1 FRICTION We first look at friction in drained soils. We shall concentrate initially on the shear box test. We will then look at undrained behaviour in the shear box, and cohesion of undrained soils. The friction and cohesion models will then be drawn together via a CRITICAL STATE model. We will then develop the critical state framework for the triaxial test, and derive an elastic-plastic soil model called Cam clay. 1.1. Coulomb Friction and Effective Stress ¢ Block on a horizontal surface OD Mavemerk arstren | F O = "aye 4 psctier * Block ona slope© Soil slope 1.2. The Shear Box Test This is the simplest method of determining the angle of friction @' on a predetermined rupture plane. The conventional shear box is 60 mm square by 20 mm deep. The top half of the box is almost prevented from moving by a stiff steel elastic proving ring: force is measured by the deflection of the proving ring via a calibration chart. The bottom half is driven by a motor; a dial gauge measures displacement.load hanger : NV top half almost stationary dial gauge ; x ive stiff proving ring measures shear force : F bottom half displaced x outer box Porous stones soil sample in split brass box Shear box apparatus ¢ Normally use saturated soil, outer box filled with water * No drainage control — hence need care with motor speeds. Typically: _ lam jaca sand - Oot mmlnun eilt - O- 00! aoe | pain elo for a DRAINED TEST: i.e. no changes in pore pressure. The main advantages of the direct shear box apparatus are: « simple ¢ thin sample = consolidates quickly under load * easy sample preparation for sands the location of the rupture plane is knownThe main disadvantages are: * cannot control drainage e cannot measure pore pressure ¢ soil is forced to rupture on a plane which may not be its weakest plane ¢ area under shear gradually decreases « progressive failure from edges of sample towards centre — i.e. non- uniform strain ¢ difficult to obtain undisturbed samples for direct-shear box testing A typical drained shear box test on a medium dense sand gives: et, © ea le a) 2F/a g 6 Cushear Tait T= 6) tap ! 4 Uhnce Dperk D aut me We will not consider initial small deformations yet, but only limiting values of shear force which cause large deformations. Points to note: Peale fete Fee > Doeak, > mrax-sih rastbarce ~Glastragic faelare Y frre conbretesl » Drsplawasr centr: ca dha wdrde core ; tnois , for Ge Ee ate Batt - M eps bs > wwe Sot soe donk. 1-4We now want to build up a comprehensive picture of the friction of a given soil. We would carry out a set of tests on the soil at different initial densities and normal stresses. Typical drained shear-box test results for a sand would be: FIA x (kN/m?) gg} [kN/m?) go er) © 40 40 Pv 2 20 L 1. \ o 24 68 0 (mm) Typical drained shear box test results We would then normally wish to plot the peak and ultimate values of shear stress t on a shear stress / normal effective stress plot: shear stress t=FIA (kN/m?) Set D: ° medium M BM: loose L 20 peak strength © ks ultimate strength @] ° 20 40 60 80 100 120 140160 normal effective stress o’= a= V/A Peak and ultimate strengths for shear box tests on sands of various densities and at various stress levelsImportant points: Diy % vdeptuleat of shrex lowed + desi by wpe frida ale nives as @ falls, and ay s' de menses Hence it is very important to obtain or reproduce the stress and density in a laboratory sample which will apply to the field situation. Angle of friction depends on: particle grading, mineralogy, particle roughness, density, stress: Material ® peak 9 ‘it Dense, well graded sand or gravel, angular grains 5 35 Medium dense, uniform sand, round grains 4+o 22 Dense sandy silt with some clay 44+ 32 Sandy silty clay (glacial) 3s 30 Clay (London) 25 5 Look at the peak strength for a given initial voids ratio over some range of stress: there is considerable curvature near the origin:oo (kN/m?) Typical shear box data for peak strength of soil at a given voids ratio. Some engineers use the approximation{ aver Some Kova 4 skmogs ) [ayoh ‘ ! “ee Cpt = Cpe + Oba Bpeae OY ‘is is misleading: it seems as though the soil has some strength above its frictional strength even zero normal stress. It is much better to use the basic friction law: Seco) & ; : (1.2) “ponamehou: Cok = o bon Deals and choose a @ ‘eax Which safely underestimates all the data. People refer to c’ as "true cohesion". It would be better to call it "cementation": it represents the strength of the cement, if the particles are really cemented together. In this case we need to adopt rock mechanics principles.1.3 Dilation, Contraction and Critical States We now develop a critical state model to explain the shear-box observations. These observations are: « A given soil has a unique 9’,, ,no matter what @jnisial iS. ¢ Initially dense soils have peak strength. Beyond peak, thin rupture zones form in the previously uniform soil. Soil separates into ~ rigid blocks, separated by weak soil dilating to its critical