable to hold
important positions and be leaders in organisations. They would not be
successful in sports that require intelligent thinking. They could only be
successful in sports that require physical strength. We all know that those
perceptions are wrong. No ethnic group is inferior or superior to others
because all those traits are the result of nurture rather than nature.
Once the perception that anybody can be what he wants to be through

aspiration and perspiration, irrespective of their ethnic background has
been accepted, the mental block will be broken. This new thinking becomes „a
new idea‰ that will bring about new solutions which were never thought of
before due to the mental blocks created by our belief of the classifications
created by us.

(f) Imagery is More Likely to Stimulate New Thought than Language

Great discoveries may emerge from primitive imagery while words and
language have no role or have very little roles in creative thought. Some
famous scientists claim that their best thinking occurs in the form of visual
images, even at the level of fantasy. Neuroscientists know that humans
have a „split brain‰ wherein the left half controls analytical thought
involved in speech and mathematics, while the right brain deals more
holistically with imagery, music, art and assorted nonverbal thought.
The creative process seems to depend on freeing our right brain from the
domineering control of our left brain. Managers tend to reward people for
left-brain thinking, which is rigorous and precise. Due to this inclination we
tend to reward precision and not creativity and as the result of creativity is
lost in most people. Creativity needs to be reawakened for there are many
problems in society that need solutions to make our world more peaceful and
better.
ACTIVITY 8.1
How would creativity be a part of our school curriculum?
If creativity is to be cultivated among our students in schools, what pedagogical approach sho
What is the relationship between „creativity‰ and „business development‰?
8.3 SELF-HELP TECHNIQUES TO ENHANCE

CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING
Any individual has creative ability but it ranges from very little to very extensive.
Creative acts cannot occur in a vacuum. In order to be creative, he must be able to
identify a problem, must be motivated to solve it and must know some „facts‰
about the problem. They must be able to criticise their own ideas and refine them
to make them easily managed and turn into an innovative concepts, processes or
products.

The creative person grows and develops and is liable to be influenced by the
environment and self-education (Raudsepp, 1981; Roger von Oech, 1983;
Nierenberg, 1982; Koestler, 1964; Parkes, 1959). Leaders have more control over
the creative process than they think. If leaders know what kinds of people are
more creative, they can make it a point to hire such people. The existing staff can
be educated on creativity by the leaders and they also need to be shown that
creativity is within the grasp of everybody. Finally, there is a host of
management practices that create the work environment that enables creativity.
(a) Create the Right Environment – Creativity is Contagious

Although we may not fully understand the processes of creativity, we
know that they are „contagious‰. Certain environments contain something
that enhances the creativity process. Krebs (1967) the Nobel prize-winning
biochemist, has worked out the „scientific genealogies‰ of certain
famous scientists. Krebs himself had a Nobel Laureate teacher, Otto
Warburg, who in turn, was taught by Emil Fischer, who won a Nobel for
his work on the chemistry of sugars. Fischer, in turn, was a pupil of another
Laureate, Adolph von Baeyer, who won the prize for work on chemistry of
dyes. Adolph von BaeyerÊs mentor was Reinhard Kekule van Stradonitz,
famous for studies on organic compounds with ring structures.
Kekule was a pupil of Justus von Liebig, who is the acknowledged „father
‰ of organic chemistry. LiebigÊs teacher was a giant in the field of
inorganic chemistry, Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac, who discovered many of the
gas laws. Gay-Lussac was a pupil of Claude Louis Berthollet, who helped to
introduce the concept of combustion and elucidated the chemistry of such
compounds as chlorine, ammonia and cyanide. BertholletÊs mentor was the
famous Antoine Laurent Lavoisier. Thus, this family tree of teachers and
pupils was extended in an unbroken chain over 200 years.
The creative fever can infect others as can be seen in the example of the
famous industrial laboratory, Bell Labs. Seven of BellÊs scientists received
the Nobel Prize. There are not many single work environments that have
spawned such fundamental innovations as the transistor, the laser and
fibre- optics. But the creative atmosphere at Bell is not limited to
spectacular innovation. The staff at Bell acquired over 31,800 patents since
the lab was formed in 1925, and the current rate is about one patent every
day (Science 221, 1983).

(b) Expect Creativity

Innovation correlates strongly with a personÊs perception of whether or not
he is expected to be innovative as was concluded by Pelz and Andrews
(1976). When leaders carry the burden of responsibility for innovation, the
workers try to avoid it. Part of the reason is because the environment of
most organisations discourage or penalise workers for innovation.
(c) Challenge People

Workers should be challenged to stimulate creative responses, but too
much challenge will overburden the emotions and the mind, switching off
the capacity for creative thought. Have you notice that the best ideas come
into our minds when we are on vacation somewhere? Most creativity
theorists believe that it is essential to have an intense and sustained struggle
with a problem if creative solutions are to emerge. But you often wonder
why creative flashes of insight will only occur when you are not thinking
about the problem.
In terms of leadership practices, Pelz and Andrews (1976) concluded from

their study that a certain amount of „creative tension‰ had to exist
between the conflicting states of worker security and challenge. They noted
particularly that scientistsÊ and engineersÊ productivities increased when the
laboratory changed established patterns or when technical disputes arose.
Productivity also increased when the scientists and engineers were given
positive reinforcement and was encouraged to participate in policy making.
Peters and Waterman found that the best high-tech companies instituted
management practices that were deliberately designed to stimulate
competition, sometimes even to the extent of assigning the same problem to
two different teams and creating a contest atmosphere to see who would
come up with the best solution.
(d) Get Some Kind of Peer Review

The ultimate goal of the true professional is to be respected by his peers. If
the professionals do not know how they stand in the eyes of their peers
then the incentive for doing their best work is also absent. Most
organisations do have peer review programmes but they often are
administered in very negative ways, where the emphasis is judgmental and
punitive. The real purpose should be to specify what is considered high
achievement and who is doing it and to reassure workers that they will be
judged on merit and productivity rather than on grounds that are not
directly related to their actual duties and responsibilities.

(e) Get a System of Rewards for Creativity

When workers know that management rewards new ideas, they will try to
generate them. The rewards for new ideas should be made known and
tangible to all staff. Rewards can take the form of more money in the form
of bonuses or salary increments to a wide variety of incentives. More subtle
and less expensive devices include arranging for professionals to present
their ideas in semiformal gatherings of peers and superiors.
It is particularly important to give direct access to policymakers, not only

for the ego-gratifying effect on the workers, but also because this is the one
way to ensure that policymakers are kept informed and stimulated.
Professionals may need frequent prodding to produce reports or papers
that bear their name. Nonetheless, such efforts produce a positive feedback
that will stimulate the worker to future creative activity.
(f) Get People Involved and Immersed in Problems

Numerous anecdotes concerning great creative achievements have in
common the feature that the discoverer was deeply immersed in the
problem area (Arieti, 1976). You eat, you work and you sleep thinking of it,
and because of this immersion an idea may appear suddenly. Not
surprisingly, the best ideas have usually come in the fields that the discoverer
knew a great deal about but there is a paradox here; knowledge often
becomes a hurdle to creativity. We noticed that professionals who are
overly specialised as a group are less productive than are their more
broadly based colleagues (Arieti, 1976). This phenomenon is due to some
sort of paralysis due to someone being embedded into a time-tested
paradigm. We usually hear „we used to do that when we face problem‰. As
a result of this paradigm paralysis it becomes almost impossible to come out
of the situation.
(g) Get Rid of the Disincentives

The most common disincentives for creativity and innovation arise in an
atmosphere of fear; fear of being penalised for failure, fear of not getting
adequate administrative support or fear of not having enough time. An
organisation that needs their people to be creative has to avoid those
disincentives. In fact, it should spend money to experiment and to implement
new procedures or products. Do you know how much money and time
were spent before the Americans were able to successfully build the Space
Shuttle?

(h) Give Your People Some Slack, Freedom and Time for Reflection
Here we refer to mental freedom, as well as freedom from external
constraints, to let new ideas emerge even if they violate common wisdom or
the constraints of time, money and facilities.
Arieti (1976) also makes the point that the creative person must have time
where he does nothing. If the workers must always be „doing‰ something,
they do not have the opportunity for uninterrupted reflection on their
work. If the staff is too productive in the usual sense, it also leads to less
creativity and the products are of lesser quality. One junior scientist was
given some wise advice by his more experienced mentor: „Young man, you
would do well to publish less so that you can publish better‰.
Arieti (1976) asserts that creative thought usually involves a period of

meditation and aloneness. Aloneness is akin to sensory deprivation, a state
in which the subject is less distracted by conventional stimuli, modes of
thinking and is free to tap his or her inner basic resources.
The common emphasis on teamwork is justified, as seen in the Pelz and

Andrews (1976) study. Yet each team member must have time alone, free of
distractions and interruptions, to reflect creatively on the teamÊs problems.
Arieti (1976) emphasised that continued pursuit of a problem is often

required before the creative solution emerges. Leaders should give people
time to pursue unresolved problems and not punish them as long as they
are earnestly trying. In order to get creative thought to emerge from its
incubation stage, one should go through a special training for switching
off consciousness, thus giving the unconscious mind a chance to develop
creative thoughts and solutions which were dormant in the unconscious
mind.
(i) Be Quick to Recognise and Use Error

A rat uses its errors to help find the way through a maze, and in a similar
but more sophisticated way, creative thinkers must be assisted by their
leaders and colleagues to recognise and use their thinking errors as they
grope with the creative solution to a problem. In scientific and technical
arenas of thought, mistakes can be quite useful in posing issues in a new
way and in inviting unique approaches to a problem.

(j) Be Quick to Recognise and Use Good Ideas

Leaders cannot force creative thought from among their subordinates, but
they certainly can be receptive to it when it occurs. The best way to value an
idea is to implement it as soon as possible.
(k) Make Your Staff Feel Secure

The companies surveyed by Pelz and Andrews (1976) have found that it is
important to provide opportunities for scientists and engineers to have their
names associated with a product, a report or a process, such as:
(i) Letting professionals present their own work for briefings, presenting
reports, and so on;
(ii) Giving them some autonomy;
(iii) Minimising the supervision from above; and
(iv) Letting them help set goals and priorities.
The Pelz and Andrews (1976) study showed a clear increase in productivity
in those workers.
(l) Change Attitudes about Yes-men and Conformity

Conformity is desired in any organisation to achieve its objectives but total
blind conformity is not good for an organisation. It needs creativity for
problem solving as well as finding a better means for higher production as
well as new products. We cannot deny that in some organisations the
percentage of conformity is higher such as the uniformed organisations; the
army and the police while others are less.
For example, in one formal test which quantified conformist tendencies in

terms of percentage of responses to questions that were influenced by
group pressure, military officers had the highest conformity score of 33 per
cent; by comparison, college sophomores had a conformity score of 26 per
cent, while scientists in industry had a score of only 14 per cent
(Crutchfield, 1964). Notably, in every organisation there are potentially
creative people, even though in some groups conformity may be higher
than others.

Hickman and Silva (1984) have listed six common factors that hinder
creativeness and innovation from being manifested. They are:
(i) Resistance to change;
(ii) Reliance on rules and conformance;
(iii) Fear and self-doubt;
(iv) Over-reliance on logic and precision;
(v) Black and white thinking; and
(vi) Over-reliance on practicality and efficiency.
As practical remedies to such hindrances, Hickman and Silva (1984) suggest

several exercises that will help both leaders and workers:
(i) Set a personal quota of one new idea a day;
(ii) Pick an organisational rule that gets in the way and break it;
(iii) Read literature on creativity;
(iv) Indulge in fantasy and wild thinking, particularly when you are
swamped with technical detail;
(v) Force yourself to consider many solutions for any problem; and
(vi) Postpone evaluation of an idea by exploring its ramifications.
(m) Show the Mavericks You Tolerate, Even Value Them

By definition, creative people are more likely to be nonconformist, not only
in their thinking but sometimes in their attitudes and behaviour. If such
people are valued in an organisation for what their ideas can do for the
group, then a certain amount of tolerance for unconventional behaviour is
the price that has to be paid.

