Environmental Studies Journal

Website: https:www.esj.com.ng Volume 1 Issue 1 (2022)

DOI: 10.36108/esj/2202.10.0140

Assessment of selected pesticide contamination of

surface and ground water samples from an agrarian
settlement in Kuje area council, Abuja, Nigeria
YUSUF, Hajara Oyiza1, * OLU, Joshua2, DANTANKO, Fatima 1, HILILI, Johnson Mathew 1
1
National Biotechnology Development Agency, Environmental Biotechnology and Bio conservation Department,
Along Musa Yar’adua Expressway, Airport Road, Lugbe, Abuja
2
Faculty of Environmental Science, Nasarawa State University, Keffi

*Corresponding Author- Email: olu@lujosh.com Orcid No: http://orcid,org/0000-0002-5865-3640

ABSTRACT
This study aimed at evaluating the presence and levels of some selected pesticides in both surface and ground
water in an agrarian settlement in Kuje area council, Abuja, Nigeria. Samples of water were collected from three
areas in Kuje, Abuja, Nigeria namely: Gaube, Kasada and Pasali. The water samples were obtained from borehole,
well and stream sources in triplicate. Dissolved oxygen, electrical conductivity, pH, total dissolved solids, and
turbidity were the physicochemical parameters determined in the water samples. Five (5) pesticides namely:
Lambda-cyhalothrin, Chlorpyrifos, Glyphosate, Dichlorvos and Cypermethrin were investigated using high-
performance liquid chromatography-diode array detector (HPLC-DAD). The findings from the study show that pH
values were between 5.70±0.30 and 7.82±0.12, electrical conductivity ranged from 61.31±38.41 to 242.81±1.40
µS/cm, dissolved oxygen 5.58±0.69 to 6.40±2.15 mg/L and turbidity values ranged from 1.42±0.51 to 143.11±11.03
NTU. Lambda-cyhalothrin levels were from 0.06±0.00 to 80.30±138.31µg/L, Chlorpyrifos ranged from 139.99±69.07
to 243.49±197.94 µg/L, the concentrations of Dichlorvos were found to be between 86.65±667.12 and 131.22±3.20
µg/L, Glyphosate and Cypermethrin were not detected in any of the samples tested. Lambda-cyhalothrin correlated
positively with Dichlorvos (0.721) and Chlorpyrifos (0.951) in stream water sample from Pasali at p<0.05. The
concentrations of the three pesticides exceeded the permissible limit except for the Lambda-cyhalothrin in stream
water sample from Pasali and this calls for worry because of the potential adverse effects these could cause the
residents of Kuje that continuously use and consume water from these sources.
Keywords: Chlorpyrifos, Dichlorvos, Groundwater, Lambda-cyhalothrin, Pesticide, Surface water

How to Cite: Yusuf, H.O., Olu, J., Dantanko, F. & Hilili, J.M. (2022). Assessment of selected pesticide contamination of surface
and ground water samples from an agrarian settlement in Kuje area council, Abuja, Nigeria Environ. Stud. J. 1(1), 46-61.
https://doi.org/10.36108/esj/2202.10.0140

