University

A university (from Latin universitas 'a

whole') is an institution of higher (or
tertiary) education and research which
awards academic degrees in several
academic disciplines.[1] Universities
typically offer both undergraduate and
postgraduate programs. In the United
States, the designation is reserved for
colleges that have a graduate school.
 Alma Mater by Daniel Chester French,
Columbia University. The alma mater,
meaning "nourishing mother" in Latin, is one
of the most enduring symbols of the
university. The phrase was first used to
describe the University of Bologna, Italy,
founded in 1088.

The word university is derived from the

Latin universitas magistrorum et
scholarium, which roughly means
"community of teachers and scholars".[2]

The first universities in Europe were

established by Catholic Church
monks.[3][4][5][6][7] The University of Bologna
(Università di Bologna), Italy, which was
founded in 1088, is the first university in
the sense of:

Being a high degree-awarding institute.

Having independence from the
ecclesiastic schools, although
conducted by both clergy and non-
clergy.
Using the word universitas (which was
coined at its foundation).
Issuing secular and non-secular
degrees: grammar, rhetoric, logic,
 theology, canon law, notarial
law.[8][9][10][11][12]

History

The University of Bologna in Italy, founded in

1088, is the world's oldest university in
continuous operation.

Definition

The original Latin word universitas refers

in general to "a number of persons
associated into one body, a society,
company, community, guild, corporation,
etc".[13] At the time of the emergence of
urban town life and medieval guilds,
specialized "associations of students and
teachers with collective legal rights usually
guaranteed by charters issued by princes,
prelates, or the towns in which they were
located" came to be denominated by this
general term. Like other guilds, they were
self-regulating and determined the
qualifications of their members.[14]

In modern usage the word has come to

mean "An institution of higher education
offering tuition in mainly non-vocational
subjects and typically having the power to
confer degrees",[15] with the earlier
emphasis on its corporate organization
considered as applying historically to
Medieval universities.[16]

The original Latin word referred to degree-

awarding institutions of learning in
Western and Central Europe, where this
form of legal organisation was prevalent
and from where the institution spread
around the world.

Academic freedom

An important idea in the definition of a

university is the notion of academic
freedom. The first documentary evidence
of this comes from early in the life of the
University of Bologna, which adopted an
academic charter, the Constitutio
Habita,[17] in 1155 or 1158,[18] which
guaranteed the right of a traveling scholar
to unhindered passage in the interests of
education. Today this is claimed as the
origin of "academic freedom".[19] This is
now widely recognised internationally – on
18 September 1988, 430 university rectors
signed the Magna Charta
Universitatum,[20] marking the 900th
anniversary of Bologna's foundation. The
number of universities signing the Magna
Charta Universitatum continues to grow,
drawing from all parts of the world.
Antecedents

The Moroccan higher-learning institution Al-

Qarawiyin, founded in 859 A.D., was
transformed into a university under the
supervision of the Ministry of Education in
1963.[21]

An early institution often called a

university is the Harran University, founded
in the late 8th century.[22] Scholars
occasionally call the University of al-
Qarawiyyin (name given in 1963), founded
as a mosque by Fatima al-Fihri in 859, a
university,[23][24][25][26] although Jacques
Verger writes that this is done out of
scholarly convenience.[27] Several scholars
consider that al-Qarawiyyin was
founded[28][29] and run[21][30][31][32][33] as a
madrasa until after World War II. They date
the transformation of the madrasa of al-
Qarawiyyin into a university to its modern
reorganization in 1963.[34][35][21] In the
wake of these reforms, al-Qarawiyyin was
officially renamed "University of Al
Quaraouiyine" two years later.[34]

Some scholars, including George Makdisi,

have argued that early medieval
universities were influenced by the
madrasas in Al-Andalus, the Emirate of
Sicily, and the Middle East during the
Crusades.[36][37][38] Norman Daniel,
however, views this argument as
overstated.[39] In 2013, Roy Lowe and
Yoshihito claimed that the influences of
scholarship from the Islamic world on the
universities of Western Europe requires a
reconsideration of the development of
higher education, turning away from a
concern with local institutional structures
to a broader consideration within a global
context.[40]
Medieval Europe

Established in 1224 by Frederick II, Holy

Roman Emperor, University of Naples
Federico II in Italy is the world's oldest state-
funded university in continuous
operation.[41][42]

Although there are antecedents, the

modern university is generally regarded as
a formal institution that has its origin in
the Medieval Christian tradition.[43][44]
European higher education took place for
hundreds of years in cathedral schools or
monastic schools (scholae monasticae),
in which monks and nuns taught classes;
evidence of these immediate forerunners
of the later university at many places
dates back to the 6th century.[45] In Europe,
young men proceeded to university when
they had completed their study of the
trivium – the preparatory arts of grammar,
rhetoric and dialectic or logic–and the
quadrivium: arithmetic, geometry, music,
and astronomy.