Sometimes creative, innovative people are uncomfortably aggressive. They

may be driven by ambition and are not very tolerant of obstacles, be they
material or managerial. „Best workers gripe the most‰, was the conclusion
drawn by one analyst of a survey of industrial productivity. Clearly,
malcontents and chronic complainers are not much of an asset to an
organisation. But it is axiomatic that the best producers and self-starters are
assertive, sometimes „pushy‰, and even obnoxious. In the Pelz and Andrews
(1976) survey, there was a striking correlation between productivity and
the fact that the scientists and engineers did NOT fully share the goals and
interests of higher management. However, they were responsive to input
and direction, both from management and from colleagues.
(n) Provide Formal Means for Idea Generation

Among the various tactics that can be used are frequent use of seminars
and symposia, where the „in-house‰ people are expected to make
presentations. Debate should be encouraged, but it needs to be conducted in
a positive, non-threatening way.
Brainstorming sessions can be especially useful, provided they are well-

structured and controlled. The proper environment for effective
brainstorming has been described by Osborn (1953). The basic premise
is that creativity requires free and uninhibited thought, coupled with
critical analysis and synthesis. However, the typical human cannot think
imaginatively and critically at the same time. Thus, Osborn advocates a
brainstorming session in which:
(i) Criticism is ruled out;
(ii) Free-wheeling is welcomed (the wilder the idea, the better);
(iii) Many ideas are better than a few; and
(iv) Combination of ideas into new ways is encouraged.
To make sure that „imagineering‰ is fully stimulated, an atmosphere of

excitement and enthusiasm is needed, along with a tolerant, non-critical
attitude toward known ideas. But, if a brainstorming session ends at this
point, then all one has is a collection of imaginative ideas that do not have
real value. Subsequent critical analysis is required to filter in those ideas
that can be criticised, reformulated and recombined into useful concepts
that can lead to true innovation.

(o) Create a Climate for Discussion and Disagreement

In their analysis of successful executives, Hickman and Silva (1984)
concluded that they never ceased their curious probing: „They are
imaginative and innovative developers who can transcend old habits They
make an abiding commitment to creativity, always setting aside the time
and resources to nurture it‰. Such a climate stimulates workers to come forth
with their ideas, giving management a chance to use those inputs to
generate even better, more workable ideas. Creativity feeds upon itself,
producing more and more creative ideas.
The creativeness of professionals is directly proportional to the extent to

which they can communicate with both supervisors and with peers.
Leaders should openly solicit the ideas of workers and then listen to what
they say. This serves not only the positive motivational purpose of making
workers feel like they are important, but it also gives the leadership access
to information and ideas they might otherwise not obtain. This principle
lies at the heart of DemingÊs quality control philosophy, which has been so
successfully employed by the Japanese industry.
Workers need good, clear channels of communications with superiors,

particularly the leaders who operate at the policy-making levels. Among
the reasons this is important is that in this climate, workers have some hope
that they have access to policymakers when they get a good idea. They
need not fear that somebody else will „steal their thunder‰ and get the
credit for their idea. The leadership, in turn, encourages the surfacing of
new ideas only if they openly value it and provides positive reinforcement
to those who advance new ideas, even ideas that are not feasible.
(p) Optimise Interpersonal Interactions

Progressive leaders actively seek ways to increase communication and
break down interdepartmental barriers among its workers. Specific actions
range from the physical design of work and recreation space to open
forums where workers make presentations in front of their peers and
superiors. Such devices not only improve technical communication per se,
but they also make workers more aware of the skills and achievements of
their peer competitors. This environment instils a desire to run faster just to
keep up.
(q) Get the Right People Together

The principle of critical mass in personnel management is well-known.
Bright people stimulate each other, particularly if each person has a
different background and set of technical skills that he brings to a common
problem. This team concept is explicitly fostered in many R&D companies.

(r) Create Study Teams, Evaluation Groups

Many traditionally managed R&D operations have historically seen the
value of creating interdisciplinary teams to solve problems. A recent
workshop review of this management practice by NASA has confirmed its
utility (Tumin, 1962). Where management often falls short is in implementing
the good ideas that emerge from such study and evaluation groups.
(s) Periodically Regroup the Organisational Teams

Research teams grow stale with age, and their productivity generally falls
off after four or five years, as the Pelz and Andrews (1976) study clearly
showed. They also learned, however, that shuffling people around to new
research teams was not effective if it was done against their will.
(t) Give the Teams Autonomy

The success of new venture teams is not only derived from the positive
motivation that comes from championing a cause but also from the fact that
the team is autonomous. Each member knows that he is responsible to the
team and that the team is responsible for its own success or failure. If teams
are allowed to operate in an environment where nobody can get the credit
and nobody can take the blame for foul-ups, there is little incentive to do
oneÊs best.
(u) Keep People from Getting Too Specialised

Overspecialisation gets in the way of creative thought. A research team
with people of diverse backgrounds creates a stimulating intellectual
environment that can promote the evaluation of problems from a broader
perspective and lead to new ways of seeing problems and solutions.
Moreover, many projects require a diversity of technical skills, which is
obviously provided in a diversely structured team.
Many of us have habitually considered technical expertise as a critical

component for productivity. Thus, workers who specialise are considered
experts. But Pelz and Andrews found that the most productive workers
were those who specialised in more than one technical area. Presumably,
this served as a stimulus for creativeness. A related observation was that
research teams that have worked a long time in a certain area, and acquired
status as the in-house experts, gradually declined in their productivity.
Better results are sometimes achieved when management deliberately
assigns a project to a team other than the one with the most expertise.

Pelz and Andrews (1976) also found, to their surprise, that productivity was
greater in those scientists and engineers who worked at several levels,
including both basic and applied research. Those who focused on either
basic research or applied research only were usually much less productive.
This may indicate that scientists and engineers are more productive because
they are capable enough to work at several different levels. However, it is
also possible that efforts to make them work at different levels actually can
stimulate their creativity and productivity.
Unexpectedly, it was the younger workers whose productivity was most

impaired by being required to focus in-depth on a subject. Leaders are
advised not to assign young workers to a narrow piece of the problem, but
rather to see that they read and talk about it from many angles.
(v) Recognise and Exploit the Age Effects

Conventional wisdom holds that young people are the most creative. In
Physics, for example, it is commonly believed that great discoveries must be
made before the age of 35, or they will not happen at all. When this issue
was examined by Pelz and Andrews, they found a biphasic curve, with a
peak in the 30s, followed by a decline, especially in the late 40s.
However, there was another spurt of creative productivity after 50. The late
40s decline was quite distinct, and was most marked with government
workers, compared with those in industry or the universities. At all ages,
and in all work environments, productivity was greatest in those scientists
who were motivated by their own ideas rather than the ideas of
management.
(w) Newly Formed Research Groups are the Most Creative and Productive
For example, when research directors of 21 industrial labs were asked to
rank their teams or sections on such criteria as „creativity‰, they found
that the most creative groups were less than 16 months old. According to
the survey by Pelz and Andrews (1976), the height of a groupÊs creative
powers lasts about five years, after which they generally decline. They
explain this phenomenon on the basis of their idea that a certain amount of
creative tension is needed; in this case, the tension and stimulation are
achieved by placing staff on a new team in which the insecurity of proving
oneself to new peers brings out the best in each worker.

The typical decline with age of the group can be partially offset if the group
becomes especially cohesive, while at the same time becoming intellectually
competitive. The cohesiveness is illustrated by the frequency of
communication among team members, which under normal circumstances
is quite high during the first year, but falls off drastically as the group ages.
Competitiveness included competition among individuals in the team as
well as competition between a given team and other teams.
Stagnation also sets in because an older group tends to get specialised, and
the membersÊ approaches to problems become more stable and
stereotyped. The loss of a broader perspective, and the creativity that goes
with it, is best offset when management challenges an older group with
problems outside its expertise. Leaders are advised to avoid letting a group
come to believe that they are the in-house experts in a special area; in fact,
some leaders will deliberately assign a problem within an older groupÊs
specialty to another group which has no such expertise.
(x) Reorganise
The more productive professionals in the Pelz and Andrews (1976) study
were those in organisations that had a relatively „flat‰ organisation tree, with
few levels at which veto or interference can occur. Pelz and Andrews (1976)
also found that conventional management schemes that were designed to
make workers dependent on their supervisors were counterproductive.
Specifically, real productivity declined when the primary source of
evaluation was the immediate supervisor. As Pelz and Andrews (1976) put
it: „If you deliberately wanted to stamp out independent thought in the
subordinates, could you design a better system?‰
(y) Establishing a Climate for Creative Thinking

Is creativity a personality trait that is available to only a few? No. Research
has shown everyone has some creativity, but it has been stifled by FreudÊs
thinking that artistry and creativity are associated with mental illness and
the scientific emphasis on materialism and analytical thinking.
Partridge notes that there are „... 120 different, special and measurable
aspects of creative thinking which particularly distinguish humans from
other species. These wide-ranging creative faculties have been, and
continue to be, critical to mankindÊs ability to adopt to changing situations,
environments and systems....Extensive studies of creative thinking have
firmly established that individuals exhibiting higher than average scores in
creative thinking also exhibit higher than average scores in areas of mental/
emotional health. Systematic courses of instruction in applied imagination
produce significant gains in personality traits such as confidence, self-
reliance, persuasiveness, initiative and leadership‰ (Robert & Patridge, 1997).
The challenge is to create an environment that will bring out the creativity
of everyone and make those who have demonstrated creativity even more
creative.
ACTIVITY 8.2
As a leader of an organisation, discuss how would you:
Create a climate for discussion and disagreement;
Optimise inter-personnel interactions; and
Keep people from getting too specialised?
Discusshowtochangetheattitudesof„yes-men‰and
„conformity‰ in our school settings.
 Creative leadership must facilitate positive relationships in organisations to

produce profitable growth through innovation.
 We also know that creativity is not a personality trait that is available to a few
geniuses. Everyone has unique knowledge and experiences that can be
tapped, given the proper environment.
 Creative leaders are characterised by traits and personality such as intelligence,

being well-informed, creative and original thinkers, having the ability to ask
the right questions and possessing a desire to be creative.
 It is important that organisations have in place, ways to stimulate creativity

and innovation among its members not only to enhance productivity but also
for creative problem solving.
 Creative problem solving in schools are important and everyone should have
the skills to apply self-help techniques to enhance creative problem solving.
 This environment must be free-flowing with ideas and non-judging to make

people go through the mental blocks that became stumbling blocks since
early childhood.

 These mental blocks are associated with the risk of being wrong. Many
educational processes give rewards only for getting the right answer, not for
experimenting with new approaches or exploring the risky unknown.
 The motivation for innovating comes largely from the joy of doing something
that has never been done before. It is like going on an expedition and risking
everything to be the first person to climb a mountain or sail alone around the
world like what was experienced by DatoÊ Azhar.
 The same drive also exists within a composer or an artist who wishes to
create something for immortality.
 Creativity can transform a dream or wish into a reality that can make the life
of others more meaningful and ease them from hunger, disease and
ignorance.
Creativity Positive relationships

Creative leaders Self-help techniques
Creative problem solving
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To pi ▶ Communication
and Skills in
9 Resolving
Conflicts
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Explain the factors that contribute to the improvement of inspirational and supportive commu
Discuss the methods that can be used in schools to develop effective communication;
Describe the cross-cultural communication barriers in our schools;
Discuss the conflicts that occur in our schools; and
Apply the principles of conflict resolutions to solve conflicts in schools.
▶ INTRODUCTION
Communication can be the making or breaking of all relationships. Whenever
two individuals meet, they have to communicate verbally as well as use body
language to convey their intents. There are a number of ways of communicating
which use oneÊs verbal skills, tactile skills, kinaesthetic skills as well as skills in
expressing oneÊs self through written forms. As a matter of reference, we, as a
society in general, judge a person within a matter of seconds to the level and
degree of their intelligence based on how well or poorly they communicate. If a
person is a marvellous orator filled with passion and colourful stories and
anecdotes that we

216 ▶ TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS
can relate to, then that person is judged as a superior being, smart and intelligent,
and „a somebody‰ in society regardless of his mental capacity. This impression
may prove to be inaccurate but that judgment has been the norm of how people
judge.
9.1 INSPIRATIONAL COMMUNICATION

Everybody communicates in one way or another, but few managers deliver their
messages effectively. Good communication is the life blood of organisations. It
takes many forms, such as speaking, writing and listening though its purpose is
always to convey a message to recipients. Use it effectively to handle information
and improve relationships.
9.1.1 Being Effective

Effective communication and, therefore, effective schools hinge on people
understanding your meaning, and replying in terms that move the exchange
forward; preferably in the direction you would like it to go. Communicating is
always a two-way process. In management, you communicate to get things done,
pass on and obtain information, reach decisions, achieve joint understanding and
develop relationships. This is a continuous and cyclical process.
9.1.2 Recognising Barriers

There are always at least two parties involved in any communication, each of
whom may have different wants, needs and attitudes. These wants and needs can
present barriers if they conflict with those of the other party, and such barriers
may stop you conveying or receiving the right message. Any communication
must overcome such barriers if it is to be successful and the first step is to
recognise that they exist.
9.1.3 Communicating Positively

Breaking down barriers is one of the first steps toward good inspirational
communication. Maintaining eye contact, listening to what the other person is
saying and mirroring body language helps in successful communication. Facing
the person you are talking to shows you are not afraid to listen to what he said.
Tilting your head slightly shows you are listening. Break down barriers by
adopting the other personÊs pose and actions. Look at the other person in the
eye.