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INTRODUCTION
One of the major resources that are important to
existence of living things is water. Adulteration of this
water from both surface and underground sources by
lots of anthropogenic activities associated with
civilization is a menace in the global communities and
of which the developing countries are still struggling
to cope with it (Olu, 2021). Pollution of water
associated with human activities is characterized with
quick and outrun of an evolutionary ability of
ecosystems, putting them in an impure state (Kamble
and Rao, 2016). Several ill health issues that happen
to human had been associated with contamination of
surface and groundwater with the presence of both
organic and inorganic contaminants which has
resulted in loss of soil fertility and reduction of
revenue generated by farmers (Bartzas et al., 2015).
It is a known fact from literature review that
agricultural activities play a major role in water
pollution and it accounts for 70 percent abstraction of
water. The discharge from farms such as
agrochemicals, organic matter, drug residues,
sediments and saline are produced in large quantities
and got drain into the water bodies as pollutants and
poses risks to human health and the aquatic
ecosystems (United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP), 2016). In most of the high-income countries
and many emerging economies, agricultural activities
causing pollution has overtaken the industrial
activities contamination and a major factor of inland
and coastal waters degradation (e.g. eutrophication).
The nitrate from agricultural activities is one of the
prominent chemical contaminants in the world’s
groundwater aquifers (World Water Assessment
Programme (WWAP), 2013). The European Union’s
finding has stated that 38 percent of water bodies’
pollution are from agricultural activities (WWAP,
2015). Agricultural activities are the major source in
rivers, wetland, lakes and streams pollution (United
States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA),
2016). Food and Agriculture organization (FAO),
(2016) reported that in China, agricultural activities
are responsible for a large share of surface water
pollution as well as the exclusive groundwater
pollution by nitrogen. The Organization for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD), (2012)
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reported that environmental and social costs of water
pollution caused by agriculture activities has exceed
billions of dollars annually.
Aquifers in farmland are typically vulnerable to
contamination emerging from some factors which
includes not too deep water table, intense
permeability of alluvial deposits, connections between
agricultural land uses and surface water, irrigation
activities which lead to over pumping of groundwater
(Nisi et al., 2013; Guler et al., 2012). Surface and
ground water are being or have been reported to be
adulterated by residues of some pesticides in area
where agricultural activities are practiced (Lundqvist
et al., 2019) which also have adverse impacts on the
ecosystem (Cruzeiro et al., 2017; Staley et al., 2015;
Kohler and Triebskorn, 2013).
Biocides, fungicides, rodenticides, herbicides and
insecticides are regarded as pesticides and are
categorized in relation to their ways of action on
pests (Sharma et al., 2019; Mahmood et al., 2016).
Pesticides are substances used in controlling pests
and diseases in crops (Syafrudin et al., 2021) and
globally, two million tons on average pesticides are
being utilized in control of insects, pests and weeds
yearly. It has also been reported that insecticides and
herbicides are the prominent pesticide used (De et al.,
2014).
Pesticides in a specific environmental compartment
occurrence are widespread issues (McKnight et al.,
2015). The hydrologic set up and its features in soil
use for agricultural activities had influence on the
usage of pesticides and its distribution in streams and
groundwater (Syafrudin et al., 2021). The texture of a
soil, usage of pesticide on a soil, usage of water,
rainfall and irrigation influence leaching of pesticide
in ground. Pesticides leached more in sandy soil if
they are water soluble, more will be leached and
when pesticides take a longer time to mortify, they
are regarded as harmful pesticides (Pope et al., 2016).
The extensive use of pesticide such as herbicides are
mostly detected in farm produce like corn, cotton and
rice. Some insecticides like organophosphorus and
organochlorines are banned because of their
persistence in aquatic environment. Spray drift is a
 Environmental Studies Journal
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strong avenue in surface water with drift deposition
from 0.3% to 3.5% of the normal field (Clyde, 2013).
Pesticides are said to be both water and organic
solvents-soluble with physicochemical properties
upheld by their octanol-water division coefficients,
that is responsible for their ability to find their ways
into both surface and ground waters (MacBean,
2015). The agrochemicals contamination occurs by
leaching of persistent active ingredients in soil and
surface water. Pesticide contaminations rely on some
