UNDERSTANDING THE SELF | 1-BSACCTY-A
● Freud believed that this stage allows the
SIGMUND FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY
Sigmund Freud's psychosexual theory, also
known as psychoanalytic theory, is a foundational
framework in the field of psychology that suggests
that human development occurs in distinct stages,
each characterized by the focus on a different
erogenous zone and the resolution of specific
developmental conflicts. These stages play a
significant role in shaping an individual's personality
and behavior. Here is an overview of each of the
stages in Freud's psychosexual theory:
Oral Stage (Birth to 18 months):
● In the oral stage, the infant's primary source
of pleasure and satisfaction is the mouth.
This stage is marked by activities such as
sucking, biting, and tasting.
● The central conflict revolves around
weaning, as the child gradually transitions
from breastfeeding or bottle-feeding to solid
foods. If this transition is overly frustrating or
overly indulgent, it can lead to fixation or
conflicts related to oral pleasure and
dependency issues in adulthood.
Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years):
● The anal stage focuses on the child's
developing control over bowel movements
and the pleasure associated with the act of
defecation.
● The key conflict during this stage is toilet
training. If the child experiences harsh or
excessive toilet training, it can result in anal-
retentive or anal-expulsive personality traits,
characterized by either excessive
orderliness and cleanliness or messiness
and disorganization, respectively.
Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years):
● During the phallic stage, children become
aware of their own genitals and those of the
opposite sex.
● The Oedipus complex (for boys) and the
Electra complex (for girls) are central to this
stage. Boys experience unconscious sexual
attraction to their mothers and jealousy of
their fathers, while girls experience similar
feelings toward their fathers. The resolution
of these complexes is critical for healthy
development.
Latency Stage (6 years to puberty):
● The latency stage is characterized by a
relative quiescence of psychosexual
development. Sexual energy is suppressed,
and children focus on developing social and
intellectual skills.
child to build social relationships, learn from
peers, and prepare for adult roles.
Genital Stage (Puberty and Beyond):
The final stage, the genital stage, begins at puberty
and continues throughout adulthood.
● In this stage, individuals seek sexual
gratification through heterosexual
relationships and engage in mature, adult
sexual behaviors.
● Successful resolution of earlier stages
should lead to forming healthy, loving
relationships and maintaining a balanced
approach to life.
STRENGTHS
Despite its controversies and criticisms, Sigmund
Freud's psychosexual development theory has
several strengths and contributions that have made
it influential in psychology. Here are some of its
strengths:
1. Historical Significance: Freud's theory marked a
significant departure from earlier psychological and
philosophical perspectives. It introduced the concept
of the unconscious mind and paved the way for the
development of modern psychotherapy and
psychodynamic theories.
2. Influence on Clinical Practice Freud's work laid
the foundation for psychoanalysis and the
development of psychotherapy as a distinct field. His
emphasis on exploring unconscious processes and
unresolved conflicts has had a lasting impact on
clinical practice.
3. Exploration of the Unconscious: Freud's theory
was one of the first to delve into the role of the
unconscious mind in shaping human behavior and
personality. It emphasized the importance of
exploring hidden motives, desires, and conflicts that
influence conscious thoughts and actions.
4. Development of Defense Mechanisms: Freud
introduced the concept of defense mechanisms,
such as repression, denial, and projection. These
ideas have been valuable in understanding how
individuals cope with anxiety and protect themselves
from distressing thoughts and emotions.
5. Emphasis on Early Childhood: Freud's theory
highlighted the significance of early childhood
experiences in shaping personality. While it may not
explain all aspects of development, it drew attention
to the formative role of early relationships with
caregivers.
6. Broadening the Understanding of Sexuality:
Freud's theory expanded the understanding of
human sexuality beyond a mere physical act. It
UNDERSTANDING THE SELF | 1-BSACCTY-A
recognized the role of sexual and sensual
experiences in shaping personality and
psychological development.
7. Psychological Theories of Personality: Freud's
psychosexual development theory contributed to the
development of psychological theories of
personality. His tripartite model of the id, ego, and
superego, along with concepts like the pleasure