TOPIC 9 COMMUNICATION AND SKILLS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS ◀ 217
9.1.4 Achieving Clarity

The three rules that govern good inspirational communication are all associated
with clarity:
(a) Be clear in your own mind about what you want to communicate;
(b) Deliver the message clearly;
(c) Ensure that the message has been clearly and correctly understood; and
(d) Good communication means saying what you mean – and fully
comprehending any feedback.
9.1.5 Choosing a Method

It is essential when communicating a message that you give serious thought to
the medium that you choose. For many, this choice is often between the spoken
and the written word. If you decide that you want speed and convenience, you
may well choose speech as the best form of communication. Alternatively you
may want something more permanent and orderly – a typed document, for
example - which will attract a considered reply.
Electronic media have generated even more possibilities by creating a hybrid

form of speech and writing. Thus, e-mails have the speed and informality of a
phone conversation, yet they are in letter form and can be filed. The purpose of
the message will dictate which method to choose. Decide on your message first,
and then select the best method to convey it, making sure that you have mastered
its technique.
9.1.6 Cultural Differences

Broad generalisations are often made about a cultureÊs use of words and
gestures. Some Malaysian and other Asians find it easier than some Europeans to
be silent. The Germans, Nordics and British are generally less voluble than many
people in the Latin nations, and are often more restrained in gesture. Some
British seem to avoid saying what they mean, while Australians may surprise
others by forcefully saying exactly what they mean. Many Americans can be very
straightforward too.

9.1.7 Combining Methods

Methods of communication can be grouped into five main types:
(a) Written word;
(b) Spoken word;
(c) Symbolic gesture;
(d) Visual image; and
(e) Combination of these.
Though the first four methods work well individually, it is now known that
using two or more different communication methods together increases interest,
comprehension and retention. Methods are more effective when combined with
others. Examples of a combined approach include communicating via
commercial media and electronic technology, such as multimedia and video
conferencing.
Multimedia allows better use of usual elements, and is increasing the medium of
choice when it comes to communicating with large numbers of people, especially
employees in a big organisation. For further reading, refer to Table 9.1.
Table 9.1: Choosing Methods of Communications
Type of Communication Examples Usefulness

Written Word Letters, memos, reports, The written word is the
In any language and in proposals, notes, contracts, basis of organisational
various media, the written summaries, agendas, communication, and is
word is basic to literate notices, regulations, used because it is relatively
societies. minutes, plans and permanent and accessible.
discussion documents.
Spoken Word Conversations, interviews, Verbal exchanges in person
Communication that is meetings, phone calls, and by phone are used
effective only when it is debates, requests, because of their
heard by the right people. debriefings, immediacy; they are the
announcements and chief means by which
speeches. organisations work on a
day-to-day basis.

Symbolic Gestures Gestures, facial Actions and body

Any positive or negative expressions, actions, deeds, language profoundly but
behaviour that can be seen tone of voice, silence, unconsciously affect
or heard by the intended stance, posture, movement, people - propaganda
target. immobility, presence and depends on the
absence. manipulation of positive
and negative signs.
Visual Images Photographs (slides and Visual images are used
Images that can be prints), paintings, because they convey
perceived by a target drawings, illustrations, powerful conscious and
group. graphics, cartoons, charts, unconscious messages.
videos, logos, film,
doodles, collages and
colour schemes.
Combination of All Television, newspapers, Media are especially useful
Multimedia combination of magazines, leaflets, when they can be
the different methods booklets, flyers, posters, participative. The more
above, often involving IT. Internet, Intranet, professional the use of
Worldwide Web, video, multimedia, the more
radio, cassettes and CD- effective and productive
ROMs. they are likely to be.
9.1.8 Understanding Body Language

Your body language – a huge range of unconscious physical movements – can
either strengthen communication or damage it. Even if you are sitting completely
still, you may be unknowingly communicating powerful message about your
real feelings.
9.1.9 Communicating by Body Language

Posture is all-important in body language. On a first meeting, these three
postures would create very different impressions. The positive posture might
have the best effect on the outcome by encouraging open communication, while
the negative one would make communication difficult.

9.1.10 Reading Body Language

Because of its subtlety and range, body language is difficult to read – and to
control. However a broad understanding of body language is one route to
understanding the real opinions of others. For instance, if people are inwardly
feeling uncomfortable because they are lying, their awkward body language will
betray the lie. Table 9.2 share some of the probable interpretation of body
language.
Table 9.2: Probable Interpretation of Body Language
Positive Neutral Negative

 Body facing front and  Direct gaze shows  Indirect gaze is evasive
open posture show attention  Ear pulling indicates
confidence  Relaxed arms and legs doubt
 Hands on hips indicate show lack of tension  Body turned away
determination and signifies rejection of
ability to take control what other person is
 Direct gaze and broad saying
smile show friendly  Slight slumping shows
attention lack of confidence
9.1.11 Conquering Nerves

The nervousness people feel before making a presentation or attending an
interview is very natural. Their minds prepare them for action via their nervous
system, so nervousness is due in part to glands pumping the hormone adrenaline
into their blood. Use body language to appear more confident than you feel by
making a conscious effort to smile and to relax your arms. Look people in the eye
while you are talking or listening to them, keep your posture comfortably
straight, and do not fiddle with your hands.
9.1.12 Cultural Differences: Personal Space

Some people in Malaysia tend to leave more personal space around them than
other nationalities, and are more likely to move away if they feel that their space
is being invaded. People who live in rural areas may also stand farther apart than
city dwellers.

9.1.13 Keeping Your Distance

Leaving an acceptable distance between people is part of body language, and this
distance changes depending on the situation. For instance, guests at a social
gathering stand closer to one another than strangers in a business situation.
Always take care not to intrude into another personal territory in case you arouse
defensive or hostile reactions.
9.1.14 Creating an Impression

First impressions are very important. It is thought that the initial five seconds of
any first meeting are more important than the next five minutes, so attention to
detail can make a huge difference. Think about grooming, appropriate clothing
and err on the conservative side. Even if an informal look is required, ensure
your garments and shoes are in impeccable condition. Before going into a
meeting, check your appearance in a mirror to make sure that your hair is neat.
Making an impact – grooming and posture always create an impression. Some
understandings of using gestures are explain in Table 9.3.
Table 9.3: Understanding and Using Gestures
Wrong Right
Slovenly stance Upright posture
Messy hair Neat hair
Crumpled T-Shirt Neatly buttoned jacket
Dirty Shoes Shining shoes
Gestures, together with other nonverbal communications such as posture and

facial expressions, are an important part of body language. Knowing how to
gesture for effect, on public platforms or in face-to-face meetings, will help to
convey your message.
9.1.15 Recognising Gestures

All skilled public speakers use gestures for emphasis. For example, John
Kennedy used a chopping motion, while Bill Clinton pointed his finger. Devices
like smacking your fist into an open palm and spreading your palms can
reinforce points you make verbally. Remember that over assertive gestures, such
as banging a table, or other signs of anger, can alienate people. Also, if you do
bang a table, take care not to drown your words.

Single gestures may combine to form complex patterns. For instance, in a private
meeting, you may recognise that a colleague is appraising you while listening to
you, by the position of their fingers on their cheek or chin. However, to know
whether the appraisal is positive or negative, you need to observe other signs,
such as whether their legs are crossed defensively, or if their head and chin are
lowered aggressively.
9.1.16 Cultural Differences: Nonverbal Language

The nonverbal language of gestures varies from country to country. Some
gestures to watch for include the Malaysian thumb and forefinger gesture for
OK; pointing with a finger (considered rude for Malays); shaking your head
meaning „no‰ (means „yes‰ to Indians); and hugging in public (unacceptable
for Malaysians).
9.1.17 Giving Body Signals

Supportive gestures, such as making eye contact and nodding while somebody is
talking can create empathy – unless the person you are speaking to can tell that
you are concealing your true feelings. Everyone can control their body language
to an extent, but not totally. Choose your words with care, being as honest as
possible; otherwise, your body language may contradict you. The following are
examples of the interpretation of body signal:
(a) Hand on chin indicates approval;
(b) Raised Eyebrows Indicate Interest;
(c) Gesturing with your hands adds emphasis;
(d) Listening with approval – approval listening is shown by the slight tilt of
the head together with friendly eye contact;
(e) Paying attention – eyes making contact and the body leaning forward show
alertness and readiness to assist the speaker;
(f) Emphasising a point – using a hand gesture emphatically is one way of

reinforcing a verbal point;
(g) Indirect gaze adds to sense of uncertainty;

(h) Arm wrapped around body is a form of self-comfort;
(i) Knitted brow and closed eyes show doubt;
(j) Showing uncertainty – pen-biting is a throwback to the need to be nursed,

this shows fear and lack of confidence;
(k) Needing reassurance – one hand around the neck and the other around the
waist show a need for reassurance; and
(l) Experiencing conflict – closed eyes and nose pinching reveal inner
confusion and conflict about what is being heard.
9.1.18 Showing Attentiveness

When you are in search of information, consensus or a working relationship, the
more obviously you listen attentively, the better. You may need to speak to get a
response, but show you do not wish to dominate the conversation. Ask open
questions, which lead to discussion, and keep your responses brief. Repeat key
words silently as you hear them to help you to remember what is said.
9.1.19 Listening Skills: Putting Methods into Practice

Empathise by imagining yourself in the other personÊs position, trying to
understand what they are thinking and letting them feel comfortable – possibly
by relating to their emotional experiences. Pay close attention to what the person
is saying, talk very little and use encouraging nods and words.
Use analytical questions to discover the reasons behind the speakerÊs statements,
especially if you need to understand a sequence of facts or thoughts. Ask
questions carefully, so you can pick up clues from the answers and use the
personÊs responses to help you form your next set of questions.
If you need to achieve a desired result, make statements to which others can
respond with ideas. Listen and give your answers to othersÊ remarks in a way
that suggests which ideas can be enacted and how they might be implemented.
Alternatively, include a different solution in your next question.