factors, which include crop fields’ proximity, soil types,
grassland, slope, and closeness to water bodies as
well as conditions of the climate like humidity,
temperature, precipitation and wind (Székács et al.,
2015). The consequences of pesticide residues had
been reported and commonly linked to the presence
of these organic contaminants in surface waters and
other environmental matrices worldwide (Ali et al.,
2014; Rathore and Nollet, 2012).
Synthetic organic pesticides are chlorinated
hydrocarbons such as chlordane, aldrin, DDT, and
endrin that are relatively insoluble in water and
chemically bound to the soil particles (Syafrudin et al.,
2021). Malathion and diazinon are organophosphorus
compounds which are synthetic in nature produced
to be a replacement for the chlorinated hydrocarbon
pesticides. The organophosphorus pesticides are
greatly regarded as dangerous to humans and they
do decompose quickly in the environment and of
which this reduced their presence in groundwater.
Other pesticides developed to be substitutes for
chlorinated hydrocarbons are the carbamate
pesticides which have active constituents that have
reported to be found in surface waters (Syafrudin et
al., 2021).
Pesticides are major contaminants in the aquatic
environment, tropical and subtropical regions
(Shomar et al., 2006; Bocquené and Franco, 2005;
Papadopoulou-Mourkidou et al., 2004). In SãoPaulo
State, Lanchote et al. (2000) reported that Ametryn
was detected in 17 out of the 250 table water samples
analyzed at a level beyond the European Union (EU)
permissible level. Also, Filizola et al. (2002) reported
the analysis of chlorotalonil, endosulfan, trifluralin,
chlorpyrifos, lambdacyhalothrin, parathion-methyl,
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dicofol and captan in ground and surface water in
Guairá region and in São Paulo State. Captan,
endosulfan, lambda-cyhalothrinsulfate, and
chlorotalonil were found only in surface water, in level
above the EU permissible level.
Laabs et al. (2002) reported that twenty-nine
pesticides and three metabolites were detected in
samples of water obtained from Northeastern
Pantanal region in MatoGrosso State. Studies also
carried out in Asia reported by Qian et al. (2017), in
Europe by Herrero-Hernández et al, (2017), Rousis et
al. (2017) and in USA, Stayner et al. (2017) showed
that degraded substances of pesticides are always
found in surface water samples, at a degree above the
permissible limit of 0.1 μg/L set for drinking water by
the European Commission (EC).
In Argentina, De Geronimo et al. (2014) reported
contamination of water bodies perpendicular to some
plantation field with terbuthylazine and atrazine
concentrations that were above the permissible limit
with EC (0.1 μg/L). In another study by Retamal et al.
(2013), they were able to evaluate and establish that
seven (7) compounds among the nine (9) pesticides
detected in the water samples collected in Maipo
River (Central Chile) were below 0.1 μg/L
concentrations. In Sokoto State Wurno irrigation farm
was contaminated with pesticides residues such as
DDT, dieldrin and, endosulfan (Osesua et al., 2017). In
Idoani, Ondo State, Nigeria, a study to investigate the
impact of pesticide used in cocoa plantation by
Odamah et al. (2009), recorded 0.003µg/L of DDT,
0.002µg/L of HCH, 0.001 µg/L of endosulfan, and
0.001 µg/L of endrin were detected in water around
the farm. Ize-Iyamu et al. (2007) detected pesticides
higher than 0.0008 µg/L DDT, 0.0004 µg/L endosulfan
and 0.0001 µg/L endrin, respectively in Ovia, Ogba
and Ikoro Rivers in Edo State, Nigeria.
Kuje Area Council as shown in Fig.1 is located on the
north side of Abuja municipal area council, east of
Nasarawa State in its geographical orientation and to
the west of Kwali area council of Abuja. It is on
latitude 8o27’43” to 8º56’32” North of the equator
and longitude 6 o58’13” to 7 o33’11” East; with an
elevation of about 305 m (Yakasai, 2010). It has a land
area of 1,800 sq km (22.5% of FCT); and a population
 Environmental Studies Journal
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of 97,367 going by the 2006 census, though has
experienced impressive urbanization with a growth
rate of 4.52% (Jimme et al., 2015). The area has an
estimated mean of annual rainfall varying from 1000
mm to 1500 mm, alternate by dry and wet condition,
with the bulk of the annual rainfall occurring during
early second quarter of the year (April) to late fourth
quarter of the year (October) and the dry season
commences by beginning of fourth quarter of the
year (October) to the end of the first quarter of the
following year (March). The Kuje Area Council
comprises different ethnic groups with varying
cultural and social backgrounds namely the Gbagyi,
Bassa, Egbirakoto, Gbari, Hausa-Fulani Gade. The
major occupation of the indigenous people of Kuje is
farming (Dalil and Nsini, 2014; Kehinde et al., 2014).
There is limited report on usage of pesticide on farms
in Kuje and the contamination of the water source by
the usage of pesticides in some areas in Kuje.
This study, therefore, is designed to evaluate the
presence and level of some selected pesticides in
both surface and ground water in an agrarian
settlement of Kuje area council, Abuja, Nigeria.

