Introduction to the

Study of Cell and

Molecular Biology (2)
Different Cell Types

This second lecture on the introduction to the study of the Cell and Molecular Biology
is particularly on the different cell types.

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 Topic
Introduction (Overview)
A.The Cellular Basis of Life
B.Different Cell Types
C.Techniques and Methods of Studying Cells

This is the second part of the three part topics on the introduction to cell and
molecular biology.

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 1.3 Two Fundamentally Different
Classes of Cells
• Prokaryotic and
eukaryotic are
distinguished by their
size and type of
organelles.
• Prokaryotes are all
bacteria, which arose
~3.7 billion years ago
• Eukaryotes include
protists, animals,
plants and fungi.

There are Prokaryotic and eukaryotic are distinguished by their size and type of
organelles (or membrane-bounded structures inside the cell). Prokaryotes are all
bacteria (archaebacteria or eubacteria), which arose ~3.7 billion years ago.
Eukaryotes include protists, animals, plants and fungi, which evolved from
prokaryotes around 2 billion years ago as you can see in the evolutionary clock in the
slide.

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 1.3 Two Fundamentally Different
Classes of Cells (prokaryotes)
• Complexity: Prokaryotes are relatively
simple; eukaryotes are more complex
in structure and function.
• Genetic material:
• Packaging: Prokaryotes have a
nucleoid region whereas eukaryotes
have a membrane-bound nucleus.
• Amount: Eukaryotes have much more
genetic material than prokaryotes.
• Form: Eukaryotes have many
chromosomes made of both DNA and
protein whereas prokaryotes have a
single, circular DNA.

Prokaryotes and eukaryotes differ in many aspects but most particularly in:
Complexity: Prokaryotes are relatively simple; eukaryotes are more complex
in structure and function.
Genetic material:
Packaging: Prokaryotes have a nucleoid region whereas eukaryotes
have a membrane-bound nucleus.
Amount: Eukaryotes have much more genetic material than
prokaryotes.
Form: Eukaryotes have many chromosomes made of both DNA and
protein whereas prokaryotes have a single, circular DNA.

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 The structure of cells (prokaryotes)

This figure shows a basic structure of a prokaryotic cell. First thing to notice is that it
lacks organelles or membrane-bounded structures inside the cell or in the cytoplasm.

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 Prokaryotic Diversity
• Prokaryotes are identified and classified on the
basis of specific DNA sequences.
• Recent evidence indicates that prokaryotes are
more diverse and numerous than previous
thought.

In terms of diversity, prokaryotes are more diverse that eukaryotes and more
numerous also, as you can see in the table. You can pause the video to ponder on
this.
By the way, prokaryotes are identified and classified on the basis of specific DNA
sequences like the 16S ribosomal RNA (or 16S rRNA).

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 1.3 Two Fundamentally
Different Classes of Cells
• Cytoplasm: Eukaryotes have
membrane-bound organelles ad
complex cytoskeletal proteins. Both
have ribosomes but they differ in size.
• Cellular reproduction: Eukaryotes
divide by mitosis; prokaryotes divide
by simple fission.
• Locomotion: Eukaryotes use both
cytoplasmic movement, and cilia and
flagella; prokaryotes have flagella,
but they differ in both form and
mechanism.

They also differ in their:

Cytoplasm: Eukaryotes have membrane-bound organelles ad complex
cytoskeletal proteins. Both have ribosomes but they differ in size.
Cellular reproduction: Eukaryotes divide by mitosis; prokaryotes divide by
simple fission.
Locomotion: Eukaryotes use both cytoplasmic movement, and cilia and
flagella; prokaryotes have flagella, but they differ in both form and
mechanism.

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 The
structure
of a
eukaryotic
cell

This is a figure of a typical eukaryotic cell. This epithelial cell lines the
male reproductive tract in the rat. In contrast to the prokaryotic cell
shown in earlier slide, a number of different organelles are indicated and
depicted in schematic diagrams around the border of the figure.

