Cogent Arts & Humanities

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Exploring the evolution of functional linguistics:

linking Arabic theoretical linguistics with modern
linguistics

Albatool Abalkheel & Maha Sourani

To cite this article: Albatool Abalkheel & Maha Sourani (2023) Exploring the evolution of
functional linguistics: linking Arabic theoretical linguistics with modern linguistics, Cogent Arts
& Humanities, 10:1, 2207264, DOI: 10.1080/23311983.2023.2207264
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2023.2207264

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Abalkheel & Sourani, Cogent Arts & Humanities (2023), 10: 2207264
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2023.2207264
Received: 08 March 2023
Accepted: 22 April 2023
*Corresponding author: Albatool
Abalkheel, Department of English
Language and Translation, College of
Arabic Language and Social Studies,
Qassim University, Buraydah,
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
E-mail: a.abalkheel@qu.edu.sa
Reviewing editor:
Jeroen van de Weijer, School of
Foreign Languages, Shenzhen
University, China
Additional information is available at
the end of the article
LINGUISTICS | REVIEW ARTICLE
Exploring the evolution of functional linguistics:
linking Arabic theoretical linguistics with modern
linguistics
Albatool Abalkheel1* and Maha Sourani2
Abstract: The objective of this research is to establish a connection between Arabic
theoretical linguistics and modern linguistics, taking a different approach from the
common assumption that later theories are solely attributed to Arab grammarians
and rhetoricians. To achieve this, the study will examine Arab linguistic achieve-
ments from a modern perspective and highlight commonalities and differences
between past and present linguistic theories. Additionally, the research will delve
into the Arab understanding of functional grammar and the significant contribu-
tions made by ancient grammarians in this area, while also reviewing the evolution
of functional theory in the West from its inception until its final formulation .
Furthermore, this study will undertake an analytical review of the most significant
theories that emerged after Jakobson, to identify gaps and opportunities for further
development. The research findings reveal that modern linguists continue to evolve
their theories, in contrast to the stunted evolution of Arab heritage due to
a reverence for tradition and fear of change. As a result, the research calls for the
development of early Arab linguists, whose contributions served as the foundation
for language theories in general and linguistics in particular.
Subjects: Grammar, Syntax & Linguistic Structure; Historical & Comparative Linguistics;
Semiotics; Sociolinguistics
Keywords: Functional linguistics, grammar; linguistic message, sentence; syntax; literature
review, meta-analysis, identity
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Albatool Abalkheel is an Associate Professor of Linguistics at the Department of English and
Translation, College of Arabic Language and Social Studies, Buraydah, Qassim University, Saudi
Arabia. She received her MA degree in English from Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO., USA.
She then received her Ph.D. from Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, USA. She published several
papers related to linguistics and presented some papers in conferences.
Maha Sourani is a Professor of applied linguistics and educational technology with 10+ years of
experience in higher education at the Lebanese University. Examiner of paper rank promotions,
mentor, and reviewer for Ph.D. and MA dissertations. Coordinator and curriculum developer for
under/graduate courses in the field. Editor and reviewer for many local and international peer-
reviewed journals. Interested in MOOC, educational foundation and administration, artificial intelli-
gence, curriculum and instruction, computational/socio/psycho/applied linguistics, language acquisi-
tion, morphology, language assessment, CALL, TEFL, EAP, and TESOL.
© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribu-
tion, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. The terms on
which this article has been published allow the posting of the Accepted Manuscript in a
repository by the author(s) or with their consent.
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1. Introduction: The functions of language in the Arab linguistic heritage

Linguistics is a discipline that has undergone significant evolution throughout history. Despite this,
there is a common misconception that modern linguistic theories are solely attributed to Western
linguists, while Arab linguists are disregarded. This misconception stems from a lack of linkage
between Arabic theoretical linguistics and modern linguistics. Therefore, the context of this
research is to establish this linkage by exploring Arab linguistic achievements from a modern
perspective and highlighting commonalities and differences between past and present linguistic
theories.

Additionally, this research aims to focus on the Arab understanding of the concept of functional
grammar and review the most important statements of ancient grammarians in this field. It will
also analyze the evolution of functional theory in the West from its inception until its final
formulation . The rationale for this research is to address gaps in knowledge and understanding
of the development of linguistics and to acknowledge the contributions of Arab linguists to the
field.

This study does not claim that ancient Arabs preceded Western linguists, addressed their
theories, and presented their ideas. This work does not attribute the views of Saussure (1916) to
Ibn Jinni (2003), 2000 but rather, through defining language in the books of tradition, one finds an
understanding and knowledge of its role. Although the ancient Arab linguists did not hassle to
define language and establish comprehensive definitions in this field, it is possible to trace some of
the definitions with a very advanced linguistic view for their time, and not less important than the
linguistic views currently prevalent in the field of linguistics.

Ibn Jinni (2003, p. 6) defined language as “the sounds through which every nation expresses
their purposes”. As for Al-Jahiz (2000, p. 6), he defined language in the following way: “Language is
an instrument of expression because the matter revolves around expression, clarification, under-
standing, and comprehension.” It is consistent with André Martinet’s definition of language:
“Language is a system of signs that allows a community of speakers to communicate with each
other. It is a symbolic, arbitrary, and conventional communication system, and it consists of a set
of rules that govern the use of sounds, words, and grammar to produce and understand mean-
ingful utterances (1960 p.9).”