Fig. 1. Kuje Area council in the Federal Capital Territory

Source: Francis et al. (2016)

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The article published with our journal is made available under a Creative Commons CC BY-NC-SA license; freely available outputs can also be
legally shared and reused. This license allows reusers to distribute, remix, adapt, and build upon the material in any medium or format for
noncommercial purposes only as long as attribution is given to the creator (authors).
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METHODOLOGY were used in measuring the dissolved oxygen in

Sample collection and preparation
Three (3) villages (Gaube, Kasada and Pasal) in Kuje
area council of Abuja, Nigeria were randomly selected
for this study with heavy farming activities done
among the residents
Global Positioning System (GPS) was used to identify
the sampling points and location as presented in
Table 1.
Collection of water samples
Water samples from borehole, stream and well were
collected from Gaube, Kasada and Pasal area in Kuje,
Abuja, Nigeria as indicated with their geographical
position in Table 1. Amber glass bottles were used in
collecting the water samples of 1 liter in triplicate in a
composite sampling technique within 4 hrs interval.
All samples were labeled properly and stored at 4 °C
for further analysis.
Physico-chemical determination
A pH meter (HI-99130, Italy) and the electrical
conductivity meter (JENWAY, multi-3410, UK) were
used to determine the pH and electrical conductivity
of the water samples collected. Total dissolved solid
(TDS) of the samples was measured using Gravimetric
method (Sawyer et al., 1994).
The TDS of each sample was calculated using the
following formula:
TDS (mg/L) = {(A - B) x 1000}/ sample’s volume
A represents the weight of the evaporating dish and
the dried residue
B represents the weight of the evaporating dish
weight
mg/L.
Turbidity was carried out at the site of sample
collection following the standard protocols and
methods of American Public Health Association
(APHA, 1995) and American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) using calibrated standard
instruments (DeZuane, 1997). The turbidity of the
water samples was measured using a turbidity meter
(model 2100P Turbidimeter HACH, Colombia, USA,
Arachem (M) Sdn. Bhd.). Each sample was poured in
the sample holder and kept for a few minutes to
achieve the reading stability, and the value obtained
was recorded
Pesticide standards
A pesticide standard with purity of 99% was obtained
from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA). HPLC-grade
ethylacetate (E. Merck, Darmstadt, Germany) was used
to dissolve the stock solutions and the pesticides
evaluated from the samples of water were
Cypermythrin, Chlorpyrifos, Dichlorvos, Glyphosate
and LAMBDA-cyhalothrin.
HPLC-DAD analyses
Agilent Technologies series 1200 high-performance
liquid chromatography (HPLC) (Waldbronn, Germany),
equipped with a diode array detector (DAD), the
Agilent Zorbax SB C18 column (250mm × 4.6mm ×
5μm) (Agilent Technologies, USA) and maintained at
25oC temperature oven was used. Acetonitrile was the
mobile phase used with ultrapure water by the,
application of a 30:70 v/v gradient for 5 min, 100%
acetonitrile for 10 min and 15:85 v/v for 5 min.

An optical technique of ProODOmeter and the

galvanic technique ProPlus meter (1.25 mil PE)
manufactured by YSI Inc., Yellow Springs, Ohio, USA

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Table 1 Samples collected and their various location`

Sample site Latitude Longitude

Gaube borehole (GB) 8o49’ 16.366o N 7o20’21.426o E
Gaube well (GW) 8o49’ 8.941o N 7o20’32.209o E
Gaube stream (GS) 8o49’ 10.846o N 7o20’53.175o E
Kasada borehole (KB) 8o47’ 54.686o N 7o22’50.209o E
Kasada well (KW) 8o47’ 47.538o N 7o22’50.908o E
Kasada stream (KS) 8o47’ 59.016o N 7o22’39.072o E
Pasali borehole (PB) 8o50’ 58.977o N 7o18’15.847o E
Pasali well (PW) 8o50’ 59.952o N 7o18’18.543o E
Pasalistream (PS) 8o50’ 52.798o N 7o18’27.704o E