The earliest universities were developed

under the aegis of the Latin Church by
papal bull as studia generalia and perhaps
from cathedral schools. It is possible,
however, that the development of
cathedral schools into universities was
quite rare, with the University of Paris
being an exception.[46] Later they were
also founded by kings - but with prior
papal approval.[47] (University of Naples
Federico II, Charles University in Prague,
Jagiellonian University in Kraków) or
municipal administrations (University of
Cologne, University of Erfurt). In the early
medieval period, most new universities
were founded from pre-existing schools,
usually when these schools were deemed
to have become primarily sites of higher
education. Many historians state that
universities and cathedral schools were a
continuation of the interest in learning
promoted by The residence of a religious
community.[48] Pope Gregory VII was
critical in promoting and regulating the
concept of modern university as his 1079
Papal Decree ordered the regulated
establishment of cathedral schools that
transformed themselves into the first
European universities.[49]

Meeting of doctors at the University of Paris.

From a medieval manuscript.
The first universities in Europe with a form
of corporate/guild structure were the
University of Bologna (1088), the
University of Paris (c. 1150, later
associated with the Sorbonne), and the
University of Oxford (1167). The University
of Bologna began as a law school
teaching the ius gentium or Roman law of
peoples which was in demand across
Europe for those defending the right of
incipient nations against empire and
church. Bologna's special claim to Alma
Mater Studiorum is based on its
autonomy, its awarding of degrees, and
other structural arrangements, making it
the oldest continuously operating
institution[18] independent of kings,
emperors or any kind of direct religious
authority.[50][51]

The conventional date of 1088, or 1087

according to some,[52] records when
Irnerius commences teaching Emperor
Justinian's 6th-century codification of
Roman law, the Corpus Iuris Civilis,
recently discovered at Pisa. Lay students
arrived in the city from many lands
entering into a contract to gain this
knowledge, organising themselves into
'Nationes', divided between that of the
Cismontanes and that of the
Ultramontanes. The students "had all the
power … and dominated the
masters".[53][54]

All over Europe rulers and city

governments began to create universities
to satisfy a European thirst for knowledge,
and the belief that society would benefit
from the scholarly expertise generated
from these institutions. Princes and
leaders of city governments perceived the
potential benefits of having a scholarly
expertise develop with the ability to
address difficult problems and achieve
desired ends. The emergence of
humanism was essential to this
understanding of the possible utility of
universities as well as the revival of
interest in knowledge gained from ancient
Greek texts.[55]

The recovery of Aristotle's works – more

than 3000 pages of it would eventually be
translated – fuelled a spirit of inquiry into
natural processes that had already begun
to emerge in the 12th century. Some
scholars believe that these works
represented one of the most important
document discoveries in Western
intellectual history.[56] Richard Dales, for
instance, calls the discovery of Aristotle's
works "a turning point in the history of
Western thought."[57] After Aristotle re-
emerged, a community of scholars,
primarily communicating in Latin,
accelerated the process and practice of
attempting to reconcile the thoughts of
Greek antiquity, and especially ideas
related to understanding the natural world,
with those of the church. The efforts of
this "scholasticism" were focused on
applying Aristotelian logic and thoughts
about natural processes to biblical
passages and attempting to prove the
viability of those passages through
reason. This became the primary mission
of lecturers, and the expectation of
students.
 The University of Oxford is the oldest
university in the English-speaking world.

The university culture developed

differently in northern Europe than it did in
the south, although the northern (primarily
Germany, France and Great Britain) and
southern universities (primarily Italy) did
have many elements in common. Latin
was the language of the university, used
for all texts, lectures, disputations and
examinations. Professors lectured on the
books of Aristotle for logic, natural
philosophy, and metaphysics; while
Hippocrates, Galen, and Avicenna were
used for medicine. Outside of these
commonalities, great differences
separated north and south, primarily in
subject matter. Italian universities focused
on law and medicine, while the northern
universities focused on the arts and
theology. There were distinct differences
in the quality of instruction in these areas
which were congruent with their focus, so
scholars would travel north or south based
on their interests and means. There was
also a difference in the types of degrees
awarded at these universities. English,
French and German universities usually
awarded bachelor's degrees, with the
exception of degrees in theology, for which
the doctorate was more common. Italian
universities awarded primarily doctorates.
The distinction can be attributed to the
intent of the degree holder after
graduation – in the north the focus tended
to be on acquiring teaching positions,
while in the south students often went on
to professional positions.[58] The structure
of northern universities tended to be
modeled after the system of faculty
governance developed at the University of
Paris. Southern universities tended to be
patterned after the student-controlled
model begun at the University of
Bologna.[59] Among the southern
universities, a further distinction has been
noted between those of northern Italy,
which followed the pattern of Bologna as a
"self-regulating, independent corporation
of scholars" and those of southern Italy
and Iberia, which were "founded by royal
and imperial charter to serve the needs of
government."[60]