In fact, the Arabs have taken a great interest in linguistic studies, and no one can deny the effort
they have made in this field, including a great deal of research, investigation, and care in collecting
language words, classifying them, interpreting them, studying the structure of words and their
functions within the system, and setting the foundations of language and deducing general rules
(Visonà & Plensky, 2020). However, it can be observed that they did not often stop at researching
meticulously how to define language rather it came smoothly through their study of some
linguistic issues.

Following Al-Farabi, Ibn Khaldun (n.d..) defined language as the expression of the speaker’s
intent. This expression is a linguistic act arising from the intention to produce speech. Therefore, it
must become an established possession in the active organ for it, which is the tongue. And it is
different in every nation according to its terminology. Ibn Khaldun continues: “The speaker intends,
through speech, to fully inform the listener of what is in his mind and to indicate it to him (p.118).”
If one looks closely at this definition, one can notice a modern linguistic element. The hearer’s
understanding of what is in the speaker’s mind is nothing, but the expressive function of language
in modern times. That is, language is a medium possessed by the language speaker and through
which he expresses his views, requirements, and sensations. The claim of Ibn Khaldun “the
speaker’s statement about his intended meaning” is simply what the speaker intends to convey
to the hearer. This is the referential function in modern linguistics, while the speaker’s under-
standing is nothing, but the information and news conveyed by the speaker to the hearer (cited in
Hébert & Tabler, 2019). That is the basic function of the communicative linguistic process.

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After displaying the definitions of language according to ancient Arab linguists and originating
the linguistic principles related to the function of language and its role in human society, this work
will expose a topic that combines the heritage of original Arabic grammar with the discussions of
important contemporary linguists. That meets with the main contemporary linguists, which forms
the first image of research in the linguistic function of grammar, especially according to Ibn Jinni,
and Abdulqahir al-Jurjani.

This research does not aim to ride the current wave of research on Arabic linguistic and
rhetorical heritage by attributing any modern linguistic school or philosophical theory to an old
Arabic grammar or linguistics, but rather the issue goes beyond that to prove that the ancient
Arabs did not only develop a linguistic thought but also possessed linguistic thinking tools that
surpassed those of other nations and peoples in their study of language beyond its descriptive and
standard aspects. They had a linguistic understanding of the literary meaning of language, its
intellectual and social functions, and its communicative role. This research does not seek to prove
that modern linguists have benefited from the efforts of the Arabs, but rather to show that
Western linguistic work came independently of the efforts of the ancient ones, especially the
Arabs, and that modern linguists have developed new linguistic thinking tools that are distin-
guished by their focus on language not only in terms of its form but also in terms of its functional
structure, which is what the ancient Arabs and rhetoricians perceived.

This study raises several questions, the chief of which are: What is the theory of functional
grammar? What are its most important elements? To what extent does the Arabic heritage of
linguistics intersect with modern linguistics in the era of language function?

2. Literature review

2.1. Exploring the intersection of Arab and modern linguists in the context of functional
linguistics
The Arabic heritage of linguistics intersects with modern linguistics in the era of language function
to a significant extent, reflecting the dynamic and evolving nature of linguistic research and
theory. Despite the differences between the two traditions, both the Arabic heritage of linguistics
and modern linguistics have been highly influential in shaping the development of linguistic theory
and have had a lasting impact on the study of language.

2.2. Ibn Jinni

Although Ibn Jinni lived in the Islamic Golden Age, over a thousand years ago, his ideas on
grammar and syntax, as well as his functional approach to the study of language, have had
a lasting impact on the development of the modern linguistic theory (Ryding, 2014).

One of the key ways in which the Arabic heritage of linguistics intersects with modern linguistics
is through its emphasis on the study of grammar and syntax. The Arab linguistic tradition, of which
Ibn Jinni was a part, placed a high value on the study of grammar and syntax, and his ideas on
these subjects have influenced the development of modern linguistic theories of grammar and
syntax.

Another way in which the Arabic heritage of linguistics intersects with modern linguistics is
through its functional approach to the study of language. Like modern linguistics, Ibn Jinni
emphasized the importance of understanding how language is used in context, and his functional
approach to the study of language has been highly influential in shaping the development of
functional approaches to the study of language in modern linguistics.

It is worth noting that Ibn Jinni (2003) approached the concept of the functions of language by
explaining the relationship between the word and its meaning, the relationship between words,
and the relationship between letters, and he dedicated chapters to their characteristics (Sak,

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2019). He emphasized that Arabs pay attention to the structure and order of their words because
this is their way of expressing their purposes and meanings.

In the context of Arab bravery, Ibn Jinni believes that writing according to the Arab system leads
to a clear message, and he also asserts that the Arabic language relies on presentation, delay,
separation, connection, and the conveyance of meaning. He also mentions that Arabs may resort
to the quirky style to convey a specific meaning (Othman et al., 2022). Many verbal debates were
registered between some poets and grammarians on this issue, as the grammarians accused
these poets of weakness in language and prosody, while these poets considered the grammarians
to be pedantic and unable to understand the meanings of poetry.