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION agricultural activities. High conductivity level in water

Groundwater is a saturated water body with pore
space in the subsurface and serve as drinking water
source for some areas in Nigeria (Olatunji et al., 2015).
From this study as indicated in Table 2, the electrical
conductivity of the water samples ranged from
61.31±38.41 to 242.81±1.40 µS/cm. The three water
sources (borehole, well and stream) in Kasada village
show higher values of electrical conductivity as
170.47±0.51, 194.93±1.16 and 242.81±1.40 µS/cm,
respectively. In addition, the electrical conductivity
values were below the permissible limit of 1000
µS/cm as stipulated by Standard Organization of
Nigeria (SON) (SON, 2015). The electrical conductivity
is the potential of media to pass an electric current.
Therefore, the presence of the dissolved solids such
as calcium, chloride and magnesium found in samples
of water transmit the electric current via the water
(Rahmanian et al., 2015). Scatena (2000) discovered
that some activities involving industrial and
agricultural sectors could disrupt the mineral contents
and affect electric conductivity of the water.
Conductivity does not have direct impact on human
health as reported by Rahmanian et al. (2015). It is
determined for several purposes such as
determination of mineralization rate, existence of
minerals such as potassium, calcium, and sodium and
estimating the quantity of chemical reagents used to
treat this water (Khan et al., 2013; Cidu et al., 2011;
Muhammad et al., 2011)
Rahmanian et al. (2015) reported that water
conductivity is critical to monitor for industrial and
could result in corrosion of the surface of metal
substance (Katsoyiannis and Zouboulis, 2013; Heydari
and Bidgoli, 2012).
According to Islam et al. (2016), Total Dissolved Solids
(TDS) are sum of all inorganic or salts and organic
matters found in the water sample and the prominent
ingredients are usually the cations of Ca, Mg and K
and the anions such as CO32-, NO3. Cl-, and SO32-. In
this study as shown in Table 2, total dissolved solids
(TDS) ranged from 34.39±21.04 to 118.99±0.66 mg/L.
All the water samples analyzed were within the
acceptable limit of TDS. From Table 2, Kasada water
samples show high values of Total dissolved solid
when compared to the other area where samples
were taken. Also, Kasada samples have high values of
electric conductivity when compared to other water
samples investigated.
The pH is a vital parameter in evaluating water quality
by its acidity or alkalinity (Rahmanian et al., 2015).
From Table 1, pH values were between 5.70±0.30 and
7.82±0.12. Apart from Gaube well (GW) water sample
that is below the acceptable value, all other water
samples have pH values within the acceptable ranges
in line with the findings of Bodrud-Doza et al. (2016)
and WHO (2006, 2011).
Dissolved oxygen (DO) content in natural waters is an
indispensable quantity whenever data are collected
for investigations from a hydrobiological, ecological
or environmental protection viewpoint (Nagy et al.,
2008). A sufficient level of DO is critical for the

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survival of most aquatic plants and animals as well as (Keeling and Garcia, 2002). In this study, the dissolved
for waste water treatment (Hobbs and McDonald, oxygen was within the range of 5.58±0.69 and
2010). Concentration of DO is an important factor in 6.40±2.15 mg/L. The values are lower than the
evaluating the habitability of the water environment permissible limit as indicated in Table 1.

