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Discontinuities
Structural Material
• A continuous body is one which does not contain
voids or empty spaces of any kind
• A body is homogeneous if it has identical properties
at all points
• A body is considered to be isotropic with respect to
some property when that property does not vary
with direction or orientation. (A property which
varies with orientation with respect to some system
of axes is said to be anisotropic.)
Discontinuities
• Spatially sharp departures from material
homogeneity and continuity inside a component
at any level of magnification are called
discontinuities.
• Engineering materials always possess some
discontinuities
May be acceptable or unacceptable
• Examples; voids, inclusions, laps, folds, cracks,
chemical segregation, and local changes in
microstructure. pitting, and welding undercut.
Discontinuities
When the discontinuities become unaccepatble?
Answer:
When they
➢Degrade the performance or durability of the
structure below the expectations of design
➢Challenge the operability, reliability, and life of a
component
Discontinuities
• Evaluation: Identified discontinuities are evaluated as
either rejectable or nonrejectable conditions in a part
(based on standards and codes).
• Discontinuities are evaluated completely by
determining their
1. location,
2. number,
3. shape,
4. size,
5. orientation, and
6. type.
Discontinuities-Origin
Why is it important to know the origin of
discontinuities?

Wikipedia
Discontinuities-Origin
Origins:
➢Manufacturing
➢During Service
➢Maintenance and Repair
Discontinuities-Origin
Classification of Discontinuities:
➢Inherent discontinuity
1. Primary processing discontinuities
2. Secondary processing discontinuities

➢Service discontinuities
Discontinuities-Origin
Classification of Discontinuities:
Based on Processing Stages
➢Primary processing discontinuities
➢Secondary processing discontinuities
Based on Forming Process
➢welding discontinuities
➢Casting discontinuities
➢Forging discontinuities
➢Rolling discontinuities
Based on Service
➢Service discontinuities
Discontinuities-Origin
CASTING

Etched Aluminium Ingot

Shrinkage voids are potentially deleterious, weakening

structures by reducing the continuity of load bearing material.
Discontinuities-Origin
CASTING

A scab is a surface discontinuity

that has a rough and porous
texture, usually with a
cavity underneath caused by
Cold Shut: stream of liquid metal solidifying refractory inclusion near the
on and not fusing with a previously solidified surface. Scabs are more commonly
part of the component. found in thin sections of castings.
Discontinuities-Origin
CASTING

Inclusions
http://www.mechanicalengineeringblog.com/tag/sand-casting-defects/
Discontinuities-Origin
WELDING DISCONTINUITIES
Concavity
Convexity
Discontinuities-Origin
WELDING DISCONTINUITIES
• Other discontinuities;
➢Hydrogen damage
H+H--->H2
In low strength and ductile material alloy
accommodate damage due to H2 bubbles.
In high strength alloys H2 bubbles will cause
cleavage and faracture called hydrogen cracking or
delayed cracking (Tip>wait before carrying NDT)
Discontinuities-Origin
WELDING DISCONTINUITIES

Lack of penetration in weld

Discontinuities-Origin
DISCONTINUITIES RESULTING FROM
PLASTIC DEFORMATION
• In Forging
➢ Burst: Stress exceeds the UTS >>material beaks apart,
this laod-induced cracking is called a burst
Discontinuities-Origin
CORROSION-INDUCED DISCONTINUITIES
• Pitting
• stress corrosion cracking
(SCC)
• intergranular stress
corrosion cracking
(IGSCC)
(inter or trans
granular) FIGURE 2-12 Corrosion
pit that penetrated a pipe
wall (5×). (Courtesy of R.
B. Pond, Jr.)
FIGURE 2-13 Stress corrosion
cracking in nickel alloy (200×).
(Courtesy of R. B. Pond, Jr.)
Discontinuities-Origin
OPERATIONALLY INDUCED
DISCONTINUITIES
• FATIGUE CRACKING

• Creep Cracks: The cracks are usually preceded by

discontinuities in the form
of creep voids, which are small and distributed
Discontinuities-Origin
OPERATIONALLY INDUCED
DISCONTINUITIES
• Brittle Fracture:
Causes
Microstructural change
Temperature change

FIGURE 2-16 “Rock candy” fracture surface of a grade 8

bolt cracked by hydrogen embrittlement.
(Courtesy of R. B. Pond, Jr.)

Grain boundary ppt. ,

brittle facture>>rock candy