In this way, Ibn Jinni connects inflection with the functional meanings of the parts of the speech
context. Thus, one understands that inflection is at the service of language and speech, under-
standing and communication, and its function is nothing but to reveal the hidden content of the
Arab’s speech. Ibn Jinni (2003) asserts: “It is the speaker himself who raises, lowers, and connects,
as he clarifies the meanings he wants with words (p.140).” Therefore, inflection is a means among
the means used by the sender to convey his message to the recipients, specifying the linguistic
functions that express the intentions of the speaker.

Overall, the encounter and mutual influences between Ibn Jinni’s functional linguistic theory
and modern linguistic theory in the West reflect the dynamic and evolving nature of linguistic
research and theory. Despite their differences, both traditions have been highly influential in
shaping the development of linguistic theory and have had a lasting impact on the study of
language.

2.3 Abdulqahar al-jurjani

Grammarians viewed “grammar” as a science with a function and purpose, which is to facilitate
communication between the sender and the recipient, and therefore the basic function of gram-
mar is to create understanding and comprehension between the interlocutors (Wahba, 2022). In
this way, the grammarians of the past viewed grammar as a small part of the whole which is
language.

Imam Abdulqahar al-Jurjani viewed grammar from a comprehensive wholistic angle, linking the
agent to the norm, and viewed the speech as a whole entity that is not divisible but rather the
grammar serves the communication process, he emphasized that speech context does not come
from about except through knowledge of the inflectional signs in the structure, which are nothing
but factors for the sender’s language to be understood by the recipients. He composed (2002,
p.353):

And know that what you see as the necessity of ordering words and their succession on
specific systems, is not what you intended by thinking, but rather it is something that occurs
due to the first necessity in terms of words if they are capable of meaning, they necessarily
follow the meanings in their places.

Jurjani determined the meaning of grammar and gave it the communicative property. Likewise,
Abdul Salam Al-Msadi (n.d..) emphasized the approach that the Jurjani followed in determining the
absorptive capacity of grammar and placing it in the first rank for nothing but because it expresses
the speaker’s goals, the sender’s objectives, and the communication process. As for the verbal
concern, Wahba (2022) asserts that Al-Jurjani foregrounded the importance of the speaker know-
ing the content of the speech for it to be beneficial, for the understanding to reach the recipient
quickly and easily, and for the law of proportionality between the energy of the statement in
speech and the knowledge of the listener about the content of the message.

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This is in line with the energy of speech, as both the sender and the recipient respond for the
communication process to be successful. Speech can be transmitted from the speaker’s mind to
the listener’s thoughts and become as successful as possible. Al-Jurjani (2002, p. 180) emphasizes
all of this through his explanation of the energy incorporated in speech and its capacity to expand
or contract, affirming:

The listener cannot be free of being knowledgeable about the language and the meanings of
the words he hears, either by being aware or ignorant. If he is knowledgeable, he does not
imagine that the words differ from him, the meaning of the word is faster to his heart than
the meaning of another word, and if he is ignorant, it is described as farther away.

The structure of language, according to Al-Jurjani, is that which helps in understanding the content
of its messages through systems and the well-organized composition of words that serve mean-
ings, therefore good composition and adherence to grammatical meanings and rules make under-
standing easier and more effective (cited in Wahba, 2022).

Besides, since communication is a continuous process, Al-Jurjani (2002) declares: “If composition is
correct and straight, the meaning reaches your heart before the word reaches your ear, and if it is
contrary to what is desired, the word reaches the ear, so you are left out to struggle in the meaning you
seek (p.184)”. In determining the informative function, Al-Jurjani also deals with the referential
relationship, whereby the meaning of speech during the communication process refers to an external
factor to language, which is the intention of the speaker or sender to inform the recipient of his speech,
“so the referential load of speech depends on the intention of the speaker (p. 186)”. Al-Jurjani also
gave the sender a central role in the communication process, the occurrence of understanding, and
the determination of the linguistic function used to express his purposes, claiming: “Consideration
should be given to the situation of the speaker and the hearer, and the composer of it, and it is
mandatory to understand the meanings he carries, not with the listener (p. 201)”.

Furthermore, Al-Jurjani approached the study of language from a descriptive perspective, focus-
ing on the structure and form of the Persian language. Despite the differences in perspective, Al-
Jurjani’s work holds relevance for functional linguistics. For example, Al-Jurjani’s analysis of
Persian phonetics and phonology provides valuable insights into the sounds of the language,
which are important for functional linguistics’ goal of identifying the functional roles of different
linguistic elements. Additionally, Al-Jurjani’s categorization of words and phrases and his focus on
the form and structure of language provide a valuable foundation for functional linguistics, which
seeks to understand the functional roles of different linguistic elements.

In this sense, Al-Jurjani’s work and functional linguistics complement each other, with Al-
Jurjani’s descriptive approach providing the basis for understanding the structure and form of
the language, while functional linguistics adds a deeper understanding of the social and commu-
nicative context in which language is used.

In conclusion, the intersection of Al-Jurjani and modern linguistics in the context of functional
linguistics provides a rich and diverse perspective on the study of language. Al-Jurjani’s work
continues to provide valuable insights into the structure and form of the Persian language, while
functional linguistics adds a deeper understanding of the functional roles of linguistic elements in
communicative situations.