TABLE 2: Physicochemical parameter of samples of water

SAMPLE E.C TDS pH DO TURBIDITY COLOUR
µS/cm mg/L mg/L (NTU)
Gaube borehole 105.62±33.98 51.63±16.31 6.45±0.13 5.82±1.02 13.6±4.47 Turbid
(GB)
Gaube well (GW) 61.31±38.41 34.39±21.04 5.70±0.30 5.69±0.83 16.65±10.57 Yellowish
Gaube stream (GS) 138.95±46.29 67.23±25.21 7.51±0.87 5.89±0.55 105.21±13.47 Yellowish
Kasada borehole 170.47±0.51 83.51±0.09 7.62±0.26 5.62±0.08 1.42±0.51 Colourless
(KB)
Kasada well (KW) 194.93±1.16 95.48±0.40 6.79±0.06 5.70±0.93 37.00±2.20 Yellowish
Kasada stream (KS) 242.81±1.40 118.99±0.66 7.82±0.12 5.58±0.69 97.38±21.20 Yellowish
Pasali borehole 154.97±31.95 75.92±15.62 6.94±0.34 5.93±1.14 4.67±5.12 Turbid
(PB)
Pasali well (PW) 70.51±52.21 49.71±0.58 6.79±0.07 6.29±0.71 3.30±0.12 Colourless
Pasali stream (PS) 128.80±1.25 63.10±0.62 7.37±0.15 6.40±2.15 143.11±11.03 Yellowish
SON1 1000.00 1000.00 6.50-8.50 6.5-8.00 - Colourless
WHO Standard2 - 1000.00 6.50-8.50 6.5-8.00 5.00 Colourless
1 2
Keys: SON - Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON), 2015, WHO Standard – World Health Organization Standard
(2006),
EC-Electrical conductivity, TDS- Total Dissolved solids, DO- Dissolved oxygen, GB – Guabe Borehole, GS – Guabe
Stream, GW – Guabe Well, KB – Kasada Borehole, KS – Kasada Stream, KW – Kasada Well, PB – Pasali Borehole, PS –
Pasali Stream, PW – Pasali Well

Cloudiness in water is caused by some particles which
a parameter used in analyzing water is meant for
drinking and can be associated with the content of
organism causing diseases in the water (Rahmanian et
al., 2015). In this study, the turbidity ranged from
1.42±0.51 to 143.11±11.03 NTU and the turbidity of
water samples from Kasada borehole (KB), Pasali
borehole (PB) and Pasali well (PW) were below the
WHO permissible limit of 5 NTU, while other samples
were above the permissible limit.
Groundwater contamination is one of the major
problems in the world (El- Hamid and Hegazy, 2017).
Several works have been carried out on both surface
and groundwater contamination (Edori et al., 2016;
Olatunji et al., 2015; Idowu and Olubunmi, 2013;
Olafisoye et al., 2013; Oyedami et al., 2013; Afolayan
et al., 2012; Akoteyan et al., 2011; Longe and Balogun,
2010).
A synthetic pyrethroids insecticide such as Lambda-
cyhalothrin (LC), has been extensively used for
decades in many developing countries, for pests and
insects’ control (Fetoui et al., 2008, 2009, 2010). It has
also been reported that there is a link between
insecticide exposure and adverse health effects in
human resulting in endocrine disruption, fertility
problems, and neurological disorders as well as
cancer (Rodríguez et al., 2016a, b; Gill et al., 2010;
Andersen et al., 2000; Colborn et al., 1996).

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TABLE 3 – Selected pesticide residues in the water samples

SAMPLE LC Chlorpyrifos µg/L Dichlorvos µg/L Cypermythrin Glyphosate

µg/L µg/L µg/L
Gaube borehole 1.89±2.94 139.99±69.07 86.65±667.12 ND ND
(GB)
Gaube well (GW) 0.23±0.13 163.53±1.00 108.35±53.08 ND ND

Gaube stream (GS) 1.18±2.15 162.89±0.07 115.65±43.37 ND ND

Kasada borehole 1.10±0.51 163.07±0.16 130.24±0.38 ND ND

(KB)
Kasada well (KW) 0.70±0.16 174.72±9.93 130.34±0.28 ND ND

Kasada stream (KS) 0.49±0.26 243.49±197.94 131.22±3.20 ND ND

Pasali borehole (PB) 0.44±0.10 176.67±27.75 130.00±0.07 ND ND

Pasali well (PW) 80.30±138.3 162.90±0.10 129.10±0.00 ND ND

1
Pasali stream (PS) 0.06±0.00 163.30±0.08 130.20±0.03 ND ND

Permissible Limit 0.1* 30** 30*** - -

LC- LAMBDA cyhalothrin, * van Leeuwen et al., (2008), **-WH0, 2004, ***- WH0, 2016, ND- Not detected