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 The cytoplasm of a
eukaryotic cell is a
crowded compartment

Thus, this micrograph of a eukaryotic cell shows the cytoplasm as a crowded

compartment comprising not only organelles but various types of proteins called
cytoskeleton.

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 Cellular reproduction in
eukaryotes and
prokaryotes

In terms of cellular reproduction:

Eukaryotes divide by means of mitosis or meiosis in the case of sex cells.
Prokaryotes divide by means of binary fission. Aside from the common vertical gene
transfer as in the transfer from parent to offspring, they are also capable of horizontal
transfer of genes from one bacteria to another of the same generation. These include
mechanisms such as transformation, transduction or conjugation.

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 The structure of cells (eukaryotes)

ANIMAL CELL

This figure shows a basic structure of a eukaryotic animal cell.

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 The structure of cells (eukaryotes)

PLANT CELL

And this is a figure of a basic structure of a eukaryotic plant cell containing

chloroplast and a cell wall which are not present in an animal cell. It also has a large
vacuole.

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 Types of Eukaryotic Cells:
Cell Specialization
• Unicellular eukaryotes are complex
single-celled organisms.
• Multicellular eukaryotes have different
cell types for different functions.
• Differentiation occurs during embryonic
development in other multicellular
organisms.
• Numbers and arrangements of
organelles relate to the function of the
cell.
• Despite differentiation, cells have many
features in common.

Eukaryotic cell may also be Unicellular (composed of one-cell only, like protist)
or multicellular wherein the organism is composed of more than one cell.
Unicellular eukaryotes are complex single-celled organisms.
Multicellular eukaryotes have different cell types for different functions.
Differentiation occurs during embryonic development in other multicellular
organisms. Numbers and arrangements of organelles relate to the function of
the cell. Despite differentiation, cells have many features in common.

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The zygote formed during fertilization, develops into many types of cells with
different functions. These cells are said to be differentiated. However, it is important
to remember that these cells contain the same genetic material.

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 Multicellular eukaryotes have
different cell types for different
functions
• Model Organisms:
• Cell research focuses on six
model organisms.
• These are the bacterium
Escherichia coli, the yeast
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the
mustard plant Arabidopsis
thaliana, the nematode
Caenorhabditis elegans, the fruit
fly Drosophila melanogaster,
and the mouse Mus musculus.

In studying cellular functions, scientist have chosen model organisms that have
shown to be easily manipulated and controlled in experimental settings. These are
bacterium Escherichia coli, the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the mustard plant
Arabidopsis thaliana, the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, the fruit fly Drosophila
melanogaster, and the mouse Mus musculus.

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 Six model organisms

Escherichia coli S. cerevisiae A. thaliana

M. musculus
D. melanogaster
C. elegans

(a) Escherichia coli is a rod-shaped bacterium that lives in the digestive tract of humans
and other mammals. Much of what we will discuss about the basic molecular biology of
the cell, including the mechanisms of replication, transcription, and translation, was
originally worked out on this one prokaryotic organism.
(b) Saccharomyces cerevisiae, more commonly known as baker’s yeast or brewer’s yeast. It
is the least complex of the eukaryotes commonly studied, yet it contains a surprising
number of proteins that are homologous to proteins in human cells.
(c) Arabidopsis thaliana, a weed (called the thale cress) that is related to mustard and
cabbage, which has an unusually small genome (120 million base pairs) for a flowering
plant, a rapid generation time, and large seed production, and it grows to a height of
only a few inches.
(d) Caenorhabditis elegans, a microscopic-sized nematode, consists of a defined number of
cells (roughly 1000), each of which develops according to a precise pattern of cell
divisions. The animal is easily cultured, can be kept alive in a frozen state, has a
transparent body wall, a short generation time, and facility for genetic analysis.
(e) Drosophila melanogaster, the fruit fly, is a small but complex eukaryote that is readily
cultured in the lab, where it grows from an egg to an adult in a matter of days.
Drosophila has been a favored animal for the study of genetics, the molecular biology
of development, and the neurological basis of simple behavior.
(f) Mus musculus, the common house mouse, is easily kept and bred in the laboratory.
Thousands of different genetic strains have been developed, many of which are stored
simply as frozen embryos due to lack of space to house the adult animals.

