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• Most new biological material results from the process of nuclear division known as
mitosis, followed by the rest of cell dividing.
• Asexual reproduction and growth are both result of mitotic cell division.
• The production of offspring by sexual reproduction is also mostly dependent on
mitosis to produce new cells after the gametes have fused
• In mitosis, the chromosomes of the cell are duplicated and the genetic material is
equally shared between the two daughter cells.
• The formation of the sex calls involves a different process of nuclear division called
meiosis.

What are chromosomes?

• Eukaryotic cell division involves replicating the chromosomes
that carry genetic information
• A chromosome is made up of a mass of coiled threads of DNA
and proteins
• When the cell divides the chromosomes condense. This is
achieved with the help of positively charged basic proteins
called histones.
• The DNA winds around the histones to form dense clusters
known as nucleosomes
• These interact to produce more coiling and then supercoil to
form the dense chromosome structures you can see through
the microscope in the nucleus of a dividing cell.
• In the supercoiled area, the genes are not available to be
transcribed to make proteins

The Cell Cycle

• Cells divide in a sequence of events known as the cell cycle, which involves several
different phases, as you can see in interphase is a period of non-division when cell
increase in mass and size, carry out normal cellular activities and replicate their DNA
ready for division.
• This is followed by mitosis, a period of cell division, and cytokinesis when the new
cells separate.
• The length of the cell cycle is variable. It can very rapid or it can take years

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G1- is the time between the end of the previous round of mitotic cell division and the start of
chromosome replication. The cell grows and develops.
S- is the stage when chromosomes replicate and become double-stranded chromatids ready
for the next cell division.
G2- is the time that the organelles and other materials needed for cell division are
synthesized- before the cell divides it needs two of everything
Mitosis- is when the cell divides
Cytokinesis- is the final stage of the cell division when the new cells separate

• The control is brought about at checkpoints when the cell cycle moves from one
stage to other. The chemicals that control this are small proteins called cyclins
• These build up and attach to enzymes called cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs)
• The cyclin-CDK complex forms phosphorylates other proteins, changing their shape
and bringing about the next stage in the cell cycle.
o The phosphorylation of the chromatin in the nucleus, which results in the
chromosomes becoming denser
o The phosphorylation of some of the proteins in nuclear membrane, which
leads to the breakdown of the nuclear membrane structure during cell
division

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Interphase
• The cell is in interphase much of its life
• The normal metabolic processes of the cell
continue and new DNA is produced as the
chromosomes replicate.
• New proteins, cytoplasm and cell
organelles are also made
• The production of ATP is also stepped up

Prophase
• Chromatics coil up and can take up
stains to become visible
• At this point, each chromosome
consists of two daughter chromatics
that are attached to each other at a
region known as centromere.
• The nucleolus breaks down and the
centrioles begin to pull apart to form
the spindle

Metaphase
• The nuclear membrane has broken
down and the centrioles have moved
to opposite poles of the cell.
• The centrioles have formed between
them a set of microtubules that is
known as the spindle.
• The chromatids appear to compete for
position on the metaphase plate
(equator) of the spindle during
metaphase
• They line up along this position
• The centromere of each chromatid is associated with the separate microtubules of
the spindle.

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Anaphase
• The centromeres split so that the two
identical linked chromatids become
separate entities.
• At the end of anaphase, the two sets of
chromatids have been separated to
opposite ends of the cell

Telophase
• The spindle fibres breaks down and nuclear
envelops form the two sets of chromosomes
• The nucleoli and centrioles are also re-
formed.
• The chromosomes being to unravel and
separate, becoming less dense and harder to
see.

Cytokinesis
• The final phase
• In animals, a ring of contractile fibres
tightens around the center of the cell.
These fibres seem to be the same as
those found in animal muscle cells. They
continue to contract until the two cells
have been separated.
• In plants, the division of the cell occurs
differently. A cellulose cell wall builds up
from inside of the cell outwards
• Two identical daughter cells have been
formed
• The cell enters interphase

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Mitotic Index
Used to identify cancerous cells.

What are Gametes?