Lambda-cyhalothrin residues toxicity levels has been
evaluated in water or sediment indicating potential
adversity on some aquatic organisms (Gu et al., 2007;
Lawler et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2007; Amweg et al.,
2005, 2006; Heckmann and Friberg 2005; Van
Wijngaarden et al., 2005; Weston et al. 2004; Cavas
and Ergene-Gozukara, 2003). As shown in Table 3,
Lambda-cyhalothrin was detected in all the water
samples with a range of 0.06±0.00 to 80.30±138.31
µg/L. Only water samples from PS have a Lambda-
cyhalothrin below the permissible limit of 0.1 µg/L for
drinking water (van Leeuwen et al., 2008). As shown in
Table 4, Lambda-cyhalothrin when correlated
negatively with Chlorpyrifos in Gaube well (GW) (-
0.303), Kasada borehole (KB) (-0.533) and Pasali well
(PW) (-0.110) at p>0.05 which simply means there is
an opposing relationship between these two
pesticides in each of the water samples from these
various sources. In the case of Kasada stream (KS)
water sample, Lambda-cyhalothrin showed significant
positive correlation with Dichlorvos (0.721) and
Chlorpyrifos (0.951) in Pasali stream (PS) water sample
at p<0.05. Direct and indirect modulation of
pyrethroids with Lambda-cyhalothrin is a major and
vital form of immune mechanism; its inflammatory
activation leading to hepatoxicity by pesticides
(Duzguner and Erdogan 2010). Pyrethroids could
cause harmful effect to the liver, and the levels of the
toxicity rely on the quantity and the longevity of
exposure (Belma et al., 2001; Yamashita et al., 1997;
Bro-Rasmussen, 1996). Anadon et al. (2013) also
reported that cylfuthrin, type II pyrethroid, affects
hepatic cytochrome P450 (CYP) through the creation
of CYP2E and CYP1A sub-families,
Both agricultural and non-agricultural environments
use Chlorpyrifos (CPY) (Agency for Toxic Substances
and Disease Registry (ATSDR), 1997). Residual levels
of chlorpyrifos can last for long periods of time and
rapidly degrade the environment but occasionally is
being used in the control of ticks on cattle skin (Eaton
et al., 2008). Chlorpyrifos had been reported to be
found in some water sources (Giddings et al., 2014;
Williams et al., 2014). In this study from Table 3,

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 Environmental Studies Journal
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chlorpyrifos was detected in all the water samples From Table 4, Chlorpyrifos was negatively correlated
within the range of 139.99±69.07 to 243.49±197.94 with dichlorvos with r=-0.461 in the Kasada borehole
µg/L. All these values were higher than the (KB), r= -0.947 in the Kasada well (KW) and r= -0.126
permissible limit of 30 µg/L specified by WHO (2004). in the Kasada stream (KS) water samples at p>0.05.

Table 4: Pesticide residues correlation values

Samples Pesticide LC Chlorpyrifos Dichlorvos
Residues
Gaube borehole LC 1 .407 .458
(GB) Chlorpyrifos .407 1 .657
Dichlorvos .458 .657 1
Gaube well (GW) LC 1 -.303 .003
Chlorpyrifos -.303 1 .373
Dichlorvos .003 .373 1
Gaube stream (GS) LC 1 .440 .166
Chlorpyrifos .440 1 .179
Dichlorvos .166 .179 1
Kasada borehole LC 1 -.533 .997
(KB) Chlorpyrifos -.533 1 -.461
Dichlorvos .997 -.461 1
Kasada well (KW) LC 1 .218 .107
Chlorpyrifos .218 1 -.947
Dichlorvos .107 -.947 1
Kasada stream (KS) LC 1 .478 .721**
Chlorpyrifos .478 1 -.126
Dichlorvos .721** -.126 1
Pasali borehole LC 1 .808 .548
(PB) Chlorpyrifos .808 1 .370
Dichlorvos .548 .370 1
Pasali well (PW) LC 1 -.110 .848
Chlorpyrifos -.110 1 .433
Dichlorvos .848 .433 1
Pasali stream (PS) LC 1 .951** .409
Chlorpyrifos .951** 1 .433
Dichlorvos .409 .433 1
LC- LAMBDA cyhalothrin
**Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level.