Early modern universities

The University of St Andrews, founded in

1410, is Scotland's oldest university.[61][62]
During the Early Modern period
(approximately late 15th century to 1800),
the universities of Europe would see a
tremendous amount of growth,
productivity and innovative research. At
the end of the Middle Ages, about 400
years after the first European university
was founded, there were 29 universities
spread throughout Europe. In the 15th
century, 28 new ones were created, with
another 18 added between 1500 and
1625.[63] This pace continued until by the
end of the 18th century there were
approximately 143 universities in Europe,
with the highest concentrations in the
German Empire (34), Italian countries (26),
France (25), and Spain (23) – this was
close to a 500% increase over the number
of universities toward the end of the
Middle Ages. This number does not
include the numerous universities that
disappeared, or institutions that merged
with other universities during this time.[64]
The identification of a university was not
necessarily obvious during the Early
Modern period, as the term is applied to a
burgeoning number of institutions. In fact,
the term "university" was not always used
to designate a higher education institution.
In Mediterranean countries, the term
studium generale was still often used,
while "Academy" was common in Northern
European countries.[65]

The propagation of universities was not

necessarily a steady progression, as the
17th century was rife with events that
adversely affected university expansion.
Many wars, and especially the Thirty Years'
War, disrupted the university landscape
throughout Europe at different times. War,
plague, famine, regicide, and changes in
religious power and structure often
adversely affected the societies that
provided support for universities. Internal
strife within the universities themselves,
such as student brawling and absentee
professors, acted to destabilize these
institutions as well. Universities were also
reluctant to give up older curricula, and the
continued reliance on the works of
Aristotle defied contemporary
advancements in science and the arts.[66]
This era was also affected by the rise of
the nation-state. As universities
increasingly came under state control, or
formed under the auspices of the state,
the faculty governance model (begun by
the University of Paris) became more and
more prominent. Although the older
student-controlled universities still existed,
they slowly started to move toward this
structural organization. Control of
universities still tended to be independent,
although university leadership was
increasingly appointed by the state.[67]

Although the structural model provided by

the University of Paris, where student
members are controlled by faculty
"masters", provided a standard for
universities, the application of this model
took at least three different forms. There
were universities that had a system of
faculties whose teaching addressed a very
specific curriculum; this model tended to
train specialists. There was a collegiate or
tutorial model based on the system at
University of Oxford where teaching and
organization was decentralized and
knowledge was more of a generalist
nature. There were also universities that
combined these models, using the
collegiate model but having a centralized
organization.[68]

Old main building of the University of Basel –

Switzerland's oldest university (1460). The
university is among the birthplaces of
Renaissance humanism.
Early Modern universities initially
continued the curriculum and research of
the Middle Ages: natural philosophy, logic,
medicine, theology, mathematics,
astronomy, astrology, law, grammar and
rhetoric. Aristotle was prevalent
throughout the curriculum, while medicine
also depended on Galen and Arabic
scholarship. The importance of humanism
for changing this state-of-affairs cannot be
underestimated.[69] Once humanist
professors joined the university faculty,
they began to transform the study of
grammar and rhetoric through the studia
humanitatis. Humanist professors focused
on the ability of students to write and
speak with distinction, to translate and
interpret classical texts, and to live
honorable lives.[70] Other scholars within
the university were affected by the
humanist approaches to learning and their
linguistic expertise in relation to ancient
texts, as well as the ideology that
advocated the ultimate importance of
those texts.[71] Professors of medicine
such as Niccolò Leoniceno, Thomas
Linacre and William Cop were often
trained in and taught from a humanist
perspective as well as translated
important ancient medical texts. The
critical mindset imparted by humanism
was imperative for changes in universities
and scholarship. For instance, Andreas
Vesalius was educated in a humanist
fashion before producing a translation of
Galen, whose ideas he verified through his
own dissections. In law, Andreas Alciatus
infused the Corpus Juris with a humanist
perspective, while Jacques Cujas
humanist writings were paramount to his
reputation as a jurist. Philipp Melanchthon
cited the works of Erasmus as a highly
influential guide for connecting theology
back to original texts, which was important
for the reform at Protestant universities.[72]
Galileo Galilei, who taught at the
Universities of Pisa and Padua, and Martin
Luther, who taught at the University of
Wittenberg (as did Melanchthon), also had
humanist training. The task of the
humanists was to slowly permeate the
university; to increase the humanist
presence in professorships and chairs,
syllabi and textbooks so that published
works would demonstrate the humanistic
ideal of science and scholarship.[73]