9.1.20 Points to Remember

Confidence is inspired in a speaker if you listen intently. What you are told
should be regarded as trustworthy until proved otherwise. Misunderstandings
are caused by wishful listening – hearing only what you want to hear. Constant
interruptions put off people who find it difficult to get their point of view across.
9.1.21 Interpreting Dialogue

Take statements at face value without reading hidden meanings into what is
being said. Test your understanding by rephrasing statements and repeating
them to the speaker. It should then be clear that you have understood each other
– or they may correct you and clarify their statement. However, watch for
physical signs, such as evasive eye contact and verbal signs such as
hesitation or contradiction that provide clues to the truthfulness of the message.
Be careful not to hear only what you want to hear and nothing else.
9.1.22 Using Neurolinguistic Programming (NLP)

One basic theory behind neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) is that the way in
which people speak shows how they think. Thinking preferences can be
categorised by choice of phrase. Categories include the visual, which is indicated
by phrases such as „I see where youÊre coming from‰, and the auditory, indicated
by phrases such as, „This sounds like a problem to me‰. By listening attentively,
you can harmonise a conversation by „mirroring‰. That is, you can reply to
visual language with visual, auditory with auditory and so on. This helps you to
establish rapport with the other person. While listening intently and mirroring
thinking preferences, you can also physically mirror the person. Adopting a
similar posture and using the same gestures can create empathy.
9.1.23 Listening and Mirroring

NLP techniques can be used to take the tension out of a situation. For example, if
you strongly disagree with someone seated opposite you, listen to them speak,
and then speak yourself, using similar imagery and phraseology. If they are
sitting defensively, subtly mirror their posture, then slowly change it into a more
open one, as above, to encourage them to be less defensive.

9.1.24 Asking Questions

How you ask questions is very important in establishing a basis for good
inspirational communication. Why, what, how and when are very powerful
words. Use them often to seek either from yourself or from others, the answers
needed to manage effectively.
(a) Ask a specific question if you want to hear a specific answer.
(b) Use open questions to gain insight into the other personÊs character, and to
invite a response.
(c) Write a list of questions before you start a meeting.
(d) Do not be afraid to pause while thinking of your next question.
9.1.25 Knowing What to Ask

The right questions open the door to knowledge and understanding. The art of
questioning lies in knowing which questions to ask and when to ask them. Address
your first question to yourself: If you could press a magic button and get every
piece of information you want, what would you want to know? The answer will
help you compose the right questions. If you are planning a meeting, prepare a
list of any answers you need to obtain. As the meeting progresses, check off the
answers you receive. If new questions occur to you while others are talking, note
them down and raise them later.
9.1.26 Choosing Questions

When preparing questions in advance, always look at the type of question that
best meets your aims (see Table 9.4). You may want to initiate a discussion to
obtain specific information, attain a particular end, or send a command cloaked
as a query. However, be aware that prepared questions will rarely have enough
answers to them, may be incomplete or may prompt a completely new line of
questioning. Keep asking questions until you are satisfied that you have received
the answers you require. When asking prepared questions, watch out for clues in
the answers that you can follow-up later with a new set of questions.

Table 9.4: Choosing Questions for Different Responses
Types of Question Examples

Open Q: What do you think about the school
Question does not invite any particular setting up a canteen for all staff
answer, but opens up discussion. members?
A: I think it is a good idea for a number
of reasons.
Closed Q: Do you ever read the school magazine
Question is specific and must be answered or newsletter?
with a yes or a no, or with details as
A: No.
appropriate.
Fact-finding Q: What percentage of staff has replied
Question is aimed at getting information to the employee attitude survey?
on a particular subject.
A: Out of 2,000 questionnaires, we got
1,400 replies – thatÊs 70 per cent.
Follow-up Q: Is this a good response compared
Question is intended to get more with last time?
information or to elicit an opinion.
A: Two-thirds is average, so this
indicates reasonably good morale.
Feedback Q: Do you think that communications
Question is aimed at getting a particular within the school have improved?
type of information.
A: Yes. I find it is useful being able to
talk to my manager in our new
weekly meetings.
9.1.27 Striking the Right Tone

Your tone of voice is a part of communication in itself – for example, you may
convey anger by speaking harshly or sympathy by speaking softly. The wrong
tone may generate a counterproductive response, so work on improving your
ability to manage your tone of voice. Using a tape recorder, play back your voice.
Is there any unintentional sharpness? Is it too conciliatory? Practise until you are
happy with how you sound. You can often steer people toward agreement by
using an optimistic and confident tone of voice.

9.1.28 Conclusion
The importance of interpersonal skills is increasingly critical because of four
factors of growing importance in most organisations these days; technology,
time intensity, diversity and liability. Beginning from the very basic of all
interpersonal skills is understanding the similarities and differences in our
inherent temperaments. These „relational skills‰ are the building blocks or the
foundation for every type of communication.
By understanding relational skills – skills that build and maintain relationships –

we can effectively communicate with our peers, subordinates and superiors on
their terms and in their mode of communication. Relational skills pertain to how
well you relate to a person. These skills include the abilities to establish rapport,
instil trust, foster cooperation, form alliances, persuade, mediate conflict and
communicate clearly and constructively.
ACTIVITY 9.1
How does a person in todayÊs stressed out environment learn to communicate clearly and effe
How do we train ourselves to communicate effectively in our schools?
What are the benefits of effective communication in organisations? Share your answers with yo
9.2 SUPPORTIVE COMMUNICATION

Skilful communication is important for school leadership or head teachers
because they are responsible for assessing teachers and studentsÊ performances.
Supportive communication is interpersonal communication that has the goal of
preserving the relationship between the principal and school member, while still
addressing the problem at hand (Whetten & Cameron, 2002). Supportive
communication is imperative for effective personal management activities. The
following eight basic attributes of supportive communication can be incorporated
into our personal management activities to improve the teachers, staff and
students relationship.

9.2.1 Problem-oriented, Not Person-oriented

Problem-oriented communication focuses on problems and solutions as opposed
to blaming people. Problem-oriented communication works well during the
personal management activities because the principal can focus on the school
memberÊs behaviours and achievement.
On the other hand person-oriented communication focuses on things that cannot

be controlled and might send a message of inadequacy to the school member. For
example, calling a staff member „irresponsible‰ describes the person whereas „we
donÊt see things the same way‰ describes the problem. The major problem with
person-oriented communication is that personality traits are not easily changed
while behaviour can be changed.
9.2.2 Based on Congruence, Not Incongruence

Congruence occurs when what is said, both verbally and nonverbally, matches
what the individual is thinking and feeling (Knapp, 1996). There is general
agreement among researchers that the best relationships are based on congruence
(Knapp, 1996; Hyman, 1989; Schnake, Dumler, Cochran & Barnett, 1990).
Incongruence can occur under two different circumstances. First, it can occur
when there is a mismatch between what one is experiencing and what one is
aware of. For example, a school member may not be aware that he is
experiencing hostility toward a student, even though the student can sense it.
The second type of incongruence occurs when there is a mismatch between what
one thinks or feels and what one communicates.
This is common in relationships when one party is less than honest in its
communication with the other. For example, a school leader may be very upset
about an incident concerning a teacher and a student but deny saying that the
feeling exists. It is important that school leaders or department heads be honest
and genuine when coaching or counselling their junior teachers because, often,
those who do not express what is on their mind create the perception of a
„hidden agenda.‰ If a school member senses that not all is being said, the
relationship may become distrusting and/or superficial (Haas & Arnold, 1995).

9.2.3 Descriptive, Not Evaluative

When a judgment is made or a label is placed on individuals or their behaviour,
evaluative communication has taken place. A school leader or department head
who says, „You did this wrong‰ often results in the faculty member becoming
defensive. A probable response (perhaps in silence) might be „No, I did not do it
wrong‰. Evaluative statements result in a deterioration of the department head/
school member relationship. People often make evaluative statements when the
issue is emotionally charged or when a person feels threatened. An alternative to
evaluation is descriptive communication. This entails three steps:
(a) The leader describes objectively the event, behaviour or circumstance. He

or avoids accusations and presents the data or evidence. For example, „Five
students have come to me to complain about you not keeping the office hours
that you stated in your syllabus‰.
(b) Entails focusing on the behaviour and oneÊs reaction, not on the school
memberÊs attributes. This step might include describing oneÊs feelings and
the objective consequences that have or will result. The school leadership
might say; „IÊm concerned because how can we expect students to do what
they say if we donÊt do what we say?‰
(c) Focuses on a solution. The school leadership or department head should

avoid discussing who is right or wrong and should suggest one alternative
(but be open to other alternatives). He might suggest the following; „We
both need to win back the studentsÊ confidence and show that we are
responsive. I suggest you hold an extra office hour tomorrow for your
students‰.
9.2.4 Validates Rather than Invalidates Individuals

The goal of validating communication is to help people feel valued. Invalidating
communication results in negative feelings of self-worth. It denies the presence
and importance of individuals by conveying superiority, rigidity or indifference
(Cupach & Spitzberg, 1994). People often do not take time, do not listen, do not
try to understand, but interrupt, anticipate, criticise or disregard what is said;
in their own remarks they are frequently vague, inconsistent, verbose, insincere
or dogmatic. As a result, people often conclude conversations feeling more
inadequate, more misunderstood and more alienated than when they started
(Barnlund, 1968).

On the other hand, validating communication helps people feel recognised,

understood and accepted. A major part of validating communication when there
is a superior/subordinate relationship is egalitarian communication, whereby
subordinates are treated as worthwhile, competent and insightful. Joint problem
solving is emphasised rather than the projection of a superior position.
9.2.5 Specific (Useful), Not Global (Not Useful)

Generally, the more specific the communication the more motivating it will be. A
school leader or department head who says to a teacher or staff member, „You
have trouble managing your time‰ is too general to be useful. A more specific
comment might be „You spent an hour today photocopying articles when you
could have asked the office boy to do it‰. Specific statements avoid global
statements that might lead to defensiveness.
For example, the global statement „You have no consideration for othersÊ feelings‰
is likely to be met with a defensive statement „Yes I do, I am always considerate
of othersÊ feelings‰. A specific statement is much more effective; „By using sarcasm
in your response to my question, you gave me the impression that you do not
care about my feelings.‰ The response is more likely to not be defensive: „I am
sorry. I know I am often sarcastic without thinking of how it affects others‰.
9.2.6 Conjunctive, Not Disjunctive

Conjunctive communication flows smoothly from what was stated previously.
Disjunctive communication is disjointed and disconnected from what was said
previously. Interpersonal communication between the school leadership and
school member can become disjunctive in at least two ways. First, when there is
not an equal opportunity to speak between the parties communication can
become disjunctive. This can occur when one party dominates the conversation
or interrupts the other party frequently. It is important that both school
leadership and school member collaboratively communicate.
Topic control is another way that communication can become disjunctive. A

unilateral decision by one party (as opposed to a bilateral decision) to decide the
next topic of conversation does not foster a supportive communication process.
In an empirical study of perceived communication competence, Wiemann (1997)
reported that people who took turns speaking, did not hog air time, and who
connected what they said to what others had said in the past were judged to be
competent communicators (Knapp, 1996).

Thus, school leadership skilled in conjunctive communication may be perceived

as better communicators by their junior teachers. This can be accomplished by
asking questions based on the school memberÊs previous statement, by waiting for
a sentence to be completed before responding and by saying only a few sentences
at a time to give the school member an opportunity to speak. By using
conjunctive communication, the department head will not only confirm the
worth of the school member, but will also foster teamwork and joint problem
solving.
9.2.7 Owned, Not Disowned

Owning communication uses first-person words such as „I‰ and „me‰. Disowning
communication uses third-person words or first-person plural words such as „we
think‰ or „one might say‰. The problem with disowning communication is
that the communicator avoids investing in the relationship because he has not
taken responsibility for the message.
A junior teacher may perceive disowned communication from his department

head as uncaring and aloof. It fosters ambiguity since the school member may
feel that the department headÊs statements reflect someone elseÊs viewpoint.
Glasser (2000) based his approach to mental health (reality therapy) on the
assumption that taking responsibility for oneÊs statements builds both self-
confidence and self- worth. (Glasser, 2000) The same can be assumed in the
department member relationship.
9.2.8 Requires Listening, Not One-way Message

Delivery
The previous seven attributes of supportive communication focus on message
delivery. However, just as important, is listening effectively and responding to
the other personÊs statements. „In any conversation, the person who talks the
most is the one who learns the least about the other person‰ (Maier, Solem & Maier,
1973). Therefore, a good department head must be perceived as being important
to effective communication. Kramer (2000) reported that good listening skills
accounted for 40 per cent of the variance associated with effective leadership
(Kramer, 2000). Indeed, people judged to be „wise‰ and the most sought-after
for interaction are also the best listeners (Maier et al., 1973; Sternberg, 1990).