• A cell containing two full sets of chromosomes is called diploid(2n) and the number
of chromosomes is in diploid cell is characteristic for each species.
• Haploid(n) nuclei are formed with one set of chromosomes, usually within gametes.
• Sexual reproduction occurs when two haploid nuclei fuse to form a new diploid cell
called a zygote
• This process is called fertilization

The Formation of Gametes

• Gametes are formed in sex organs
• In complex animals, the sex organs are permanent and we call them gonads.
• In flowering plants, the female sex organs are the ovaries and the male ones are the
anthers.
• The female gametes, ovules, are made in the ovaries.
• The male gametes are produced in anthers; the gamete cells are contained within a
spore known as pollen.
• In animals, the male gonads are
the testes, which produce the
male gametes known as
spermatozoa (sperm)
• The female gonads are ovaries
and they produce the female
gametes known as ova
• The male gametes are often
much smaller than the female
ones, but are usually produced in
much larger quantities.

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Meiosis
• Is a reduction division and it occurs only in the sex organs.
• In animals, the gametes are formed directly from meiosis
• In flowering plants, meiosis forms special male cells called microspores and female
cells called megaspores, which develop into the gametes.

The Genetic variation is introduced in two main ways:

Crossing over (recombination)

• this process occurs in prophase 1 of meiosis when large, multi-enzyme complexes
‘cut and join’ bits of the maternal and paternal chromatics together.
• The points where chromatics break are called chiasmata.
• These are important in two ways- exchange genetic material→ genetic variation &
errors in the process lead to mutation→ new combinations into genetic make-up

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Independent assortment (random assortment)
• The maternal and paternal chromosomes are distributed
into gametes completely at random.
• Occurs at metaphase 1
• Ex. Each gamete receives 23 chromosomes. In each new
gamete, any number from none to all 23 can come from
either maternal or paternal chromosomes
• This guarantees huge variety in the gametes.

• The gametes that make sexual reproduction possible are

formed in the process called gametogenesis

Gamete Formation in Mammals

• Both mitosis and meiosis have a role in gametogenesis.
• Mitosis provides the precursor cells.
• Meiosis causes the reduction of genetic material in divisions that result in gametes.
• In human males, the process of gametogenesis involving meiotic and mitotic cell
division happens constantly from puberty onwards.
• In females, mitotic division occur before birth to form diploid primary oocytes, which
remain inactive until puberty.
• The second meiotic divisions are only completed if the ovum is fertilized.

Characteristic of the Gametes

Spermatozoa: Many, Mini, Motile
• They must carry genetic information in the nucleus
• They must remain in suspension in semen so they can be transported through the
female reproductive tract. For this, they have a long, beating tail
• They must be able to penetrate barrier around the ovum and deliver the male
haploid genome safely inside. They penetrate the protective barrier of the egg using
enzymes contained in the acrosome.

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Ova: Few, Fat, Fixed
• Do not move→ don’t need contractile proteins
• Usually contain food for embryo
• Protective layer of jelly→ zona pellucida
• Main difference between eggs of various species is the amount of food they contain
• Birds and reptiles→lot of food
• In mammals→ no food needed→ developing fetus is supplied by nutrients from the
mother
• Do not confuse egg and ovum→ ovum is a cell inside egg (in birds)

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The Gametes in Plants
• Plants have two phases to their life
o Sporophyte generation- is diploid and produces spores by meiosis
o Gametophyte generation- is haploid and produces gametes by mitosis
• Mosses and ferns→ two phases exist as separate plant
• Flowering plants→ two phases are combined in one plant
• The main body of plant we see is the diploid sporophyte
• The haploid gametophytes are reduced to part of the contents of the anther and the
ovary.
• Produced by meiosis from spore mother cells.