17th-century classroom at the University of

Salamanca
Although the initial focus of the humanist
scholars in the university was the
discovery, exposition and insertion of
ancient texts and languages into the
university, and the ideas of those texts into
society generally, their influence was
ultimately quite progressive. The
emergence of classical texts brought new
ideas and led to a more creative university
climate (as the notable list of scholars
above attests to). A focus on knowledge
coming from self, from the human, has a
direct implication for new forms of
scholarship and instruction, and was the
foundation for what is commonly known
as the humanities. This disposition toward
knowledge manifested in not simply the
translation and propagation of ancient
texts, but also their adaptation and
expansion. For instance, Vesalius was
imperative for advocating the use of Galen,
but he also invigorated this text with
experimentation, disagreements and
further research.[74] The propagation of
these texts, especially within the
universities, was greatly aided by the
emergence of the printing press and the
beginning of the use of the vernacular,
which allowed for the printing of relatively
large texts at reasonable prices.[75]
Examining the influence of humanism on
scholars in medicine, mathematics,
astronomy and physics may suggest that
humanism and universities were a strong
impetus for the scientific revolution.
Although the connection between
humanism and the scientific discovery
may very well have begun within the
confines of the university, the connection
has been commonly perceived as having
been severed by the changing nature of
science during the Scientific Revolution.
Historians such as Richard S. Westfall
have argued that the overt traditionalism
of universities inhibited attempts to re-
conceptualize nature and knowledge and
caused an indelible tension between
universities and scientists.[76] This
resistance to changes in science may have
been a significant factor in driving many
scientists away from the university and
toward private benefactors, usually in
princely courts, and associations with
newly forming scientific societies.[77]

Other historians find incongruity in the

proposition that the very place where the
vast number of the scholars that
influenced the scientific revolution
received their education should also be the
place that inhibits their research and the
advancement of science. In fact, more
than 80% of the European scientists
between 1450 and 1650 included in the
Dictionary of Scientific Biography were
university trained, of which approximately
45% held university posts.[78] It was the
case that the academic foundations
remaining from the Middle Ages were
stable, and they did provide for an
environment that fostered considerable
growth and development. There was
considerable reluctance on the part of
universities to relinquish the symmetry
and comprehensiveness provided by the
Aristotelian system, which was effective
as a coherent system for understanding
and interpreting the world. However,
university professors still have some
autonomy, at least in the sciences, to
choose epistemological foundations and
methods. For instance, Melanchthon and
his disciples at University of Wittenberg
were instrumental for integrating
Copernican mathematical constructs into
astronomical debate and instruction.[79]
Another example was the short-lived but
fairly rapid adoption of Cartesian
epistemology and methodology in
European universities, and the debates
surrounding that adoption, which led to
more mechanistic approaches to scientific
problems as well as demonstrated an
openness to change. There are many
examples which belie the commonly
perceived intransigence of universities.[80]
Although universities may have been slow
to accept new sciences and
methodologies as they emerged, when
they did accept new ideas it helped to
convey legitimacy and respectability, and
supported the scientific changes through
providing a stable environment for
instruction and material resources.[81]

Regardless of the way the tension

between universities, individual scientists,
and the scientific revolution itself is
perceived, there was a discernible impact
on the way that university education was
constructed. Aristotelian epistemology
provided a coherent framework not simply
for knowledge and knowledge
construction, but also for the training of
scholars within the higher education
setting. The creation of new scientific
constructs during the scientific revolution,
and the epistemological challenges that
were inherent within this creation, initiated
the idea of both the autonomy of science
and the hierarchy of the disciplines.
Instead of entering higher education to
become a "general scholar" immersed in
becoming proficient in the entire
curriculum, there emerged a type of
scholar that put science first and viewed it
as a vocation in itself. The divergence
between those focused on science and
those still entrenched in the idea of a
general scholar exacerbated the
epistemological tensions that were
already beginning to emerge.[82]

The epistemological tensions between

scientists and universities were also
heightened by the economic realities of
research during this time, as individual
scientists, associations and universities
were vying for limited resources. There
was also competition from the formation
of new colleges funded by private
benefactors and designed to provide free
education to the public, or established by
local governments to provide a knowledge-
hungry populace with an alternative to
traditional universities.[83] Even when
universities supported new scientific
endeavors, and the university provided
foundational training and authority for the
research and conclusions, they could not
compete with the resources available
through private benefactors.[84]

By the end of the early modern period, the

structure and orientation of higher
education had changed in ways that are
eminently recognizable for the modern
context. Aristotle was no longer a force
providing the epistemological and
methodological focus for universities and
a more mechanistic orientation was
emerging. The hierarchical place of
theological knowledge had for the most
part been displaced and the humanities
had become a fixture, and a new openness
was beginning to take hold in the
construction and dissemination of
knowledge that were to become
imperative for the formation of the modern
state.
Modern universities

King's College London, established by Royal

Charter having been founded by King George
IV and Duke of Wellington in 1829, is one of
the founding colleges of the University of
London.