About 80 per cent of most responses are evaluative or judging. A goal of

supportive communication is to suspend judgment and evaluation as a first
response to a statement. This is neither easy nor automatic. When people are
preoccupied with meeting their own needs (for example, I must win this
discussion), have already made a prior judgment, or view the communicator
negatively, poor listening results. According to Rogers and Farson (1976), good
listening conveys that:
OneIÊmimpediment
interested intoyou
effective communication
as a person, in organisations
and I respect your thoughtsrevolves
and evenaround
if I
interpersonal
donÊt agree with them, I know they are valid for you. I feel sure you havetoaan
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effective and satisfying
contribution to make. relationship between
I think youÊre worthdepartment
listening to heads
and I in schools
want you to and
their junior
know IÊmteachers.
the kind of person you can talk to.
ACTIVITY 9.2
Discuss how basic attributes of supportive communication can be incorporated into personnel mana
9.3 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION

The phrase cross-cultural communication describes the ability to successfully
form, foster and improve relationships with members of a culture different from
oneÊs own. It is based on knowledge of many factors, such as the other cultureÊs
values, perceptions, manners, social structure, and decision-making practices, as
well as an understanding of how members of the group communicate – verbally,
non-verbally, in person, in writing and in various activities and social contexts.
Everything that occurs within a school and especially in the classroom, involves
communication, the act of sharing information. Sometimes communication
involves the use of oral or written verbal symbols. On other occasions,
communication involves various types of nonverbal symbols, including body
language.

Communication is the medium for instruction, assessment, interpersonal

relationships, group interactions, parent and community relations and
counselling. Most behaviour problems in schools, and their resolutions, involve
some type of communication. In sum, communication permeates education.
Communication is culture bound. The way an individual communicates

emanates from his culture. Of course, a person may know more than one culture
or may be competent in a combination of cultures. Nonetheless, one basic truth
prevails: communication is a product of culture.
Students with different cultural norms are at risk if teachers have little
knowledge, sensitivity or appreciation of the diversity in communication styles.
Such teachers may perceive differences as problems and respond to studentsÊ
diversify with negative attitudes, low expectations and culturally inappropriate
teaching and assessment procedures. Culturally and communicatively diverse
students, in turn, may respond with low self-concepts and low academic
achievement to a school climate they perceive as hostile. The result is reflected in
these studentsÊ excessive placements in special education, reduced placements
in talented and gifted programmes and high suspension rates.
In culturally diverse communities, differences may be expected to exist in the

communication styles of students, teachers, parents, administrators and non-
instructional staff. Perhaps the most important reason for educators to
understand cross cultural communication is to improve their relations with the
diverse groups of students and parents they will encounter. If left ignored,
communication differences will inevitably lead to various types of
miscommunication which may lead, in turn, to conflicts which erode school
climate and cause certain groups of students usually African-Americans and
other minority students to feel unwelcome.
The fact that these circumstances occur is a tragedy, of course. The greater
tragedy, however, is that educators do not always know how to eliminate or
minimise this type of discord.
Tactics for Removing Cross-cultural Communication Barriers

Once we have established the prerequisites for understanding communication
issues, we should then seek to remove cross-cultural communication barriers
from the school environment. The major tactics that might be employed for this
purpose fall under two categories:
(a) Removing language which appears to stereotype students; and
(b) Reducing violations of cultural rules during discussions and conversations.

With respect to removing stereotypical language, the following strategies might be

useful:
(a) Be aware of words, images and situations that suggest that all or most
members of a racial group are the same.
Example: „Why canÊt Kontoi ever be on time?‰ „HeÊs Orang Asli, isnÊt he?‰
(b) Avoid using qualifiers that reinforce racial and ethnic stereotypes.
Example: „The articulate Orang Asli student‰ implies that Orang Asli
students typically have low verbal skills.
(c) Avoid racial identification except when it is essential to communication.
Example: „Judy, an outgoing student‰ is preferable to „Judy, an outgoing

Malaysian female student‰.
(d) Be aware of possible negative implications of colour symbolism and usage

that could offend people or reinforce bias.
Example: Terms such as „black magic‰ or „black market‰ can be offensive.
(e) Avoid language that has questionable racial or ethnic connotations.
Example: Phrases such as „culturally deprived‰, „culturally disadvantaged‰

and „you people‰ have racist overtones.
With respect to changing communicative behaviours which violate the cultural

rules of others, the following strategies may be useful:
(a) Be aware of rules for attentiveness during conversation.
Example: The constant maintenance of eye contact while listening during a

conversation.
(b) Be aware of rules regarding the distance between speakers during

conversation.
Example: In some cultures, speakers stand close enough to touch often. In

other cultures, distance is maintained to denote respect.

(c) Be aware that objects, characters and symbols may reflect different beliefs
or values for different groups.
(d) Be aware that cultures may vary in what they consider humorous or taboo.
Example: Ethnic humour is often perceived by many groups as evidence of

racial prejudice. Discussion of group cultural rules and behaviours with
outsiders is considered taboo within many cultures.
(e) Be aware of different rules for taking turns during conversations.
(f) Cultures may use different standards for loudness, speed of delivery,
silence, attentiveness and time to respond to anotherÊs point.
(g) Be aware of different cultural rules for entering into conversations in

progress.
One way to improve relationships across cultural lines, particularly in the upper
grades, is to develop a unit on „Communicating with One Another‰. The
purpose of such a unit would be to teach students how to communicate more
effectively across cultural lines and how to address and negotiate differences.
It is also useful for teachers to brainstorm with one another on how to remove
communication barriers. In addition, a well-designed staff development
programme can lead to better relations among staff and generate effective cross
cultural communication activities for the classroom.
It can also be useful for teachers to ask parents to identify sources of

miscommunication and socially offensive behaviour or language. Parents may be
asked to suggest ways that school personnel can improve communication with
students, adults and the communities.
While schools have a responsibility to teach students the behavioural codes of the
society at large and to expect students to adhere to them, they have a similar
responsibility to reduce culturally induced discipline problems and to avoid
misinterpreting cultural differences as behavioural problems.

ACTIVITY 9.3
What is cross-cultural communication?
Identify and explain how to remove the cross-cultural communication barrier.
„Communicating with one another‰ is one way to improve relationships across cultural lines in M
9.4 RESOLVING CONFLICTS

Conflict is a disagreement through which the parties involved perceive a threat to
their needs, interests or concerns. Within this simple definition there are several
important understandings that emerge:
(a) Disagreement
Generally, we are aware there is some level of difference in the positions of
the two (or more) parties involved in the conflict. But the true disagreement
versus the perceived disagreement may be quite different from one
another. In fact, conflict tends to be accompanied by significant levels of
misunderstanding that exaggerate the perceived disagreement
considerably. If we can understand the true areas of disagreement, this will
help us solve the right problems and manage the true needs of the parties.
(b) Parties Involved

There are often disparities in our sense of who is involved in the conflict.
Sometimes, people are surprised to learn they are a party to the conflict,
while other times we are shocked to learn we are not included in the
disagreement. On many occasions, people who are seen as part of the social
system (for example, work teams, families, schools or institutions) are
influenced to participate in the dispute, whether they would personally
define the situation in that way or not. In the above example, people very
readily „take sides‰ based upon current perceptions of the issues, past issues
and relationships, roles within the organisation and other factors. The
parties involved can become an elusive concept to define.

(c) Perceived Threat

People respond to the perceived threat, rather than the true threat, facing
them. Thus, while perception does not become reality per se, peopleÊs
behaviours, feelings and ongoing responses become modified by that
evolving sense of the threat they confront. If we can work to understand the
true threat (issues) and develop strategies (solutions) that manage it
(agreement), we are acting constructively to manage the conflict.
(d) Needs, Interests or Concerns

There is a tendency to narrowly define „the problem‰ as one of substance,
task and near-term viability. However, workplace conflicts tend to be far
more complex than that, for they involve ongoing relationships with
complex, emotional components. Simply stated, there are always
procedural needs and psychological needs to be addressed within the
conflict, in addition to the substantive needs that are generally presented.
Also, the durability of the interests and concerns of the parties transcends
the immediate presenting situation. Any efforts to resolve conflicts
effectively must take these points into account.
Conflicts occur when people (or other parties) perceive that, as a

consequence of a disagreement, there is a threat to their needs, interests or
concerns. Although conflict is a normal part of organisation life, providing
numerous opportunities for growth through improved understanding and
insight, there is a tendency to view conflict as a negative experience caused
by abnormally difficult circumstances. Disputants tend to perceive limited
options and finite resources available in seeking solutions, rather than
multiple possibilities that may exist „outside the box‰.
A few points are worth reiterating before proceeding:
(a) A conflict is more than a mere disagreement – it is a situation in which

people perceive a threat (physical, emotional, power, status, etc.) to their well-
being. As such, it is a meaningful experience in peopleÊs lives, not to be
shrugged off by a mere, „it will pass⁄‰
(b) Participants in conflicts tend to respond on the basis of their perceptions

of the situation, rather than an objective review of it. As such, people filter
their perceptions (and reactions) through their values, culture, beliefs,
information, experience, gender and other variables. Conflict responses are
both filled with ideas and feelings that can be very strong and powerful
guides to our sense of possible solutions.

(c) As in any problem, conflicts contain substantive, procedural and

psychological dimensions to be negotiated. In order to best understand the
threat perceived by those engaged in a conflict, we need to consider all of
these dimensions.
(d) Conflicts are normal experiences within the work environment. They are
also, to a large degree, predictable and expectable situations that naturally
arise as we go about managing complex and stressful projects in which we
are significantly invested. As such, if we develop procedures for identifying
conflicts likely to arise, as well as systems through which we can
constructively manage conflicts, we may be able to discover new
opportunities to transform conflict into a productive learning experience.
9.4.1 Conflict is Normal: Anticipating Conflicts

Likely to Arise in the Workplace
Normal, healthy organisations will experience their share of conflict and
workplaces experiencing a certain amount of dysfunction will experience it
in greater quantities. Anticipating conflicts is useful in either situation for
transforming these situations into opportunities for growth and learning.
Consider⁄
(a) Are there seasonal peaks in our workload that tend to occur annually?
Chart the occurrence of such challenges, and consider whether they can be
managed as a normal period of stress and transition. For example, a school
had a large population of students who arrived after long bus rides without
breakfast, who tended to arrive at school ready to fight. The school
identified 10 minutes at the start of the day to give these students a healthy
snack and worked with teachers to pull out students who were not yet
ready for school before they became disruptive. After food and a little
counselling, students entered their classrooms in a better frame of mind
(and body) to participate.
(b) Do we have channels for expressing normal problems and concerns in a

predictable, reliable manner?
Staff meetings should be used as tools for effective problem solving in a
range of situations, including anticipated conflicts. If such channels are
perceived by staff as closed, unsafe, and non-productive, they will be
replaced by gossip, „end runs‰ and back-biting.

(c) Are there certain factors in the environment that make problems worse,
especially at times of conflict?
Take stock of your processes for managing during stressful times. Look
at how phones are routed, noise is managed, client lines are queued,
distractions are managed, etc. Often, our response during times of stress is
to meet less frequently, because „we have no time to meet‰. Also, we
continue to do things the way we have been doing them, because „we have
no time to create new procedures‰. This approach dooms us to repeat the
same errors, rather than to learn from the opportunities. Examine your
systems for managing problems, including dispute resolution systems and
use times of "harmony" to identify process improvements that can be
implemented in times of stress.
9.4.2 Conflict Style and Their Consequences

Conflict is often best understood by examining the consequences of various
behaviours at moments in time. These behaviours are usefully categorised
according to conflict styles. Each style is a way to meet oneÊs needs in a dispute
but may impact other people in different ways.
(a) Competing is a style in which oneÊs own needs are advocated over the needs
of others. It relies on an aggressive style of communication, low regard for
future relationships and the exercise of coercive power. Those using a
competitive style tend to seek control over a discussion, in both substance
and ground rules. They fear that loss of such control will result in solutions
that fail to meet their needs. Competing tends to result in responses that
increase the level of threat.
(b) Accommodating, also known as smoothing, is the opposite of competing.