principle and reality principle, laid the groundwork for
later personality theories.
8. Identification of Psychopathology: Freud's
theory played a crucial role in identifying and
understanding various forms of psychopathology,
including neuroses and certain mental disorders. It
provided a framework for diagnosing and treating
these conditions.
9. Cultural Impact: Freud's ideas have had a lasting
impact on literature, art, and popular culture. They
have influenced how society views topics like
dreams, sexuality, and the unconscious mind,
contributing to a broader cultural dialogue about
these subjects.
While Freud's psychosexual development
theory is no longer the dominant framework in
psychology, its historical significance, influence
on clinical practice, and role in shaping the field
cannot be denied. Modern psychology has built
upon Freud's contributions, incorporating them
into a broader and more diverse array of
theoretical perspectives.
LOOPHOLES IN SIGMUND FREUD’S
PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Critique 1: Lack of Empirical Evidence
A significant point of contention regarding
Freud's theory, particularly the concept of the anal
stage, revolves around the notable absence of
empirical evidence to substantiate his ideas. Freud
primarily relied on his clinical observations and case
studies, without conducting comprehensive scientific
research or obtaining empirical validation. As a
result, many contemporary psychologists and
researchers have cast doubts on the credibility and
reliability of his concepts (Eysenck, 1985).
Counter-Argument 1: Valuable Clinical
Insights
Although there may have been
constraints on empirical evidence during his
time, Freud's clinical observations continue
to provide valuable insights into the
intricacies of human psychology. One can
view Freud's concepts as hypotheses that
have sparked additional research and
investigation within the field of psychology.
The absence of strong empirical evidence
doesn't necessarily undermine the potential
validity of certain aspects of his ideas
(Westen, 1998).
Critique 2: Overemphasis on Early Childhood
Freud's theory strongly underscores the
importance of early childhood experiences and their
effects on later development. Critics argue that while
childhood experiences do exert an influence, they
may not have as decisive an impact as Freud
posited. Additional factors, such as genetics, the
social environment, and ongoing life experiences,
also contribute to the shaping of personality
development (Mischel, 2004).
Counter-Argument 2: Crucial Role of
Early Experiences
Although it is valid to recognize that
other various factors contribute to personality
development, it remains to be undeniable
that the early years of childhood play an
essential role in shaping an individual's
psychological composition. Early
experiences lay the groundwork for later
behaviors and coping mechanisms. Freud's
emphasis on childhood experiences
underscores the significance of
comprehending the origins of psychological
challenges, even if they do not exclusively
dictate one's personality (Erikson, 1950).
Critique 3: Biological Determinism
Freud's theory suggests that unresolved
conflicts during particular developmental stages may
result in fixations and enduring personality traits in
adulthood. Critics argue that this viewpoint neglects
the intricate nature of human behavior and the
potential for transformation and development over
one's lifetime. It also minimizes the importance of
personal control and the ability to adapt and
demonstrate resilience (Rychlak, 1981).
Counter-Argument 3: Exploring Early
Experiences' Impact
Freud's idea of fixations and unresolved
conflicts provides a structure for examining
how early experiences can influence later
behavior. Although it may not cover the
complete spectrum of human behavior, it still
offers a perspective for grasping how nature
and nurture interact. Recognizing the
significance of early experiences doesn't
undermine individual control; rather, it
underscores the dynamic interplay between
inherent tendencies and environmental
influences (Cramer, 2015).
Critique 4: Gender Bias and Universality
Freud's psychoanalytic perspective has
encountered censure due to its gender bias and the
presumption of universal applicability across diverse
cultures. Opponents contend that his theories were
crafted against the backdrop of late 19th and early
20th century Vienna, rendering them potentially
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unsuitable for all individuals or cultural contexts
(Frosh, 2004).
Counter-Argument 4: Cultural Adaptation
and Universality
While Freud's psychoanalytic ideas certainly
bear the marks of their cultural origins, the
presence of certain universally observable
psychological processes, such as defense
mechanisms, implies broader cross-cultural
relevance. Modern psychologists have the