Modern universities constitute a guild or

quasi-guild system. This facet of the
university system did not change due to its
peripheral standing in an industrialized
economy; as commerce developed
between towns in Europe during the
Middle Ages, though other guilds stood in
the way of developing commerce and
therefore were eventually abolished, the
scholars guild did not. According to
historian Elliot Krause, "The university and
scholars' guilds held onto their power over
membership, training, and workplace
because early capitalism was not
interested in it."[85]

By the 18th century, universities published

their own research journals and by the
19th century, the German and the French
university models had arisen. The German,
or Humboldtian model, was conceived by
Wilhelm von Humboldt and based on
Friedrich Schleiermacher's liberal ideas
pertaining to the importance of freedom,
seminars, and laboratories in universities.
The French university model involved strict
discipline and control over every aspect of
the university.

Until the 19th century, religion played a

significant role in university curriculum;
however, the role of religion in research
universities decreased during that century.
By the end of the 19th century, the German
university model had spread around the
world. Universities concentrated on
science in the 19th and 20th centuries and
became increasingly accessible to the
masses. In the United States, the Johns
Hopkins University was the first to adopt
the (German) research university model
and pioneered the adoption of that model
by most American universities. When
Johns Hopkins was founded in 1876,
"nearly the entire faculty had studied in
Germany."[86] In Britain, the move from
Industrial Revolution to modernity saw the
arrival of new civic universities with an
emphasis on science and engineering, a
movement initiated in 1960 by Sir Keith
Murray (chairman of the University Grants
Committee) and Sir Samuel Curran, with
the formation of the University of
Strathclyde.[87] The British also established
universities worldwide, and higher
education became available to the masses
not only in Europe.

In 1963, the Robbins Report on universities

in the United Kingdom concluded that
such institutions should have four main
"objectives essential to any properly
balanced system: instruction in skills; the
promotion of the general powers of the
mind so as to produce not mere
specialists but rather cultivated men and
women; to maintain research in balance
with teaching, since teaching should not
be separated from the advancement of
learning and the search for truth; and to
transmit a common culture and common
standards of citizenship."[88]

In the early 21st century, concerns were

raised over the increasing
managerialisation and standardisation of
universities worldwide. Neo-liberal
management models have in this sense
been critiqued for creating "corporate
universities (where) power is transferred
from faculty to managers, economic
justifications dominate, and the familiar
'bottom line' eclipses pedagogical or
intellectual concerns".[89] Academics'
understanding of time, pedagogical
pleasure, vocation, and collegiality have
been cited as possible ways of alleviating
such problems.[90]

National universities

Peking University in Beijing was founded as

the Imperial University of Peking.

A national university is generally a

university created or run by a national
state but at the same time represents a
state autonomic institution which
functions as a completely independent
body inside of the same state. Some
national universities are closely
associated with national cultural, religious
or political aspirations, for instance the
National University of Ireland, which
formed partly from the Catholic University
of Ireland which was created almost
immediately and specifically in answer to
the non-denominational universities which
had been set up in Ireland in 1850. In the
years leading up to the Easter Rising, and
in no small part a result of the Gaelic
Romantic revivalists, the NUI collected a
large amount of information on the Irish
language and Irish culture. Reforms in
Argentina were the result of the University
Revolution of 1918 and its posterior
reforms by incorporating values that
sought for a more equal and laic higher
education system.

Intergovernmental universities

Universities created by bilateral or

multilateral treaties between states are
intergovernmental. An example is the
Academy of European Law, which offers
training in European law to lawyers, judges,
barristers, solicitors, in-house counsel and
academics. EUCLID (Pôle Universitaire
Euclide, Euclid University) is chartered as a
university and umbrella organization
dedicated to sustainable development in
signatory countries, and the United
Nations University engages in efforts to
resolve the pressing global problems that
are of concern to the United Nations, its
peoples and member states. The
European University Institute, a post-
graduate university specialized in the
social sciences, is officially an
intergovernmental organization, set up by
the member states of the European Union.