Pollen
• The anthers of flowering plants are equivalent to the
testes of animals.
• Meiosis occurs in anthers
• Vast numbers of pollen grains that carry the male
gametes
• Male gametes in plants are known as microgametes
• Each pollen grain contains two haploid nuclei: tube
nucleus and generative nucleus.
• The tube nucleus has a function of producing a pollen tube that penetrates through
stigma, style, and ovary and into ovule.
• The generative nucleus then fuses with the nucleus of the ovule to form a new
individual

Ovules
• The ovary of plant is equivalent to the animal
ovary
• Meiosis results in the formation of a relatively
small number of ova contained within ovules
inside the ovary.
• Some plants have only one ovule, while others produce several.
• The ovule is attached to the wall of the ovary by a pad of special tissue called the
placenta
• Inside the ovule, the embryo sac forms the gametophyte generation.
• A combination of meiotic and mitotic cell division results in an egg cell, known as
megagamete
• It contains two polar nuclei and other small cells, some of which degenerate.

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Getting Together
• For sexual reproduction to succeed, gametes need to meet
• In plants, some flowers attract other organisms such as insects, birds or
mammals→transfer pollen from one plant to other→ pollination
o External fertilization
▪ Occurs outside the body
▪ Seen in aquatic species→ spermatozoa and ova are vulnerable to
drying
▪ Its largely matter of change if fertilization takes place
o Internal fertilization
▪ Transfer female gametes directly to female
▪ Makes fertilization more likely

Fertilization in Humans
• The gametes must meet and fuse
• The ovum is fully viable and able to receive the male gametes for only two hours
• The sperm will survive day or two in the female reproductive tract
• As the prem move through the female reproductive tract, the acrosome region
matures so it can release enzymes and penetrate the ovum

• Th ovum released at ovulation has not fully completed meiosis

• It is surrounded by a protective jelly-like layer known as the zona pellucida and some
of the follicle cells.
• Many sperm cluster around the ovum and, as soon as the heads of the sperm touch
the surface of the ovum, the acrosome reaction is triggered.
• Enzymes are released from the acrosome, which digest the follicle cells and the zona
pellucida.
• One sperm alone does not produce enough enzyme to penetrate the protective
layers around the ovum

• Eventually, one sperm will wriggle through the weakened protective barriers and
touch the surface membrane of the oocyte.
• This has several instantaneous effects
o The second meiotic division takes place providing a haploid ovum nucleus to
fuse with the haploid male nucleus
o No other sperm can enter→polyspermy

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• These events prevent polyspermy:
o Ion channels in the cell membrane of the ovum open and close so that the
inside of the cell, instead of being electrically negative with respect to
outside, becomes positive.
o This alteration in the charge blocks the entry of any further sperm
o It is a temporary measure until the cortical reaction takes place
o In the cortical reaction, cortical granules in the cytoplasm of the ovum release
enzymes into the zona pellucida.
o These enzymes destroy the sperm building sites and also thicken and harden
the jelly of the zona pellucida.
o This then forms a tough fertilization membrane around the fertilized ovum,
which repels other sperm as the electrical charge return to normal
• The head of the sperm enters the oocyte, but the tail region is left outside.
• Once the head is inside the ovum it absorbs water and swells, realizing its
chromosomes to fuse with those of the ovum and forming zygote.
• At this point, fertilization occurred and a new individual is formed.

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Fertilization in Plants
• The pollen grain lands on the surface of the stigma of the flower during pollination
• If they ‘recognize’ each other as being from same species but different plant, the
pollen grain begins to germinate→ prevent self-pollination (reduce variation)
• A pollen tube begins to grow out from the tube cell of the pollen grain through the
stigma into style.
• The tip of the pollen tube produces enzymes to digest the tissue of the style (acts as a
nutrients source for pollen to grow), so the pollen tube can make it down towards
the ovule.
• The generative nucleus divides by mitosis to produce two male nuclei→ male
gametes
• Growth of pollen tube is very fast due to rapid elongation of the cell
• Eventually the tip of pollen tube passes through the micropyle of the ovule
• Once the tube has entered the micropyle, the two male nuclei are passed into the
ovule so that fertilization can occur.
• Flowering plants undergo double fertilization
• One male nucleus fuses with the two polar nuclei to form the endosperm nucleus,
which is triploid→ supplying the embryo plant with food when it germinates
• The other male nucleus with the egg cell to form the diploid zygote→ fertilization is
complete

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