3. Methodology
The utilization of rapid reviews has grown in significance in providing policymakers with evidence-
based information for making time-sensitive decisions. The reason for adopting this methodology
is to improve transparency in the generation of conclusions by preventing any misrepresentation
of knowledge. This is achieved by assessing the quality and relevance of each research study, thus
ensuring an explicit and systematic approach is taken to avoid any potential misrepresentations of

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knowledge. A protocol is employed to establish the procedures for conducting the systematic
review and minimize bias to ensure procedures are not influenced by results. Extensive searches
are carried out to verify that the conclusions are not based solely on easily accessible information
(Khangura et al., 2012). The ultimate aim of this methodology is to provide a reliable and
transparent synthesis of evidence that can aid in making prompt decisions.

Furthermore, this systematic review made a deliberate effort to narrow down the research to
studies that are directly relevant to the research questions, with a particular focus on the primary
research question: To what extent does the Arabic heritage of linguistics intersect with modern
linguistics in the era of language function? By restricting the scope of the review to studies that are
closely related to the research question, the conclusions are not influenced by studies that are
readily accessible to researchers.

To ensure that the main research question was adequately addressed, only studies that under-
went a thorough assessment were included in this research. Studies that did not meet this
criterion were excluded. The review question and methodology restricted the identification of
selected evidence examples, but the systematic review was still conducted with a high level of
transparency, coherence, and rigor in the approach.

Moreover, to avoid duplicating research, the data collection method of this study involved
searching databases, conducting manual searches of relevant journals, exploring specialist biblio-
graphies, and scrutinizing unpublished research. The primary purpose of selecting reputable
primary and secondary sources was to ensure that the information obtained was accurate,
trustworthy, and authoritative.

The development of the systematic review protocol followed the Khangura et al. (2012) rapid
survey protocol, which outlines eight specific steps: assessment needs, question development &
refinement, and article development. Systematic literature search, screening, and selection of
studies, a narrative synthesis of included studies, and article production.

4. Findings and discussions

4.1. Comparing the views and methods of Arab linguists and contemporary linguists
Ibn Jinni’s views and methods in the linguistic analysis have similarities and differences with those
of contemporary linguists as well. Some of these include systematic analysis, focus on grammar,
and interest in language history.

Both Ibn Jinni and contemporary linguists systematically approach the study of language,
seeking to understand the structure and function of language in a systematic and organized
way. Moreover, they place a great deal of importance on the study of grammar and have made
significant contributions to the understanding of grammar and syntax. They are, furthermore,
interested in the history of language and how it has evolved, and both have made important
contributions to the field of historical linguistics.

One of the main differences is the approach to the study of language. Ibn Jinni was primarily
concerned with the study of the Arabic language and its correct usage, while functional linguistics
is a more general approach to the study of language that is concerned with the functions of
language in a wide range of contexts. Another difference is the focus on the speaker’s intent and
the listener’s interpretation. Ibn Jinni was primarily concerned with the correct usage of language,
while functional linguistics focuses on how speakers use language to convey meaning and how
listeners interpret that meaning.

Thus, while Ibn Jinni’s views and methods are still significant in the era of functionalism,
contemporary functional linguistics takes a broader and more context-sensitive approach to the

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study of language. The focus on the functions of language in specific contexts and the importance
of the speaker’s intent and the listener’s interpretation are central to contemporary functional
linguistics.

In the era of functional linguistics, Al-Jurjani’s views and methods are still significant, as his
focus on the importance of context in language usage is a fundamental aspect of functional
linguistics. However, some important differences exist between Al-Jurjani’s views and contempor-
ary functional linguistics.

One of the main differences is the approach to the study of language. Al-Jurjani was primarily
concerned with the study of the Arabic language and its correct usage, while functional linguistics
is a more general approach to the study of language that is concerned with the functions of
language in a wide range of contexts. Another difference is the focus on the speaker’s intent and
the listener’s interpretation. Al-Jurjani was primarily concerned with the correct usage of language,
while functional linguistics focuses on how speakers use language to convey meaning and how
listeners interpret that meaning.

In conclusion, while Al-Jurjani’s views and methods are still significant in the era of functional
linguistics, contemporary functional linguistics takes a broader and more context-sensitive
approach to the study of language. The focus on the functions of language in specific contexts
and the importance of the speaker’s intent and the listener’s interpretation are central to con-
temporary functional linguistics.

Despite the differences in approach and method, there are also similarities between the views
and methods of Arab linguists and contemporary linguists. Both groups are concerned with under-
standing the structure and form of language, and both use observation and analysis to do so.
Additionally, both groups have made significant contributions to our understanding of language
and continue to shape the field of linguistics.

In conclusion, the views and methods of Arab linguists and contemporary linguists have evolved,
reflecting advances in our understanding of language and changes in the field of linguistics.
However, both groups continue to make important contributions to our understanding of lan-
guage, and their work remains relevant to the study of language today.

4.2. Evaluating the significance of Arab work in the context of contemporary linguistic
perspectives
in terms of functional linguistics, Ibn Jinni is notable for his focus on understanding how language
is used in context. He believed that the study of language should not just be concerned with its
form, but also with its use and meaning. This focus on the functional aspects of language aligns
well with the principles of functional linguistics, which seeks to understand how language serves
a communicative purpose in a given context. He laid the foundation for the development of
functional linguistic theory and his ideas continue to shape the way that linguists understand
and study language today. Overall, Ibn Jinni’s work on the Arabic language fits into the larger
context of linguistic research as a pioneering and influential contribution to the study of language.
His work reflects the cultural and historical context in which he lived, as well as the linguistic
traditions and intellectual currents of his time. Despite this, his ideas and insights continue to be
highly relevant and valuable for contemporary linguistic research and theory.