Organization

The University of Sydney is Australia's oldest

university.

Although each institution is organized

differently, nearly all universities have a
board of trustees; a president, chancellor,
or rector; at least one vice president, vice-
chancellor, or vice-rector; and deans of
various divisions. Universities are generally
divided into a number of academic
departments, schools or faculties. Public
university systems are ruled over by
government-run higher education boards.
They review financial requests and budget
proposals and then allocate funds for each
university in the system. They also
approve new programs of instruction and
cancel or make changes in existing
programs. In addition, they plan for the
further coordinated growth and
development of the various institutions of
higher education in the state or country.
However, many public universities in the
world have a considerable degree of
financial, research and pedagogical
autonomy. Private universities are privately
funded and generally have broader
independence from state policies.
However, they may have less
independence from business corporations
depending on the source of their finances.
Around the world

The University of Virginia in Charlottesville,

Virginia, in the United States was founded in
1819 by American founding father Thomas
Jefferson.

The funding and organization of

universities varies widely between
different countries around the world. In
some countries universities are
predominantly funded by the state, while in
others funding may come from donors or
from fees which students attending the
university must pay. In some countries the
vast majority of students attend university
in their local town, while in other countries
universities attract students from all over
the world, and may provide university
accommodation for their students.[91]

Classification

Interior of the National Library of Finland,

which is part of the University of Helsinki.

The definition of a university varies widely,

even within some countries. Where there
is clarification, it is usually set by a
government agency. For example:
In Australia, the Tertiary Education Quality
and Standards Agency (TEQSA) is
Australia's independent national regulator
of the higher education sector. Students
rights within university are also protected
by the Education Services for Overseas
Students Act (ESOS).

In the United States there is no nationally

standardized definition for the term
university, although the term has
traditionally been used to designate
research institutions and was once
reserved for doctorate-granting research
institutions. Some states, such as
Massachusetts, will only grant a school
"university status" if it grants at least two
doctoral degrees.[92]

In the United Kingdom, the Privy Council is

responsible for approving the use of the
word university in the name of an
institution, under the terms of the Further
and Higher Education Act 1992.[93]

In India, a new designation deemed

universities has been created for
institutions of higher education that are
not universities, but work at a very high
standard in a specific area of study ("An
Institution of Higher Education, other than
universities, working at a very high
standard in specific area of study, can be
declared by the Central Government on the
advice of the University Grants
Commission as an Institution (Deemed-to-
be-university). Institutions that are
'deemed-to-be-university' enjoy the
academic status and the privileges of a
university.[94] Through this provision many
schools that are commercial in nature and
have been established just to exploit the
demand for higher education have sprung
up.[95]

In Canada, college generally refers to a

two-year, non-degree-granting institution,
while university connotes a four-year,
degree-granting institution. Universities
may be sub-classified (as in the Macleans
rankings) into large research universities
with many PhD-granting programs and
medical schools (for example, McGill
University); "comprehensive" universities
that have some PhDs but are not geared
toward research (such as Waterloo); and
smaller, primarily undergraduate
universities (such as St. Francis Xavier).

In Germany, universities are institutions of

higher education which have the power to
confer bachelor, master and PhD degrees.
They are explicitly recognised as such by
law and cannot be founded without
government approval. The term Universität
(i.e. the German term for university) is
protected by law and any use without
official approval is a criminal offense.
Most of them are public institutions,
though a few private universities exist.
Such universities are always research
universities. Apart from these universities,
Germany has other institutions of higher
education (Hochschule, Fachhochschule).
Fachhochschule means a higher
education institution which is similar to
the former polytechnics in the British
education system, the English term used
for these German institutions is usually
'university of applied sciences'. They can
confer master's degrees but no PhDs. They
are similar to the model of teaching
universities with less research and the
research undertaken being highly
practical. Hochschule can refer to various
kinds of institutions, often specialised in a
certain field (e.g. music, fine arts,
business). They might or might not have
the power to award PhD degrees,
depending on the respective government
legislation. If they award PhD degrees,
their rank is considered equivalent to that
of universities proper (Universität), if not,
their rank is equivalent to universities of
applied sciences.
Colloquial usage
Colloquially, the term university may be
used to describe a phase in one's life:
"When I was at university..." (in the United
States and Ireland, college is often used
instead: "When I was in college..."). In
Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Canada,
the United Kingdom, Nigeria, the
Netherlands, Spain and the German-
speaking countries, university is often
contracted to uni. In Ghana, New Zealand,
Bangladesh and in South Africa it is
sometimes called "varsity" (although this
has become uncommon in New Zealand in
recent years). "Varsity" was also common
usage in the UK in the 19th century.