Persons using this style yield their needs to those of others, trying to be
diplomatic. They tend to allow the needs of the group to overwhelm their
own, which may not ever be stated, as preserving the relationship is seen as
most important.
(c) Avoiding is a common response to the negative perception of conflict.

„Perhaps if we donÊt bring it up, it will blow over‰, we say to ourselves. But,
generally, all that happens is that feelings get pent up, views go
unexpressed, and the conflict festers until it becomes too big to ignore. Like
cancer that may well have been cured if treated early, the conflict grows
and spreads until it kills the relationship. Because needs and concerns go
unexpressed, people are often confused, wondering what went wrong in a
relationship.

(d) Compromising is an approach to conflict in which people gain and give

in a series of trade-offs. While satisfactory, compromise is generally not
satisfying. We each remain shaped by our individual perceptions of our
needs and do not necessarily understand the other side very well. We often
retain a lack of trust and avoid risk-taking involved in more collaborative
behaviours.
(e) Collaborating is the pooling of individual needs and goals toward a common
goal. Often called „win-win problem-solving‰, collaboration requires
assertive communication and cooperation in order to achieve a better
solution than either individual could have achieved alone. It offers the
chance for consensus, the integration of needs and the potential to exceed
the
„budget of possibilities‰ that previously limited our views of the conflict.
It brings new time, energy and ideas to resolve the dispute meaningfully.
By understanding each style and its consequences, we may normalise the results
of our behaviours in various situations. This is not to say, „Thou shalt collaborate‰
in a moralising way, but to indicate the expected consequences of each approach.
If we use a competing style, we might force the others to accept „our‰ solution, but
this acceptance may be accompanied by fear and resentment. If we
accommodate, the relationship may proceed smoothly, but we may build up
frustrations that our needs are going unmet.
If we compromise, we may feel OK about the outcome, but still harbour

resentments in the future. If we collaborate, we may not gain a better solution
than a compromise might have yielded, but we are more likely to feel better
about our chances for future understanding and goodwill. Also, if we avoid
discussing the conflict at all, both parties may remain clueless about the real
underlying issues and concerns, only to be dealing with them in the future.
9.4.3 How we Respond to Conflict: Thoughts,

Feelings and Physical Responses
In addition to the behavioural responses summarised by the various conflict
styles, we have emotional, cognitive and physical responses to conflict. These are
important windows into our experience during conflict, for they frequently tell
us more about what is the true source of threat that we perceive; by
understanding our thoughts, feelings and physical responses to conflict, we may
get better insights into the best potential solutions to the situation (Webne
Behrman, 1998).

(a) Emotional Responses

These are the feelings we experience in conflict, ranging from anger and
fear to despair and confusion. Emotional responses are often
misunderstood, as people tend to believe that others feel the same as they
do. Thus, differing emotional responses are confusing and at times,
threatening.
(b) Cognitive Responses

These are our ideas and thoughts about a conflict, often present as inner
voices or internal observers in the midst of a situation. Through sub-
vocalisation (that is, self-talk), we come to understand these cognitive
responses. For example, we might think any of the following things in
response to another person taking a parking spot just as we are ready to
park:
„That jerk! Who does he think he is! What a sense of entitlement!‰
or:
„I wonder if he realises what he has done. He seems lost in his own

thoughts. I hope he is okay‰.
or:
„What am I supposed to do? Now IÊm going to be late for my

meeting⁄ Should I say something to him? What if he gets mad at
me?‰
Such differing cognitive responses contribute to emotional and behavioural

responses, where self-talk can either promote a positive or negative
feedback loop in the situation.
(c) Physical Responses

These responses can play an important role in our ability to meet our needs
in the conflict. They include heightened stress, bodily tension, increased
perspiration, tunnel vision, shallow or accelerated breathing, nausea and
rapid heartbeat. These responses are similar to those we experience in high-
anxiety situations, and they may be managed through stress management
techniques. Establishing a calmer environment in which emotions can be
managed is more likely if the physical response is addressed effectively.

9.4.4 The Role of Perceptions in Conflict

As noted in our basic definition of conflict, we define conflict as a disagreement
through which the parties involved perceive a threat to their needs, interests or
concerns. One key element of this definition is the idea that each party may have
a different perception of any given situation. We can anticipate having such
differences due to a number of factors that create „perceptual filters‰ that
influence our responses to the situation:
(a) Culture, Race and Ethnicity (Heitler, 1990)

Our varying cultural backgrounds influence us to hold certain beliefs about
the social structure of our world, as well as the role of conflict in that
experience. We may have learned to value substantive, procedural and
psychological needs differently as a result, thus influencing our willingness
to engage in various modes of negotiation and efforts to manage the conflict
(b) Gender and Sexuality (Tannen, 2001)

Men and women often perceive situations somewhat differently, based on
both their experiences in the world (which relates to power and privilege,
as do race and ethnicity) and socialisation patterns that reinforce the
importance of relationships vs. task, substance vs. process, immediacy vs.
long-term outcomes. As a result, men and women will often approach
conflictive situations with differing mindsets about the desired outcomes
from the situation, as well as the set of possible solutions that may exist.
(c) Knowledge (General and Situational)

Parties respond to given conflicts on the basis of the knowledge they may
have about the issue at hand. This includes situation-specific knowledge
(that is, „Do I understand what is going on here?‰) and general
knowledge (that is, „Have I experienced this type of situation before?‰ or
„Have I studied about similar situations before?‰). Such information can
influence the personÊs willingness to engage in efforts to manage the
conflict, either reinforcing confidence to deal with the dilemma or
undermining oneÊs willingness to flexibly consider alternatives.

(d) Impressions of the Messenger

If the person sharing the message – the messenger – is perceived to be a threat
(powerful, scary, unknown, etc.), this can influence our responses to the
overall situation being experienced. For example, if a big scary-looking guy
is approaching me rapidly, yelling „Get out of the way!‰ I may respond
differently than if a diminutive, calm person would express the same
message to me. As well, if I knew either one of them previously, I might
respond differently based upon that prior sense of their credibility: I am more
inclined to listen with respect to someone I view as credible as if the
message comes from someone who lacks credibility and integrity in my
mind.
(e) Previous Experiences

Some of us have had profound, significant life experiences that continue to
influence our perceptions of current situations. These experiences may have
left us fearful, lacking trust and reluctant to take risks. On the other hand,
previous experiences may have left us confident, willing to take chances
and experience the unknown. Either way, we must acknowledge the role
of previous experiences as elements of our perceptual filter in the current
dilemma.
These factors (along with others) conspire to form the perceptual filters through
which we experience conflict. As a result, our reactions to the threat and dilemma
posed by conflict should be anticipated to include varying understandings of the
situation. This also means that we can anticipate that in many conflicts there will
be significant misunderstanding of each otherÊs perceptions, needs and feelings.
These challenges contribute to our emerging sense, during conflict, that the
situation is overwhelming and unsolvable. As such, they become critical sources
of potential understanding, insight and possibility.
9.4.5 Why do we Tend to Avoid Dealing with

Conflict?
Engaging in dialogue and negotiation around conflict is something we tend to
approach with fear and hesitation, afraid that the conversation will go worse
than the conflict has gone thus far. All too often, we talk ourselves out of
potential dialogue (Webne Behrman, 1998):
„Why should I talk to her? SheÊll bite my head off and not listen to
anything I have to say!‰

OR
„I should talk to him about this problem, but maybe it will go away on
its own. There is no sense stirring up something that makes us both
uncomfortable‰.
OR
„If I go to him, I am making myself vulnerable. No, thatÊs his responsibility
– he should come to me and ask me to talk!‰
Our responses, as noted earlier, tend to include behaviours, feelings, thoughts

and physical responses. If any of these responses indicates stress factors that
make us reluctant to talk things out, we are more inclined to follow the pathway
of avoidance. In addition, if we have history with the individuals involved in this
conflict (that is, we have tried to negotiate with them in the past, without
success), it will „filter‰ our perceptions of this situation and make us reluctant to
negotiate.
In addition, consider that our society tends to reward alternative responses to

conflict, rather than negotiation: People who aggressively pursue their needs,
competing rather than collaborating, are often satisfied by others who prefer to
accommodate. Managers and leaders are often rewarded for their aggressive,
controlling approaches to problems, rather than taking a more compassionate
approach to issues that may seem less decisive to the public or their staff
(Bridges, 1991).
In other circumstances, those who raise issues and concerns, even respectfully,
are quickly perceived to be „problem‰ clients or staff members⁄ they tend
to be avoided and minimised. In any of these approaches, negotiated solutions
to conflicts are rarely modelled or held in high esteem.
ACTIVITY 9.4
What are some of the key sources of conflict in our workplace?
How do we solve conflicts as a short-term measure and as a long term strategy?
How does the Malaysian Government handle conflicts in its multi- racial society?

 Keep in mind that negotiation requires profound courage on the part of all
parties; it takes courage to honestly and clearly articulate your needs, and it
takes courage to sit down and listen to your adversaries. It takes courage to
look at your own role in the dispute, and it takes courage to approach others
with a sense of empathy, openness and respect for their perspective.
 Collaborative approaches to conflict management require us to engage in the

moment of dialogue in profound and meaningful ways, so it is
understandable if we tend to avoid such situations until the balance of
wisdom tips in favour of negotiation.
 Communication is a skill that leaders need to acquire as it enhances

relationships and resolve conflicts.
 It is important for leaders to have good communication skills because it is

through communication the leaders can inspire followers to be effective,
motivated and achieve common goals.
 There are various ways to communicate, ranging from written words, spoken
words, symbolic gestures and visual images to body language. A
combination of one or two methods would increase its effectiveness.
 To improve relationships among the stakeholders, it is vital to know the

attributes of supportive communication.
 Cross-cultural communication skills are important as it enables leaders to

communicate with people of different cultures.
Communication skills Inspirational communication

Cross-cultural communication Resolving conflicts
Cultural differences Supportive communication

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To pi ▶ Shaping
TomorrowÊs
1 0 Leadership and
Organisation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Explain the change process;
Describe how to bring about change initiated by the leader and change as a collaborative proce
Organise the school to have a strategic advantage to achieve the school objectives;
Manage knowledge effectively; and
Establish the school as a learning organisation.
▶ INTRODUCTION
With a more enlightened society where the literacy rate is almost universal
(about 99 per cent of the population), leadership of nations and organisations
takes on a different form other than what is normal. The followers cannot be
fooled into obeying the leader without questioning him. They must be satisfied
with the decision of the leader, use rational, logic and reason as the guiding
principle in all actions. As the result of this change, leadership takes a different
shape. Participative leadership, empowerment of followers and collective
decision making are the norm. The staff members are skilful in many areas of the
discipline and multi-tasking has become the norm. „The Jack of all trades‰ has
been accepted as the more acceptable characteristic among staff members rather
than a specialist who is unwilling to do tasks other than their own specialisation.

250 ▶ TOPIC 10 SHAPING TOMORROW’S LEADERSHIP AND ORGANISATION
With this changing scenario, leaders of the future should be shaped to fulfil the
requirements and specifications of the present era and the future. Leaders should
be educated, trained and exposed to the changes that are happening in society
and be adaptable to future changes. A rigid leader will either make way for an
adaptable leader or has to shape himself to fit the requirements of the present
and the future. Inflexible leaders have no place in our fast changing world.
10.1 MODELS FOR WORKING AND

ORGANISING
A leader in any organisation needs to have successful models that they can
emulate. The responsibility of a leader would be made lighter if he has
knowledge about effective leadership which entails understanding the moral
purpose of leadership, the nature of change and relationships, the need of building
knowledge and working in a cyber environment. If a leader of the past era were
to assume responsibility of leading in the present era, he needs to relearn
everything for the present era and the future requires a different set of
philosophy, attitude, knowledge and skills.
10.1.1 Understanding Change

Understanding change is a key factor, as changes are more likely to occur in the
present 21st century than the previous one. Fullan (2001) reminded us that „A
culture of change consists of great rapidity and nonlinearity on the one hand
and equally great potential for creative breakthroughs on the other. The paradox is
that transformation would not be possible without accompanying messiness‰.
Due to its rapidity and nonlinearity, change brings about chaos if it is not handled
by experts in the area.
This danger is also faced by school principals. In the Malaysian situation, the
change of the medium of instruction for the teaching of Mathematics and Science
into English brought about some chaotic situations due to the inability of these
teachers to communicate in English effectively with the students. The problem
was compounded by the insufficient number of teachers in those specialisations
who can teach in English. Strong leaders (principals) are needed to bring such
changes to success whilst good middle managers or the senior management team
(SMT) are needed to carry out the implementation of change. However, critiques
of management and managerialism have argued that, on the drive toward
efficiency, the SMT can cause untenable assumptions about the changes that are
targeted.