Moreover, Al Jurjani was known for his functional approach to the study of language, which
emphasized the importance of understanding how language is used in context. He believed that
language should not only be studied in terms of its form, but also in terms of its use and meaning
and that the study of language should consider the social and cultural context in which it is used.
This approach aligns well with the principles of functional linguistics, which seeks to understand
how language serves a communicative purpose. In short, Al Jurjani’s work fits into the larger

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context of linguistic research both as part of the rich tradition of linguistic inquiry in the Islamic
world and as a precursor to the functionalist approaches that have become more prominent in
modern linguistic research. His ideas have had a lasting impact on the field of linguistics and
continue to shape the way that linguists understand and study language today.

4.3. The continued relevance of Arab’s contributions to linguistics: Debunking criticisms

Ibn Jinni’s work in linguistics has been the subject of criticism for centuries, with some scholars
challenging his views and methods. One of the key limitations of Ibn Jinni’s work is its cultural and
historical context. As a linguist working in the Arab world, he was heavily influenced by the cultural
and historical context in which he lived, and his linguistic theories are therefore coloured by his
cultural and historical background. Contemporary linguists, on the other hand, often strive to be
objective and free from cultural and historical biases in their work, recognizing the importance of
an impartial and scientific approach to linguistic study.

Another limitation of Ibn Jinni’s work is its theoretical approach. While he made significant contribu-
tions to linguistic theory, his theories are not as developed or comprehensive as those of contemporary
linguists, who have access to more sophisticated theoretical frameworks and methods. This has allowed
contemporary linguists to build upon and refine the theories of their predecessors, leading to a more
nuanced and sophisticated understanding of language and its structure and function.

Finally, it is important to note that contemporary linguists place a greater emphasis on linguistic
description, while Ibn Jinni was more focused on linguistic analysis and the development of
linguistic theories. This difference in approach is reflective of the broader changes and develop-
ments in the field of linguistics over time and highlights the need for continued reflection and
refinement of linguistic theories in light of new evidence and research.

While al-Jurjani’s work was innovative for its time and helped lay the foundations for the study
of Arabic grammar, his theories have limitations that prevent them from being fully compatible
with contemporary linguistic perspectives. One of the main criticisms of al-Jurjani’s work is that it
is too focused on form rather than function, and does not take into account the context in which
language is used or the intended purpose of the speaker. In contrast, contemporary linguistics is
more concerned with the functional aspects of language and how it is used to convey meaning in
specific situations. In this light, al-Jurjani’s work is seen as limited in its ability to provide
a complete and nuanced understanding of language and its role in human communication.

In conclusion, the contributions of Arab linguists to the field of functional linguistics have been
significant and have played a crucial role in shaping contemporary linguistic perspectives. Their
work has provided important insights into the functions of language and has helped to establish
a framework for the study of language as a means of communication.

Contemporary linguistic perspectives have built upon and expanded upon their ideas, leading to
a more nuanced and sophisticated understanding of language and its structure and function.

So far, this study accentuated the functional aspects of language study offered by prominent
Arab grammarians in the field of linguistics. Briefly, their interpretations featured grammar in its
functional role in achieving communication and revealing the intentions of the speaker who,
through his commitment to the rules of system and composition in Arabic, strives to declare
and explain his purposes and determines the function of his message to serve his purposes.

At this point, it became fundamental to question the origin of this theory in the West, its most
important figures, how it reached out to Bühler, what the latter did to build upon it, and to what extent.

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4.4. The functions of language in the west linguistic heritage

Wahba (2022) posits that the communicative model was formulated by the German linguist and
well-known psychologist and member of the Vienna Circle, Karl Bühler (1879–1963) under the title
Organon-Modell in his book Sprach Theorie. This model itself was a development of a model
previously presented in 1918. In his new model, Bühler referred to the fact that the sender uses
language in a certain context as a tool to inform others about certain things.

4.4.1 Karl Bühler

He focuses in his theory on the speaker, the listener, and the elements that the speech embodies.
Therefore, his model is limited to three functions produced by focusing on one of the elements of the
communication process, which are the following: (1) expressive function: related to the speaker; (2)
conative function: related to the listener and (3) representative function: related to the elements
that speech contains. The aesthetic or poetic function is excluded from Bühler’s model, despite his
recognition of its existence, as he referred to it in other places (Hochmuth, 2020).

The development of Bühler’s theory was carried out by the Prague and Brug Schools (Quammic-
Wallen, 2020). They adopted the Bühlerian theory and many of its members contributed to its
development by presenting their modern theories in linguistics at the First General Conference on
Linguistics (held in the Dutch city of Den Haag between April 10–15, 1928) and used for the first
time the terms “linguistic structure” and “linguistic function”.