Cost
In many countries, students are required to
pay tuition fees. Many students look to get
'student grants' to cover the cost of
university. In 2016, the average
outstanding student loan balance per
borrower in the United States was
US$30,000.[96] In many U.S. states, costs
are anticipated to rise for students as a
result of decreased state funding given to
public universities.[97] Many universities in
the United States offer students the
opportunity to apply for financial
scholarships to help pay for tuition based
on academic achievement.

There are several major exceptions on

tuition fees. In many European countries, it
is possible to study without tuition fees.
Public universities in Nordic countries
were entirely without tuition fees until
around 2005. Denmark, Sweden and
Finland then moved to put in place tuition
fees for foreign students. Citizens of EU
and EEA member states and citizens from
Switzerland remain exempted from tuition
fees, and the amounts of public grants
granted to promising foreign students
were increased to offset some of the
impact.[98] The situation in Germany is
similar; public universities usually do not
charge tuition fees apart from a small
administrative fee. For degrees of a
postgraduate professional level
sometimes tuition fees are levied. Private
universities, however, almost always
charge tuition fees.

See also
Alternative university
Alumni
Ancient higher-learning institutions
Catholic university
College and university rankings
Corporate university
International university
Land-grant university
Liberal arts college
List of academic disciplines
Lists of universities and colleges
Pontifical university
Research university
School and university in literature
Science tourism
UnCollege
University student retention
University system
 Urban university

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54113-1.
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21. Belhachmi, Zakia: "Gender, Education, and
Feminist Knowledge in al-Maghrib (North
Africa) – 1950–70", Journal of Middle
Eastern and North African Intellectual and
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(65):

The Adjustments of Original

Institutions of the Higher
Learning: the Madrasah.
Significantly, the institutional
adjustments of the madrasahs
affected both the structure and
the content of these
institutions. In terms of
structure, the adjustments were
twofold: the reorganization of
the available original madaris
and the creation of new
institutions. This resulted in
two different types of Islamic
teaching institutions in al-
Maghrib. The first type was
derived from the fusion of old
madaris with new universities.
For example, Morocco
transformed Al-Qarawiyin (859
A.D.) into a university under
the supervision of the ministry
of education in 1963.
22. Frew, Donald (1999). "Harran: Last Refuge
of Classical Paganism" (https://journal.eq
uinoxpub.com/POM/article/view/2691) .
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g/10.1558%2Fpome.v13i9.17) .
23. Verger, Jacques: "Patterns", in: Ridder-
Symoens, Hilde de (ed.): A History of the
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pp. 35–76 (35)
24. Esposito, John (2003). The Oxford
Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University
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25. Joseph, S, and Najmabadi, A.
Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic
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and space. Brill, 2003, p. 314.
26. Swartley, Keith. Encountering the World of
Islam. Authentic, 2005, p. 74.
27. A History of the University in Europe. Vol. I:
Universities in the Middle Ages.
Cambridge University Press, 2003, 35
28. Petersen, Andrew: Dictionary of Islamic
Architecture, Routledge, 1996, ISBN 978-0-
415-06084-4, p. 87 (entry "Fez"):

The Quaraouiyine Mosque,

founded in 859, is the most
famous mosque of Morocco and
attracted continuous
investment by Muslim rulers.
29. Lulat, Y. G.-M.: A History Of African Higher
Education From Antiquity To The Present:
A Critical Synthesis Studies in Higher
Education, Greenwood Publishing Group,
2005, ISBN 978-0-313-32061-3, p. 70:

As for the nature of its

curriculum, it was typical of
other major madrasahs such as
al-Azhar and Al Quaraouiyine,
though many of the texts used
at the institution came from
Muslim Spain...Al Quaraouiyine
began its life as a small mosque
constructed in 859 C.E. by
means of an endowment
bequeathed by a wealthy
woman of much piety, Fatima
bint Muhammed al-Fahri.
30. Shillington, Kevin: Encyclopedia of African
History, Vol. 2, Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005,
ISBN 978-1-57958-245-6, p. 1025:

Higher education has always

been an integral part of
Morocco, going back to the
ninth century when the
Karaouine Mosque was
established. The madrasa,
known today as Al
Qayrawaniyan University,
became part of the state
university system in 1947.