TOPIC 10 SHAPING TOMORROW’S LEADERSHIP AND ORGANISATION ◀ 251
Understanding change and the after effects of the process would be a good asset
for leaders. The anticipation of the messiness of the effect of change would better
prepare a leader to handle the problems that come with it. In the process of creating
a change, the potential of creative breakthroughs is ever present. The paradigm
shifts that come along with change will open up peopleÊs minds and new
viewpoints that were not even dreamt of before the change process seems to be
free flowing.
As a leader in a school, the principal plays an important role to lead the teachers,
students and the parents towards the path of change. Therefore, the principal
needs to have knowledge about the change process and the right attitude
towards the need for change. A change might not achieve its target if the people
who are to be involved in the change process do not give their cooperation.
They need to be convinced and the task of the leader becomes heavier and he
needs other skills, such as communication skills, human relation skills and
resilience. Some of these knowledge and skills have already been covered in
previous topics while others will be discussed further in this final topic.
10.1.2 Process for Initiating Top-down

Transformation
Any change or transformation needs to be planned and it needs theoretical and
conceptual knowledge as a basis for doing the right thing rather than groping in
the dark. Kotter (1991) proposes an eight step process for initiating a change that
comes from the top of the hierarchy. The leader initiates the change and success
will only come if the following steps are recognised and followed.
(a) Establishing a Sense of Urgency

The leader must create a sense of urgency among the followers so that they
would be in synchronisation with the leader. Once they are able to feel the
urgency for the change they will participate in the change process.
(b) Creating a Guiding Coalition

When the followers can see the importance and the urgency of the change
they will cooperate with each other, and together they will go through the
process of the change.

(c) Developing a Vision and Strategy

To get the commitment of every individual who will be affected by the
change, the leader should develop a vision and a strategy to implement it.
The vision and the strategy would ensure that the change would be following
the course that has been planned.
(d) Communicating the Change Vision

The change vision needs to be communicated to those who are directly
involved with the change process. This action would ensure that all
members are always aware of the objectives of the vision and this
awareness motivates them to work for the objectives.
(e) Empowering Broad-based Action

When the members are fully informed about the changes that need to be
done, they will be willing to carry out the responsibilities voluntarily. They
will learn the knowledge and skills needed for the implementation of the
change. Once they are equipped, the leader can empower them with the
responsibility of carrying out the change programs. Empowerment of
subordinates will make it easier for the achievement of the objectives.
(f) Generating Short-term Wins

In order to maintain the interest and motivation of the followers, short-term
objectives should be designed into the change process. These short-term
objectives that can be achieved easily in the long process of change and act
as the impetus for further actions.
(g) Consolidating Gains and Producing More Change

Once the planned objectives are achieved they need to be strengthened and,
in the process, the gains would be permanent and this will generate further
changes. In an education scenario, once the students have made reading a
permanent habit, the teachers can introduce more challenging lessons that
need further reading and research before they will achieve the objectives of
the exercise.
(h) Anchoring New Approaches in the Culture

When the objectives of the planned change have materialised, a new culture
has been established. The more enlightened culture will deteriorate if new
approaches of doing things have not become embedded in society. The new
society created through the change process needs to proceed further ahead
through other changes that will occur. If the new society becomes relaxed in
the new comfort zone, then they will be left behind for new changes have to
be made in order to keep with the times and to maintain the same position
or better in comparison with the others.

10.1.3 Process for Initiating Bottom-up

Transformation
We all know that if we were to bring about change and that change is only the
wish of the superiors then the change might not be as effective as if it were to
come from both the leader and the followers at the same time. Beer, Eisenstat,
and Spector (1990) observed that the ideas of change should also be from the
bottom-up. The way to bring about the energies of the people is observed as the
following (as cited in Mintzberg et al., 1998, p. 338):
(a) Mobilise commitment to change through joint diagnosis with people in the
organisation of business problems.
(b) Develop a shared vision of how to organise and manage for competitiveness.
(c) Foster concerns for the new vision, competence to enact it, and cohesion to
move it along.
(d) Spend revitalisation to all departments without pushing it from the top.
(e) Institutionalise revitalisation through formal policies, systems, and

structure.
(f) Monitor and adjust strategies in response to problems in the revitalisation

process.
When both the leaders and the subordinates cooperate with each other through
the institutionalisation of the change process, then change that brings about
innovation and invention with it will be a permanent feature of the society. A
new culture has been established.
10.2 ORGANISING FOR

STRATEGIC ADVANTAGE
Many nations of this world are capable of producing and providing the products
and services that are needed by consumers world-wide but not all nations will be
equally successful. The success of any venture depends upon many factors that
can be classified as organising for strategic advantage. The factors that can
influence either the success or the failure of any venture can be classified into the
following realms.

(a) Manpower planning should consider recruiting the right people for the right
posts to ensure that the best suited person holds the post to best meet the
planned objectives within the targeted period. Failing to do so endangers
the mission and vision of the organisation. Nations that practice
meritocracy in the real sense have an advantage to advance faster than
others which practice nepotism.
(b) Skilful and educated workforce is an advantage for the successful

implementation of any development programme or change. The better
educated workforce can easily be trained to master the skills needed in the
development of the nation especially in high-tech industries.
(c) Positive attitude and work ethics of the workforce. Workers who are
willing to work hard and motivated towards their work will ensure that the
products they produce will be of high-quality.
(d) The existing demographic/geographical/policy advantage. Some nations

are more advantaged than others in various areas such as having beautiful
beaches, islands and highlands while others are land-locked. Some nations
are multi-lingual that can become an advantage over nations which are
monolingual. Nations that have an open door policy will attract more
tourists than nations that are cold towards foreigners.
(e) Strong and Strategic leadership. The leader should be strong in the sense that
he gets the support of the majority of the people. This strong support helps
in achieving the objectives of the development and change programs. The
leader should also be a visionary who could see the future and planned for
the people and country to be at an advantage in the areas that have been
developed.
All these characteristics could be established if the leaders and the society are
willing to change. They could be developed when the leaders and the people in
the society are willing to work towards achieving the planned objectives through
innovations and new procedures. Regarding the selection of leaders of industries,
the criteria should be based on their expertise rather than their close association
with the political leaders or their ethnic background.

An educated workforce is closely related to the education system of the nation. A

progressive curriculum and co-curriculum that prepare the students to be open-
minded, knowledgeable, creative and innovative with sound moral and ethics, is
the factor that can be an advantage over others. The workforce with this
background will easily adapt themselves to the changes that occur and be still in
the forefront.
ACTIVITY 10.1
Discuss the demographic/geographical/policy advantages of Malaysia.

Strong and strategic leadership are two qualities that are lacking in some schools. What do yo
„Spend revitalisation to all departments‰ needs to be elaborated. What do you understand b
„Bottom-up‰ and „Top-down‰ techniques of implementing change might not be possible t
„Creative breakthroughs‰ may result in the change process. Explain how this phenomenon
10.3 WORKING AND ORGANISING IN

A WIRED WORLD
The computer and the Internet have revolutionised our working environment.
They have shortened the time to complete our tasks that used to take a lot more
time when they were not in existence about three decades ago. With computer
facilities, there is no need for the services of the typists while the services of the
dispatch clerks are becoming less important. New ways of doing things have
cropped up and a different paradigm has replaced the older one. In the past,
specialisation was the mode of management but with the advancement of the
computer and the Internet, multi-tasking has become a required criterion for
taking up a job and responsibility.

10.3.1 Multi-tasking
„Jack of all trades and the master of none‰ is not the whole truth and not in favour
anymore. The market place needs a person who is „Jack of all trades and the master
of all‰. The leaders of our schools, namely the principals have to be a „Jack of all
trades‰ because they have to know about managing their staff, know how to
use the computer to write e-mails and send them through the wired technology
to the respective addresses, to use Microsoft Word and Microsoft Excel to write
letters and to provide data to be sent to the education departments and the
Ministry of Education. These basic skills are essential to be effective in our
present environment. Without it, the principals would be helpless and they
would not be of much use to fulfil their responsibilities. A principal in a private
school or college needs to do other things as well, such as marketing his
programmes and institution, training his staff on methodologies of teaching,
studentsÊ discipline as well as ensuring that there is a healthy cash flow.
10.3.2 Information and Knowledge Management

With the advancement of the Internet, information is at our fingertips; that is for
those who know how to get it. The principal can be a tool for disseminating
information to the teachers and students. The teachers can help the students to
gain access to information and knowledge. If the Internet is utilised properly by
the students with proper supervision by the teachers, then it becomes a limitless
resource tool to teachers and students. The principal can think of creative ways
and means to maximise the use of the Internet. The following are some of the
ideas that can be adopted for the benefit of the students:
(a) The principal can draw a schedule for the utilisation of the Internet by
the students outside school hours as part of the co-curriculum activities
including seeking information for their assignments.
(b) The school can appoint senior students who are knowledgeable about the
use of the Internet as mentors to other students.
(c) Classes for learning to use the softwares provided by computer companies
can be held for the students so that they can master the skills of using the
computer.
(d) Competitions can be held for the students such as designing web pages to
create interest and awareness among the school population regarding the
usefulness of the computer.

(e) The school can develop an informative web site for others to communicate
with the school.
(f) The school can develop relationships with other schools across the globe
through their web sites.
(g) Information and knowledge exchange between the schools across the globe
will be beneficial to all parties.
(h) The students can become „ambassadors‰ for Malaysia to foster goodwill
among the students around the globe.
These activities will enrich the students in knowledge, communication skills,

intercultural and interpersonal relationships in a „global village‰ environment.
It is a good beginning for the students to enter the real world. They would be
wiser and more confident in whatever venture they would enter after they leave
school.
10.4 LEADING PEOPLE IN THE

ORGANISATION OF THE
FUTURE
Predicting the future is like an astrologer predicting what will happen to you based
on the movement of celestial bodies. It is a hazardous and risky business, due to
unexpected events and surprises such as the break-up of the Soviet Union into
many independent states in the 1980s, and the economic reforms of China to
name a few.
But as long as we have a desire to control our own destiny, we will try to
envision our future. Some aspects of our lives can be shaped significantly by our
aspirations, and by the nature of our schools. Morgan (1989) noted that no matter
the type of organisation or the conception of leadership (e.g. Bass, 1981), the
vision of what the organisation ought to be seems to be vital to success, especially
during turbulent times. One of the executives of MorganÊs study noted the
following:
„The world is such a changeable place that you need to have a well
articulated long-term sense of where you are going, which gives you the
base, the confidence to take on whatever adaptability issues come along
without losing sense of direction. YouÊve got to respond to the issues of the
moment without losing that long-term sense‰.
(Leithwood, Begley & Cousins, 1994, p.