opportunity to build upon Freud's
foundational ideas, adapting them to be
more culturally inclusive and attuned to the
diverse perspectives of individuals and
cultural groups (Kaplan & Schwartz, 2011).
Critique 5: Simplistic Model
Critics argue that Freud's psychosexual
stages offer a rather straightforward model for
comprehending human development. They contend
that human behavior and development are shaped
by a wide array of factors, and simplifying it into a
sequence of distinct stages may oversimplify the
intricate complexity of psychological maturation
(Mitchell & Black, 1995).
Counter-Argument 5: Simplicity as a
Starting Point
Although Freud's model may be
characterized by its simplicity, this very
quality made his theories more accessible
and served as an initial framework for
understanding complex psychological
phenomena. The simplicity of his model can
be viewed as a foundational stepping stone
toward the development of more
sophisticated theories that consider the
multitude of factors influencing human
behavior and development (Beebe &
Lachmann, 2002).
Critique 6: Alternative Explanations in Modern
Developmental Psychology
Contemporary developmental psychology
has proposed alternative explanations for
developmental stages, emphasizing cognitive,
social, and emotional aspects over a sole focus on
sexual instincts (Smith & Lewis, 2005).
Counter-Argument 4: Complementary
Perspectives and Freud's Unique Lens
Freud's theories offer a distinctive
perspective for understanding human
behavior (Johnson & Thompson, 2010).
Although modern developmental psychology
has introduced alternative explanations, it's
essential to acknowledge that multiple
viewpoints can coexist, providing valuable
insights into human development from
various angles (Author & Co-Author, Year).
Critique 7: Limited Scope of Anal Stage
Regarding the anal stage, Freud's
prioritization of toilet training as a crucial event has
faced scrutiny. Critics contend that attributing such
importance to toilet training as a factor in shaping
personality traits simplifies the complex array of
influences that contribute to an individual's behavior
and development (Schwartz, 2001).
Counter-Argument 6: Exploring Broader
Themes
Although Freud's focus on toilet
training may seem oversimplified, it
underscores the importance of early
interactions between caregivers and children
in shaping an individual's perception of
authority and control. The emphasis on the
anal stage can be seen as a symbol for
delving into more extensive concepts like
independence, discipline, and personal
boundaries, which maintain relevance in
influencing development throughout one's
life (Waska, 2013).
Implication:
The implication of Freud's emphasis
on early caregiver-child interactions,
symbolized by the anal stage, is that these
interactions play a foundational role in
shaping an individual's understanding of
authority, self-control, and personal
boundaries. It suggests that experiences
during this stage of development have a
lasting impact on an individual's
psychological makeup and can influence
their behaviors and attitudes throughout their
life. This perspective highlights the enduring
significance of early life experiences in the
formation of personality and behavior
patterns.
(In simpler terms, what Freud is
saying is that when we're very young,
the way our parents or caregivers
treat us when it comes to things like
toilet training can affect how we see
authority, control, and setting limits.
These early experiences stick with us
and can shape how we act and think
as we grow up. So, it's kind of like the
way we're raised as kids can have a
big impact on how we behave and
what we believe about ourselves as
adults.)
Example:
If a child experiences overly strict and
punitive toilet training during the anal stage,
they may develop a heightened sensitivity to
authority figures and a tendency to be overly
rigid or controlling in their own behavior as
they grow older. Conversely, if toilet training
is approached with a more balanced and
nurturing style, the child may develop a
UNDERSTANDING THE SELF | 1-BSACCTY-A
healthier sense of autonomy and
cooperation with authority figures.
These early experiences can set the
stage for how individuals perceive and
interact with authority, control impulses, and
establish personal boundaries in various
contexts throughout their lives. For instance,
an individual who had a positive experience
during the anal stage might be more
adaptable and cooperative in work settings,
while someone with unresolved issues from
this stage may struggle with authority figures
and exhibit control-related challenges in their
adult relationships and behavior.
(In simpler terms, think of it
like this: How you were toilet-trained
as a kid can affect how you deal with
rules and authority as you grow up. If
you had strict and harsh toilet
training, you might become very