Chlorinated organophosphate insecticide (Dichlorvos,
2, 2-dichlorovinyl-O, O-dimethyl phosphate (DDVP), is
known to be utilized in vegetable insects’ control and
agriculture products, especially in greenhouses, and
buildings, on stored substances and livestock
(Heshmati and Nazemi, 2018). Utilization of DDVP in
control of plant pest has been shown to be prominent
in culture of tomato tissue as compared to other
plant cultures due to its lesser cost of procurement
and broad spectrum activities on biological substance
(Kurup and Pillai, 2014). Dichlorvos is known to be
intensely soluble in water (18 000 mg/L), with a lesser
octanol to water division coefficient (log Kow 1.9) and
is quite volatile before dissolving in water (vapour
pressure 2100 mPa) (Anyusheva et al., 2012). As
shown in Table 3, dichlorvos was detected in all the
water samples within the range of 86.65±667.12
to131.22±3.20 µg/L. All these values were higher than

- 54 -
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 Environmental Studies Journal
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the permissible limit of 30 µg/L specified by WHO
(2016). Dichlorvos has been detected in reservoirs and
river basins in China (Gao et al., 2012; Gao et al.,
2009). Also, dichlorvos, of 0.322 µg/L has been
reported in surface water from an agricultural region
of Turkey (Tuncel et al., 2008). In a study carried out in
Lake Biwa, Japan, there were no traces of dichlorvos
in the lake and influent river water (Sudo et al., 2004).
From Table 4, dichlorvoswas negatively correlated
with Chlorpyrifos r=-0.461 in the Kasada borehole
(KB), r= -0.947 in the Kasada well (KW) and r= -0.126
in the Kasada stream (KS) water samples at p>0.05.
Dichlorvos in Kasada stream (KS) water sample was
positively and significantly correlated with Lambda-
cyhalothrin (0.721) and Chlorpyrifos (0.951) in Pasali
stream (PS) water sample at p<0.05.
A synthetic pyrethroid pesticide that is highly used in
agriculture, household, and animal husbandry is
Cypermethrin and is mainly to crack, crevice and spot
treatment for control of insects (Aman et al., 2018). As
shown in Table 3, cypermethrin was not detected in
any of the water samples.
Glyphosate (N-(phosphonomethyl) glycine) has a
wide spectrum in weed control and is a common
herbicide used by farmers (Kanissery et al., 2019).
Glyphosate, a nonselective, post nascent herbicide, is
used in regulation of more than 150 weed species,
including mono- and dicotyledonous plants of annual
or perennial nature (Rodrigues and Almeida, 2005). In
this study, glyphosate was not detected in any of the
water samples as shown in Table 3.
CONCLUSION
The use of pesticides in agricultural crops production
has contributed immensely in increasing the yield of
crops (Nakano et al., 2016). Application of pesticides
as a means of crop protection is worrisome
considering dangerous effects of pesticides on
humans and the environment at large (Miele et al.,
2015). Out of the five pesticides investigated in this
study only three namely Lambda-cyhalothrin,
Chlorpyrifos and Dichlorvos were detected in the
water samples from three different settlements and
nine sources. The concentrations of these three
pesticides exceeded the permissible limit except for
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the Lambda-cyhalothrin in Pasali stream (PS) and this
is worrisome because of the potential adverse effects
these could have on the residents of Kuje, Abuja who
continuously use and consume this water.
Authors’ Contributions
YUSUF Hajara Oyiza: Was involved in sample
collection and analysis, and development of
manuscript
OLU, Joshua: Designed the study, wrote the
manuscript and performed the analysis and scientific
inputs
DANTANKO, Fatima: Was involved in the samples
collection and manuscript development
HILILI, Johnson M.: Was involved in the analysis of the
water samples pesticide and involved in the
manuscript development
Acknowledgments: Many thanks to all those that
were involved in the samples collection and analysis
of the various parameter investigated in the study
Funding: The researchers did not receive any
financial support from any organization or individual.
The entire research and publication of findings was
self-sponsored by authors.
Conflict of interest: The authors carried out this
study without any conflict of interest and had no one
or organization to expose but just undergo the
research in order to contribute to the betterment of
our environment
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