Leaders should be able to visualise the future for these visions, provide precise
guides to action and allow reasonable discrepancies in need of attention to be
detected in the school so that actions can be taken to rectify these discrepancies.
These visions should be widely shared so that they will become points for
discussions and shared collective decisions.
10.5 STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP

According to the definition given by Rowe (2001) „Strategic leadership is the
ability to inspire others to voluntarily make day-to-day decisions that enhance
the companyÊs long-term viability while at the same time maintaining short-
term financial stability‰. By this definition we understand that strategic
leadership has the following qualities:
(a) The ability to inspire others to voluntarily make day-to-day decisions to

enhance the companyÊs long term viability.
(b) The ability to make long term forecasts and strategies to ensure the survival
as well as the healthy existence of the organisation.
(c) The ability to translate the strategic plans into short-term activities that lead
into financial ability and profit.
When these qualities are transferred into school leadership, we are able to visualise
the sort of a principal who develops a vision for the school to achieve and at the
same time he becomes an inspiration to the teachers, students and parents to
achieve the objective of the vision by ensuring the achievement of the objectives
of the short-term development programmes.
The most difficult part of this strategic leadership is the ability to continuously
inspire oneÊs followers for a length of time because the interest of the followers
may subside and this can cause the failure to achieve the vision. The only way to
maintain the momentum is the leader not being the first person to lose interest in
the quest for achieving the vision as targeted if not earlier.
He has to devise means to inspire the followers such as laying out one mission
after another to be accomplished. After every successful accomplishment they
should celebrate to mark every success. It is a motivating factor that can sustain
the inspiration to produce better results. In the school situation for example,
studentsÊ academic improvements in Mathematics or English might be a booster
to teachersÊ and studentsÊ morales.

Rowe (2001) again differentiated strategic leadership with visionary and

managerial leaderships. According to him visionary leadership is future-
orientated and concerned with taking risks. Visionary leaders are not dependent
on their organisations for a sense of self, and organisational control is maintained
through a set of commonly held values.
On the other hand, managerial leaders are most comfortable handling day-to-
day events, and focus on the short-term goals rather than long-term goals.
Although sometimes touted as a panacea for many organisations in a fast-
changing environment, visionary leaders are not readily embraced and unless
they have managerial leaders to support them, may not be appropriate for many
organisations.
Strategic leadership presumes that managerial and visionary leadership can co-
exist, and that strategic leadership is a synergistic combination of the two. A
strategic leader has the ability of the visionary leader as well as the managerial
leader. Therefore, the development of a strategic leadership is important for long-
term school improvement. Our Malaysian schools need leaders who can
strategise the vision of the schools and at the same time create keen interest
among the teachers and students to achieve the short-term goals continuously before
reaching the ultimate realisation of the vision.
10.6 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT AND THE

LEARNING ORGANISATION
According to Koulopoulos and Frappaolo (2000), in a knowledge-based economy
of the present era, knowledge management is very critical for the survival of a
nation because it is a critical element of any business strategy. Knowledge of the
business strategy will allow the organisation to accelerate the rate at which it
handles new market challenges and opportunities, and it does so by leveraging
its most precious resource, collective know-how, talent and experience.
Knowledge management tells us that we should take stock in our greatest, most
precious organisational asset; intellectual capital.
A learning organisation is considered as an important factor that will ensure the

organisation to survive in turbulent times for it is able to continuously learn from
the information available and to adapt and adopt new technologies to ensure the
organisation is at the cutting edge of new knowledge and technology.

10.6.1 Effective Knowledge Management

The 21st century is a technology-driven century. Our communication is
technology-driven and the production industry is geared towards information
production. Technology can play an important role in knowledge management.
The computer system once again plays a vital role in knowledge management. A
leader must realise that knowledge management is not a simple matter.
It is not a technology, although technology should be positioned to facilitate it. It

is not a business strategy, although one aligned with the tenets of knowledge
management must exist. The smart leader must put all these in place and build a
culture that promotes faith in collectively sharing and thinking.
In a knowledge-based economy, knowledge management is the critical element

of a business strategy that will allow the organisation to accelerate the rate at
which it handles new market challenges and opportunities through the usage of
their precious resources of collective know-how, talent and experience.
The data collected from our own research, from intelligence gathering, from the
Internet data, and the process of selected information gathering can provide
useful information that can lead to strategies useful for the survival of
organisations. The collected information and data have to be analysed by those
who have the knowledge and talents both collectively and individually.
Knowledge management is popular in corporations and academics but one day it

will be integrated into the normal operations of business. Effective knowledge
management in an organisation creates, explicates and communicates knowledge
and applies it to create improved decision making and organisational behaviours
that positively influence overall performance.
Effective knowledge management is made up of a number of elements, which

singly may not bring about the desired result but collectively, they can make the
organisation more effective. King (2003) made some observations regarding
the knowledge-related components of an effective knowledge organisation. The
components are:
(a) An individual learning component which focuses on developing human

intellectual capital by enhancing the knowledge of individuals through
formal class work, e-learning and mentoring.

(b) An organisational development component which utilised adaptive

learning to create social capital through such devices as the use of
teamwork, partnerships and strategic alliances with other organisations.
(c) An intellectual property management component that deals with

knowledge that has already been converted into explicit form such as
patents, research reports and trademarks, with the objective of generating
greater revenues through licensing, brand extensions and the creation of
new products.
(d) An innovation component which focuses on generative learning to create

new products and processes through creative thinking and which manifests
itself in forms such as „idea fairs‰, and small grants for exploring new ideas.
(e) A knowledge management component which focuses on the explication of

the tacit knowledge that exists in the minds of organisational participants
and that knowledge which is embedded and in the process and
relationships of the organisation. Once it has been made explicit, it can be
stored and communicated throughout the organisation.
(f) An information system infrastructure which enables the components to

operate and to be integrated into an overall supporting structure for the
effective knowledge organisation.
An organisation that develops this capability will enhance its overall capacities
that can be witnessed in its decision-making capabilities and the improvement of
its overall performance. On the other hand, organisations that do not develop these
capabilities will be unable to compete with those that have done so.
When these components have become the culture of the organisation and as an
integral part of it, then the post of knowledge management officer or manager
would be redundant. All staff members would have to be knowledge executives
for the survival of the organisation.
10.6.2 Learning Organisation

Charles Darwin once said, „It is not the strongest of the species nor the most
intelligent (which survive) but the ones most responsive to change‰. It is also
true among organisations. Success in a very competitive environment is the
result of being able to adapt to the changes. Therefore the ability to learn so that
changes can be made is a critical factor to the survival and growth of
organisations.

First of all we have to understand the concept of the learning organisation

through some definitions:
„A learning organisation is one in which people at all levels, individually and collectively, are contin
Karash (2001)
A learning organisation as human beings cooperating in a dynamic system that is in a state of con
Senge (1993)
From the two definitions, we can observe that a learning organisation is an

organisation where every member of the organisation has to continuously learn
and relearn because to be relevant at all times one has to update oneÊs
knowledge, skills and attitudes. It is a process of lifelong learning. This process of
lifelong learning is also a cooperative process among members where adaptation
and improvement is continuous. There is no such thing as „the best‰ product or
service because a new idea and product will become obsolete in time, and new
ideas and products is needed to replace them.
10.6.3 Knowledge Management and Learning

Organisation in the School System
The concept of a learning organisation and knowledge management needs to be
implemented in our schools. Our future citizens need to be inculcated with the
belief that changes occur continuously and we have to adapt and improve on
what we already have in order to be up-to-date in everything we do so that
we will not be left behind other nations. Knowledge must be managed wisely
through creative, innovative and critical thinking processes so that new ideas of
doing things can lead to new inventions and innovations.
The culture of the learning organisation should be developed in all schools where
students would seek knowledge wherever they are not only on the subject matter
that are taught in schools but also knowledge that can make them wiser, more
informed and knowledgeable about other matters which can lead to creativity
and the creation of new knowledge.

ACTIVITY 10.2
Differentiate between a strategic leader and a visionary leader.
A society that can manage knowledge efficiently can economically defeat a nation which is ric
How would you manage knowledge in your school effectively?
What are the obstacles facing your school in establishing a learning organisation?
How would you overcome those obstacles mentioned in Q4? Share your answers with your co
 This topic has investigated the link between strategic leadership and leading
change. It is important that leaders must understand change and how it
affects their schools.
 To handle change effectively, leaders have to understand the process of

initiating top-down transformation and bottom-up transformation.
 Change inevitably needs strategic leadership and it is necessary for leaders to

know the enactment of strategic leadership for change in their schools.
 In the 21st century with the advancement of technology and in a digital

world, leaders need to understand how to lead in organisations where work
ethics and organisational structures are different from the 20th century.
Bottom-up transformation Learning organisation

Change Strategic leadership
Digital world Top-down transformation
Knowledge management

Bass, B. M. (1981). StogdillÊs handbook of leadership. New York, NY: Free Press.
Beer, M., Eisenstat, R., & Spector, B. (1990). The critical path to corporate renewal.
Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
Fullan, M. (2001). Leading in a culture of change. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Karash, R. (2001). Learning-org dialog on learning organizations. Retrieved

from http://www.learning-org.com
Kim, Young-Gul (Ed.). (2003). Knowledge management and organizations:

Process, system and strategy. Bradford, England: Emerald Group Publishing
Ltd.
Kotter, J. (1996). Leading change. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
Koulopoulos, T. M., & Frappaolo, C. (2000). Smart things to know about

knowledge management. Oxford, England: Capstone Publishing.
Mintzberg, H., Ahlstrand, B., & Lampel, J. (1998). Strategy safari: A guided
tour through the wilds of strategic management. New York, NY: Free
Press.
Morgan, G. (1989). Riding the waves of change. San Francisco, CA. Jossey-Bass.
Rowe W. G. (2001). Creating Wealth in Organization: The Role of Strategic

Leadership. IEEE Engineering Management Review, 29 (4), 25–37.
Senge, P. (1993). The fifth discipline: the art and practices of the learning
organisation. London, England: Century Business.
Wilson, Phil (2000). The Learning Organization. Broadstairs, Kent, England:

Scitech Educational.

MODULE FEEDBACK
MAKLUM BALAS MODUL
If you have any comment or feedback, you are welcome to:
1. E-mail your comment or feedback to modulefeedback@oum.edu.my
OR
2. Fill in the Print Module online evaluation form available on myINSPIRE.
Thank you.
Centre for Instructional Design and

Technology (Pusat Reka Bentuk Pengajaran
dan Teknologi )
Tel No.: 03-27732578
Fax No.: 03-26978702


HMEF5023 Educational Leadership - Smay19 (Rs & MREP)

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Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

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Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 The Nature of Leadership 1

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Topic 2 Effective Leadership Behaviours and Attitudes 44

Topic 3 Contingency and Situational Leadership 70

Topic 4 Leadership and Motivation 82

Topic 5 The School as a Social Organisation 102

Topic 6 Tactics for Becoming an Empowering Leader 139

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6.4 Ingredients for a Successful Empowerment 145

Topic 7 Factors that Contribute to Organisational Politics 162

TABLE OF CONTENTS ◀ vii

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Topic 9 Communication and Skills in Resolving Conflicts 215

viii ▶ TABLE OF CONTENTS

9.2 Supportive Communication 227

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Topic 10 Shaping TomorrowÊs Leadership and Organisation 249

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Explain the concept of leadership in educational organisations;

2. Analyse leadership and organisational theories in their study tasks and

3. Demonstrate the understanding of problem solving in educational contexts;

4. Evaluate critically the educational leadership practices in selected case

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 2 discusses the effectiveness of leadership behaviours and attitudes. Here,

Topic 3 discusses contingency and situational leadership. In this topic, we will

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 10 deals with shaping tomorrowÊs leadership and organisation. In this

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

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References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

Bass, B. M. (1990). Bass and Stogdills handbook of leadership theory, research

Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York, NY: Harper and Row.

Grint, K. (1997). Leadership: Classical, contemporary and critical approaches,

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Hersey, P., & Blanchard, K. H. (1982). Management of organization behavior:

Hoy, W. K., & Miskel, C. G. (1991). Educational administration: theory research

Hoy, W. K., & Miskel, C. G. (2001). Educational administration: Theory, research,

Sadler, P. (1997). Leadership. London, England: Kogan.

Sergiovanni, T. J. (1992). Moral leadership: Getting to the heart of school

Stogdill, R. M. (1974). Handbook of leadership. A survey of theory and research.

Van Maurik, J. (2001). Writers on leadership. London, England: Penguin.

Yukl, G. A. (2010). Leadership in organisations (7th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ:

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Many a time, the ineffectiveness of a school is directly related to the inefficiency

1.1 INTERPRETATION OF LEADERSHIP