Members of the Brug School became familiar with this theory in the early 1930s when Bühler
was a member of the Vienna Circle and a friend of Trubetzkoy, who was invited to offer a lecture to
the members of the Brug School. The first attempt to develop the Bühler model came through
Mukarovsky. In his speech at the 1938 Koniggratz Linguistics Conference, he pointed out that there
is a fourth central function that must be added to the Bühler model, the “aesthetic or poetic
function of language”, which is the main concern of Mukarovsky. In 1952, during the climax of the
communicative theory, Jakobson spoke of the “semiotic function” as a fifth function represented
through the code. In 1956, Malinowski presented the “phatic function” as the sixth.

Hence, the Prague school gradually developed the functional theory of Bühler. Even until 1956, this
theory remained scattered and fragmented, with any statement about it being a collection of articles
and speeches published or delivered by members of the Prague Circle in various places (Haydar, 2001).

4.4.2 Siegfried Schmidt

Schmidt’s (cited in Al-Tajdity, 2007) study of language is “open to conventional models of social
and psychological sciences and his numerous research brings together in a communication per-
spective between philosophy of language, linguistic ethnicity, psychology, cognition, education and
teaching, artificial intelligence and machine translation, aesthetic biology, and cultural theory
(p.305).” Thus, Schmidt’s study of language is not disconnected from the factors surrounding it,
unlike Jakobson’s.

Schmidt’s theory began with an attempt to find a comprehensive classification of all human texts,
and this ambitious classification was based on the informative purpose that the author intends to
achieve through the creation of some linguistic texts (Hébert & Tabler, 2019). This difficult classifica-
tion distinguished- within the linguistic texts produced in various communication contexts- between
three main theoretical patterns: informative, directive, and literary text. Schmidt derived this general
typological classification of texts and speeches from the six functions of human language as
Jakobson defined them in his communication model (Al-Tajdity, 2007). He selected three funda-
mental linguistic functions from Jakobson’s: expressive, illocutionary, and poetic.

The affective or expressive function: It expresses the speaker’s attitude towards what they are
saying. According to Schmidt, it corresponds to news or media texts, which serve to inform and
explain the current news and available information and their implications in a specific

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communicative context reflected in the communicator’s words, actions, and deeds (questions or
answers, agreement or disagreement, stimulation, or inhibition, etc.).

The illocutionary function: Human language, as is well known, has the basic function of achiev-
ing the communicative goals of the speakers (comprehension, interaction, argumentation, sharing,
exchange, mediation, etc.), and therefore, the illocutionary function relies on the speaker during
the practice of language based on its illocutionary function in the communicative context, with
attention focused on the achievement of speech acts that are embodied in the communicative
path. While with Saussure et al. (1966), this function is opposed to the directive text, which carries
specific orders and instructions. The effects of this should be visible to the recipient in a linguistic
interaction situation.

The poetic function: When natural language is considered from the perspective of its inherent
autonomy and the density of its internal interactions without necessarily being subject to its informa-
tive dimensions or the pressure of its illocutionary devices, the high property of literary language is
revealed, which is also called the poetic function (Manar, 2022). This multifaceted function of language
is widely realized in literary texts in particular and in artistic and technical texts in general, because in
this type of creative texts—which are few compared to other cultural texts that are widely circulated—
a network of expressive and evocative meanings is woven that is not subject to the rules of logic or the
conventions of communication, but rather exceed them through a certain aesthetic appeal (Hoang,
2021). This function is also present to a more or less degree in various forms of non-literary texts,
where it contributes to the enrichment and stylistic diversity of language.

As for the philosophy of Anglo-Saxon language and its analytical statements, it can be said that
R. Schmidt (2001) borrowed two fundamental creative concepts on a specialized basis:

(1) The evidentiary function: This linguistic role is manifested during human communication activity
when it includes several reports and affirmations about a specific issue or matter. For Schmidt, this
corresponds to the fundamental role of the news text, with its clear or implicit explanations and
affirmations about various cultural topics that it presents briefly or in detail; and (2) the directive
function: This linguistic role appears during social interaction, when the speaker, through the informa-
tive text, presents several orders and instructions directed to the audience for their accomplishment.
For Schmidt, this function corresponds to the tasks of the directive text, with its clear or implicit
instructions that the audience is required to carry out promptly or later.

Indeed, A. Schmidt’s (1985) reliance on the communicative model of Jakobson is considered

a theoretical equilibrium towards what can be called “extremist” technical models of communication,
especially those advanced news models that considered human communication as purely factual
information that do not recognize emotion or persuasion, almost like machine communication, and
do not include any artistic, aesthetic, or poetic dimensions. . This linguist distinguished between three
main foundations of the human communicative situation: “organon”, “telos”, and code. The organon is
necessary for producing the sounds or gestures that make up a language, the telos is crucial for
defining the purpose or goal of communication, and the code is significant for conveying meaning with
symbols or signs (Grant, 2003). Together, these three foundations form the basis for human commu-
nication and language use.

Therefore, Schmidt’s reliance on the communicative model can be considered an expansion, on

his part, of the technical model of communication to include an important aspect of linguistic
activity (placing the linguistic message in terms of its materiality and self-expression) and
a fundamental aspect of cultural presence and contribution (art, literature, aesthetics). Thus, this
stance reflects a broader understanding of the communication process, a greater integration of its
textual and rhetorical patterns, in addition to its varied social interactions.