They consider institutions like al-

Qarawiyyin to be higher education
colleges of Islamic law where other
subjects were only of secondary
importance.
31. Pedersen, J.; Rahman, Munibur;
Hillenbrand, R.: "Madrasa", in
Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd edition, Brill,
2010:

Madrasa, in modern usage, the

name of an institution of
learning where the Islamic
sciences are taught, i.e. a
college for higher studies, as
opposed to an elementary
school of traditional type
(kuttab); in medieval usage,
essentially a college of law in
which the other Islamic
sciences, including literary and
philosophical ones, were
ancillary subjects only.
32. Meri, Josef W. (ed.): Medieval Islamic
Civilization: An Encyclopedia, Vol. 1, A–K,
Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-96691-7,
p. 457 (entry "madrasa"):

A madrasa is a college of
Islamic law. The madrasa was
an educational institution in
which Islamic law (fiqh) was
taught according to one or
more Sunni rites: Maliki,
Shafi'i, Hanafi, or Hanbali. It
was supported by an
endowment or charitable trust
(waqf) that provided for at
least one chair for one
professor of law, income for
other faculty or staff,
scholarships for students, and
funds for the maintenance of
the building. Madrasas
contained lodgings for the
professor and some of his
students. Subjects other than
law were frequently taught in
madrasas, and even Sufi
seances were held in them, but
there could be no madrasa
without law as technically the
major subject.
33. Makdisi, George: "Madrasa and University
in the Middle Ages", Studia Islamica, No.
32 (1970), pp. 255–264 (255f.):

In studying an institution
which is foreign and remote in
point of time, as is the case of
the medieval madrasa, one
runs the double risk of
attributing to it characteristics
borrowed from one's own
institutions and one's own
times. Thus gratuitous
transfers may be made from
one culture to the other, and
the time factor may be ignored
or dismissed as being without
significance. One cannot
therefore be too careful in
attempting a comparative
study of these two institutions:
the madrasa and the university.
But in spite of the pitfalls
inherent in such a study, albeit
sketchy, the results which may
be obtained are well worth the
risks involved. In any case, one
cannot avoid making
comparisons when certain
unwarranted statements have
already been made and seem to
be currently accepted without
 question. The most
unwarranted of these
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"university".
34. Lulat, Y. G.-M.: A History Of African Higher
Education From Antiquity To The Present:
A Critical Synthesis, Greenwood
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35. Park, Thomas K.; Boum, Aomar: Historical
Dictionary of Morocco, 2nd ed., Scarecrow
Press, 2006, ISBN 978-0-8108-5341-6,
p. 348

al-qarawiyin is the oldest

university in Morocco. It was
founded as a mosque in Fès in
the middle of the ninth century.
It has been a destination for
students and scholars of
Islamic sciences and Arabic
studies throughout the history
of Morocco. There were also
other religious schools like the
madras of ibn yusuf and other
schools in the sus. This system
of basic education called al-
ta'lim al-aSil was funded by the
sultans of Morocco and many
famous traditional families.
After independence, al-
qarawiyin maintained its
reputation, but it seemed
important to transform it into a
university that would prepare
graduates for a modern
country while maintaining an
emphasis on Islamic studies.
Hence, al-qarawiyin university
was founded in February 1963
and, while the dean's residence
was kept in Fès, the new
university initially had four
colleges located in major
regions of the country known
for their religious influences
and madrasas. These colleges
were kuliyat al-shari's in Fès,
kuliyat uSul al-din in Tétouan,
kuliyat al-lugha al-'arabiya in
Marrakech (all founded in
1963), and kuliyat al-shari'a in
Ait Melloul near Agadir, which
was founded in 1979.
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Further reading
Aronowitz, Stanley (2000). The
Knowledge Factory: Dismantling the
Corporate University and Creating True
Higher Learning. Boston: Beacon Press.
ISBN 978-0-8070-3122-3.
Barrow, Clyde W. (1990). Universities
and the Capitalist State: Corporate
Liberalism and the Reconstruction of
American Higher Education, 1894–1928.
Madison, Wis: University of Wisconsin
Press. ISBN 978-0-299-12400-7.
Diamond, Sigmund (1992).
Compromised Campus: The
Collaboration of Universities with the
Intelligence Community, 1945–1955.
New York, NY: Oxford Univ. Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-505382-1.
Pedersen, Olaf (1997). The First
Universities: Studium Generale and the
Origins of University Education in
Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ.
Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59431-8.
Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de, ed. (1992). A
History of the University in Europe.
Vol. 1: Universities in the Middle Ages.
Rüegg, Walter (general ed.). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-
0-521-36105-7.
Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de, ed. (1996). A
History of the University in Europe.
Vol. 2: Universities in Early Modern
Europe (1500–1800). Rüegg, Walter
(general ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36106-
4.
 Rüegg, Walter, ed. (2004). A History of
the University in Europe. Vol. 3:
Universities in the Nineteenth and Early
Twentieth Centuries (1800–1945).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 978-0-521-36107-1.
Segre, Michael (2015). Higher Education
and the Growth of Knowledge: A
Historical Outline of Aims and Tensions.
New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-
73566-7.

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