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 1.3 Two Fundamentally Different
Classes of Cells

This table enumerates features that are common to both types of cells. You can pause
the video for a closer look at these features.

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 1.3 Two Fundamentally Different
Classes of Cells

This table, on the other hand, enumerates features that are unique to each type of
cells. You can pause the video for a closer look at these features.

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 Experimental Pathways: The Origin of Eukaryotic
Cells

•Prokaryotic cells arose first and

gave rise to eukaryotic cells.
•Endosymbiont Theory: organelles
in eukaryotic cells (mitochondria
and chloroplasts) evolved from
smaller prokaryotic cells.

As was mentioned in earlier slide, Prokaryotic cells arose first and gave rise to
eukaryotic cells.
This is the Endosymbiont Theory, wherein organelles in eukaryotic cells (mitochondria
and chloroplasts) evolved from smaller prokaryotic cells.

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 Experimental Pathways: The Origin of Eukaryotic
Cells

Cyanobacteria
- concentric membranes within cytoplasm are very similar to the
thylakoid membranes present within the chloroplasts of plant cells
- a reminder that chloroplasts evolved from a symbiotic
cyanobacterium.

Electron micrograph of a cyanobacterium showing the cytoplasmic

membranes that carry out photosynthesis. These concentric membranes
are very similar to the thylakoid membranes present within the
chloroplasts of plant cells, a reminder that chloroplasts evolved from a
symbiotic cyanobacterium. (b) Cyanobacteria living inside the hairs of
these polar bears are responsible for the unusual greenish color of their
coats.

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 Experimental Pathways: The Origin of Eukaryotic
Cells
• Evidences to support endosymbiont theory
• Absence of eukaryote species with organelles in
an intermediate stage of evolution.
• Many symbiotic relations are known among
different organisms.
• Organelles of eukaryotic cells contain their own
DNA.
• Nucleotide sequences of rRNAs from eukaryotic
organelles resembled that of prokaryotes.
• Organelles duplicate independently of nucleus.

These are evidences to support endosymbiont theory

Absence of eukaryote species with organelles in an intermediate stage of
evolution.
Many symbiotic relations are known among different organisms.
Organelles of eukaryotic cells contain their own DNA.
Nucleotide sequences of rRNAs from eukaryotic organelles resembled that of
prokaryotes.
Organelles duplicate independently of nucleus.

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 A model depicting
possible steps in
endosymbiosis

This is a model depicting possible steps in the evolution of eukaryotic cells,

including the origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts by endosymbiosis.
In step 1, a large anaerobic, heterotrophic prokaryote takes in a small aerobic
prokaryote. Evidence strongly indicates that the engulfed prokaryote was an ancestor
of modern-day rickettsia, a group of bacteria that causes typhus and other diseases.
In step 2, the aerobic endosymbiont has evolved into a mitochondrion.
In step 3, a portion of the plasma membrane has invaginated and is seen in the
process of evolving into a nuclear envelope and associated endoplasmic reticulum.
The pre-eukaryote depicted in step 3 gives rise to two major groups of eukaryotes. In
one path (step 4), a primitive eukaryote evolves into non-photosynthetic protist,
fungal, and animal cells. In the other path (step 5), a primitive eukaryote takes in a
photosynthetic prokaryote, which will become an endosymbiont and evolve into a
chloroplast. (Note: The engulfment of the symbiont shown in step 1 could have
occurred after development of some of the internal membranes, but evidence
suggests it was a relatively early step in the evolution of eukaryotes.)

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