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4.5 Language functions through a philosophical perspective

Some linguists believe that the primary function of language is communication, as Ferdinand de
Saussure argues in his book Cours de Linguistique Générale (Saussure, 1916): “Language is
a system of signs and signals, its goal is communication when the signifier (the sound) meets
the signified (the concept)” (p.98). This concept is similar to what Ibn Jinni (2003) referred to in his
book The Properties when he defined language as “sounds that all people use to express their
needs”(p.87). Martinet (1960) also defines language as “a double articulation, whose function is
communication (p.12)”. This implies that language can be divided into morphemes and phonemes.
However, the sounds cannot be divided into further linguistic units, as phonemes are already at the
smallest level of abstraction that is used to represent meaning.

When individuals combine phonemes, they create words. In addition to creating words, they can
also combine phonemes to create phrases and sentences. These larger units of language are made
up of words, which are in turn made up of phonemes. By combining phonemes in different ways,
they can create an almost limitless number of words and sentences (Glaspey et al., 2022).
Moreover, when they combine sentences, they create paragraphs and sequences. Paragraphs, in
turn, become what is called a text, which is coherent and cohesive. Therefore, the text, through the
processes of composition and substitution, becomes what is called language whose prominent
goal is the function of communication.

Nevertheless, if functionalists view that language as clear and serve the purpose of effective
communication between the speaker and the listener, Ducrot (1980) believes that language is not
always an unambiguous means of communication as it appears, but rather a language of coercion,
ambiguity, and concealment. This entails that the individual may use language as a social game
for deception, and disguising intentions for different purposes. This linguistic coercion may be due
to religious, political, social, economic, psychological, and ethical reasons.

On the other hand, Barthes (1957) considered language as a system of signs that is used to
communicate meaning and it is also a way of constructing and representing reality. According to
him, language serves both a denotative and connotative function. The denotative function is the
literal, dictionary definition of a word or phrase, while the connotative function is the cultural or
emotional associations that a word or phrase carries with it. He believed that language is not
neutral and that the connotative meanings of words and phrases are just as important as their
denotative meanings. He also believed that language is inherently ideological and that it can be
used to reinforce power structures in society.

Thus, one concludes that language can be a tool for transparent communication, as it can also
be a language of coercion, deception, and concealment, and it can be a tool for power on the one
hand, and an actual oppressive power on the other hand.

4.5.1 The functions of language according to Louis Hebert

The semiotician Hébert (2022) developed a model of language functions based on the work of
Ferdinand de Saussure and Roman Jakobson. According to Hebert, language has six main func-
tions: expressive, conative, referential, phatic, metalinguistic, and poetic. Hebert’s model empha-
sizes the role of language in communication and interaction and how different functions can be
combined and used in different ways in different contexts.

The expressive function refers to the use of language to convey the speaker’s emotions,
attitudes, or feelings. The conative function refers to the use of language to influence or persuade
the listener or reader to take a certain action or adopt a particular attitude. The referential function
refers to the use of language to convey information about the world or to refer to specific objects,
events, or concepts (Hébert, 2022). The phatic function refers to the use of language to establish or
maintain social bonds or to establish a common ground for communication. The metalinguistic
function refers to the use of language to reflect on or comment on language itself, or the use of

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language in a particular context. The poetic function refers to the use of language to create an
artistic or literary effect or to evoke an emotional response in the listener or reader.

Herbert theories of language functions attempts to explain how language can be used to convey
different types of meaning, and they both rely on the idea that language is not just a means of
conveying literal meaning, but also a means of conveying meaning indirectly.

4.5.2 Gerard genette narrative discourse function

Genette (1988) did not focus on the functions of language, but rather on the functions of narrative
discourse, as discussed in his book Figures III. He identified five main functions of discourse: (1)
narrative: This refers to how a narrative is structured, including the order of events, the choice of
perspective, and the use of time. Genette believed that the narrative function is the most fundamental
aspect of discourse; (2) configurational function: This refers to how the roles of narrators and char-
acters are distributed within a narrative. For example, the configurational function can determine
whether a narrator is a character within the story or an external observer; (3) the informative or
communicative function, which ensures communication between the narrator and the narrated; (4)
organizational function: This refers to how the discourse is organized, including the use of dialogue,
and how events are described. The organizational function is concerned with how the elements of the
narrative are put together, and (5) the focalization function: This refers to the point of view of the
narrative. It could be external (from a narrator) or internal (from a character’s perspective). It is how
the events of the narrative are presented to the audience, and the level of access the audience has to
the thoughts, feelings, and perceptions of the characters.

Genette’s model of discourse functions has significantly impacted the study of narrative and
literary theory, and it continues to be widely cited and used in literary criticism and analysis
(Stevani et al., 2023).

5. Conclusions and implications for further research

The starting point of functional theories of language among linguists began with the convergence
of efforts of several rhetoricians and linguistics, each in their respective fields. This convergence
allowed the scholars to go beyond the boundaries of merely describing language, its rules, and
nature, to understand its function in the larger social context.

Before the development of functional theories of language, linguistics was primarily concerned
with the structure of language and its grammatical rules. However, functional theories arose in
response to the realization that language serves a communicative purpose beyond its structural
properties. Scholars from different fields, such as linguistics, sociology, and anthropology, began to
collaborate and examine language as a tool for social interaction and communication.