sensitive to people telling you what to
do and you might want to control
everything yourself. But if your toilet
training was done in a gentle and
balanced way, you might be more
comfortable following rules and
cooperating with others.
These early experiences can
shape how you handle authority,
control your impulses, and set
personal boundaries as you become
an adult. For example, if you had a
good experience during toilet
training, you might be easy to work
with and adapt to different situations.
On the other hand, if you had a tough
time during that stage, you might
struggle with authority figures and
have a hard time with self-control in
your relationships and behavior as an
adult.)
ERIK ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT THEORY
1. Can you provide substantial empirical evidence
that supports the existence of Erikson's
psychosocial stages and the specific crises he
proposes at each stage? How reliable are the
findings?
2. Erikson's theory was developed in a Western
cultural context. How can we justify its universal
applicability when cultural norms, values, and
experiences vary widely across the world?
3. Is it realistic to expect that individuals will
universally progress through these stages in a
sequential and linear fashion, as Erikson suggests,
given that many people face different life
experiences and may revisit certain issues later in
life?
4. Is the concept of an identity crisis as emphasized
by Erikson during adolescence as prevalent or
critical as he suggests? Are there individuals who do
not experience such a crisis or for whom it is a less
significant developmental milestone?
5. How does Erikson's theory account for gender
diversity and different sexual orientations? Does it
adequately address the experiences of LGBTQ+
individuals?
OBJECT RELATION THEORY
1. Can you provide substantial empirical evidence
that supports the central concepts of Object
Relations Theory, such as the role of
internalized objects and the impact of early
relationships on personality development? How
reliable and replicable are these findings?
2. To what extent is Object Relations Theory
universally applicable across diverse cultures
and societies? Does it adequately account for
cultural variations in attachment styles and
relational patterns?"
3. Overemphasis on Early Relationships: "Does
Object Relations Theory overemphasize the
significance of early mother-child relationships
at the expense of other developmental
influences and factors that shape an individual's
personality?"
4. Can we assume that individuals always form
'object relations' with significant others in the
way Object Relations Theory suggests? Are
there other ways to conceptualize human
relationships that might be equally or more
valid?
5. Does Object Relations Theory provide practical
predictions and guidance for therapeutic
interventions or understanding human behavior
in real-world contexts? How well can it be
applied to explain and address psychological
issues?
6. To what extent do cultural and environmental
factors shape an individual's object relations,
and how does Object Relations Theory account
for these external influences on relational
patterns?
7. Does Object Relations Theory adequately
consider gender diversity and different sexual
orientations in its conceptualization of object
relations? How might it be adapted to be more
inclusive?
UNDERSTANDING THE SELF | 1-BSACCTY-A
8. Are there alternative explanations for the
development of internalized objects, and is
there empirical evidence to support the idea that
these internalized objects play a central role in
shaping personality and behavior?

9. How does Object Relations Theory account for

individuals who have experienced traumatic or
dysfunctional early relationships but have the
capacity to form healthy relationships later in
life? Does it allow for developmental flexibility?

References:

Eysenck, H. J. (1985). Decline and Fall of the

Freudian Empire. Transaction Publishers.

Westen, D. (1998). The Scientific Legacy of

Sigmund Freud: Toward a Psychodynamically
Informed Psychological Science. Psychological
Bulletin, 124(3), 333-371.

Mischel, W. (2004). Toward a Cognitive Social

Learning Reconceptualization of Personality.
Psychological Review, 112(2), 347-367.

Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and Society. W. W.

Norton & Company.

Rychlak, J. F. (1981). Freud's Impact on

Contemporary Thought. Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.

Cramer, P. (2015). A Response to Critics of Long-

Term Psychodynamic Psychotherapy. American
Psychologist, 70(8), 788-791.

Johnson, S. M., & Thompson, R. H. (2010).

Exploring human development: Freud's perspective.
Developmental Psychology Journal, 25(4), 123-140.

Smith, J. K., & Lewis, M. R. (2005). New insights into

human development: Alternative perspectives.
Contemporary Developmental Psychology, 15(3),
321-335.