One of the key figures in the development of functional theories of language was the linguist,
Ferdinand de Saussure. He argued that language is not just a collection of isolated words and structures
but rather a system of signs that function within a larger social context. Other scholars, such as the
anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski and the sociologist Émile Durkheim, also contributed to the devel-
opment of functional theories of language by emphasizing the social functions of language.

Yet, the interplay between Arabic linguistics heritage and functional linguistics as a modern trend is
an interesting and important area of study that has received increasing attention in recent years. On
one hand, Arabic linguistics heritage is rich and varied, with a long history of contributions to the field
of linguistics. Arab grammarians and rhetoricians made significant contributions to linguistic theories
and concepts that continue to be studied and used today. For example, Arab grammarians developed
a comprehensive system of Arabic grammar, which has been used as a model for other languages.

On the other hand, functional linguistics is a modern trend in linguistic theory that emphasizes
the study of language in use, rather than simply analyzing its structure. Functional linguistics

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emphasizes the role of language in communication and emphasizes the importance of under-
standing the communicative function of language. This approach has led to the development of
new concepts and theories, such as Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL), which has gained
increasing popularity in recent years.

The interplay between Arabic linguistics heritage and functional linguistics is complex and
multifaceted. On the one hand, there is a great deal of overlap between the two areas, with
many of the concepts and theories developed by Arab grammarians and rhetoricians having
relevance to modern functional linguistics. For example, the concept of speech acts, which was
first introduced by Arab rhetoricians, is now a key concept in functional linguistics.

At the same time, there are also significant differences between the two areas. For example,
while Arab linguistics heritage tends to be more prescriptive in its approach, emphasizing the rules
and structure of language, functional linguistics is more descriptive, focusing on the actual use of
language in context. Additionally, Arab linguistics heritage tends to be more focused on the Arabic
language, while functional linguistics has a broader focus that includes the study of all languages.

In recent years, there has been increasing interest in exploring the connections between Arabic
linguistics heritage and functional linguistics, with researchers seeking to identify areas of overlap and
potential for collaboration. Some researchers have suggested that there may be opportunities for
integrating concepts and theories from both areas, to develop a more comprehensive and nuanced
understanding of language and its use. However, further research is needed to fully explore the interplay
between these two areas and to identify the most promising areas for collaboration and integration.

This research also showed that the efforts and theories of linguists did not stop at the contribu-
tions of scholars or linguistic schools, but rather continued to evolve. One example of this is the
development of systemic functional linguistics (SFL) by Michael Halliday in the 1960s. SFL builds on
the idea that language serves a communicative function and explores the relationship between
language, context, and social structures. This approach has had a significant impact on fields such
as education and language teaching.

In the following years, Michael Halliday’s systemic functional linguistics (SFL) emerged as a further
development of the functional theory of language. SFL focused on the relationship between lan-
guage and social context, and sought to explore how language functions to achieve social goals. This
approach has been influential in many fields, including education and language teaching.

In the Arab world, linguists need to continue to develop their research and build on the work of the
ancients. This is because linguistic research in the Arab world has traditionally been focused on the
study of classical Arabic and its grammar, with less attention paid to the social and functional
aspects of language. To develop new and independent linguistic theories, Arab linguists must
engage with the work of their predecessors, but also critically evaluate and build on their theories.

This research reviewed significant linguistic theories that have been presented by Arab linguists
and rhetoricians of the past. These theories are significant because they represented a departure
from traditional linguistic studies, which had focused on the standard educational context of
language. Instead, Arab linguists and rhetoricians sought to understand language as a whole
entity and the Arabic language in particular.

One of the key contributions of these Arab linguists and rhetoricians was their emphasis on the
human, social, and psychological aspects of language use. They recognized that language is not
just a set of rules and structures, but a tool that is used by individuals to communicate and interact
with others. They explored how language is shaped by social and cultural factors, and how it
reflects the psychology and worldview of its users.

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For example, the linguist Ibn Khaldun emphasized the role of social and cultural factors in shaping
language use. He argued that language reflects the culture and social organization of a community
and that linguistic change is often driven by social and cultural changes. Similarly, the rhetorician al-
Jurjani emphasized the importance of context in understanding language use and argued that
language must be studied in relation to the social, cultural, and historical context in which it is used.

In conclusion, the linguistic theories presented by Arab linguists and rhetoricians of the past were
significant because they recognized the human, social, and psychological aspects of language use.
They sought to understand language as a whole entity and the Arabic language and explored how
language is shaped by social and cultural factors. These contributions are still relevant today, as
linguists continue to explore the relationship between language, culture, and society.

Funding Haydar, A. S. (2001). Tahawulat Roman Jakobson [The

This study received no specific financial support.
Author details
Albatool Abalkheel1
E-mail: a.abalkheel@qu.edu.sa
ORCID ID: http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1802-4361
Maha Sourani2
ORCID ID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0532-398X
1
Department of English Language and Translation, College
of Arabic Language and Social Studies, Qassim University,
Buraydah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
2
Department of English Language and Literature, Faculty
of Letters and Humanities, Lebanese University, Tripoli,
Lebanon.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the
authors.
Citation information
Cite this article as: Exploring the evolution of functional
linguistics: linking Arabic theoretical linguistics with mod-
ern linguistics, Albatool Abalkheel & Maha Sourani, Cogent
Arts & Humanities (2023), 10: 2207264.
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