state. ¢ Loose soils take a lot of strain to reach ultimate strength; no peak, sample contracts to critical state; uniform strains. « Magnitude of "peak" for dense soils relates to rate at which soil dilates. The notion of a critical state is central to understanding soil friction. This is REALLY IMPORTANT: When a soil is sheared, it eventually comes into a critical state with a | unique stress ratio t/o’ = tand’.,: on planes of shearing, and a critical | voids ratio ¢,,;, in the zones of shear which is a logarithmic function of | the stresses. | It is useful to draw lines of critical state values of t, o ‘and e on a pair of connected graphs of t-o ' and e-o ’. These are projections of a unique line in "t -o '- e space" (i.e. a Cartesian space with t, o ‘and e as axes). The third graph is used because it invariably linearises the e-o ' critical state line over the required range of stresses:Ra ee “the! Critical state line in t-o '- e space The critical state model brings together density changes, and the uniqueness of ultimate conditions. It does not explain "peak strength". We need a "stress-dilatancy" model. Reconsider the shear-box response of a dense soil: 4We note: x macrescepre plane ts heripntad . han bonis diujen wroands > Mittamedham cs is diffout -shidug va widnad pankvle Suxta cs Imagine the saw-blades model below: ne macro-plane true sliding surface with friction angle o% Saw blades model for shearing soil This model is useful in sorting out the shear behaviour of soils which are loose, dense or of critical voids ratio: dilation V 4 Aveo Costodm VE initially dense critical initially loose , —— Shearing of soils which are "dense", "loose" and of "critical voids ratio". 1-10PD ~ Dorit The saw-blades model predicts: when Y= 0 od gp = Dut + (1.3) hone D rave s B vit + Voor Laboratory data shows that peak strength is controlled by angle of dilation, but that equation (1.3) overestimates the contribution. Eqn. (1.3) is based on resolution of forces; an approach based on stresses would be better. An alternative approach is to consider the work done by the applied loads, and the dissipation within the soil specimen. The work done by the applied stresses is: Sw 2 TA Sx +6 A(-Ss) (4) If we neglect elastic deformations, then all this work must be dissipated by friction in the soil: '’ Sw = pas 8x (1.5) Equating (1.4) and (1.5), we have: TASH + 6'A(-s5) = pA’ $x (1.6) a a which is a stress-dilatancy rule, and can be written: paiement Ae Gem which can be rewritten as: t ton Q = f + ton VY (1.8) 1-lLThe relationship between ys and @,, is not trivial, and is a matter of research. Examine the results of shear box tests on sand below (Taylor, 1948). As we shall see later in this course, any stress-dilatancy rule should be defined in terms of plastic (not total) strain increments. We have used total strain increments, and in the early stages of the shear test, some work probably goes into causing elastic deformation of the soil — hence the mismatch between the simple flow rule and the data at the early stages in the test. Soil in the direct shear box does not deform homogeneously, and simple shear box tests can be used to provide more uniform strain conditions, for which a simple stress-dilatancy rule of a form similar to (1.7) (but incorporating strains) matches experimental data very well (see Muir Wood, p 234). However, the aim here is to develop the critical state framework and gain a good understanding of friction in soils, before developing sophisticated models for the triaxial test. If we want to know which critical state voids ratio is the appropriate ultimate condition for a soil, we need to know: = 1 » Ye food effeckoe strum S This is easy in the lab, if we can apply total stress o and the pore pressure is zero. If the soil is not drained, excess pore pressures build up in the soil. This would: 1-12pene H= 0.49 Direct shear tests on Ottawa sand (Taylor, 1948) 1-13-alkn 6! abhor tre fred shoan stragth Talt «allen Jae cutiaal votds poke Hence the necessity of being able to estimate pore pressures in a friction analysis. We can now consider the behaviour of soils at different initial densities and stress levels — see below. Dd = Rese Mbz mroduvum dose c zorhiak dunh ML= medium loose Shear behaviour of soils as a function of density and stress level. 1-14¢ Initial state looser than critical > Conta dian ¢ Initial state denser than critical > ddbchian © Angles of dilation > 20° in dense, well-graded angular sands ¢ Such sands are difficult to set up looser than critical ¢ Some sands with uniform grains, some silts and all clays can be looser than critical if undisturbed > Shuang —> Cleus mb liccion 4 nestle > trvvlossme The dilatancy / contraction contrast for soils is the most significant after the grain size contrast of sand / clay. See the figure below, which depicts stress-strain curves for a sand or clay w ich is subjected to drained shear test at two relative densities, but the same normal effective stress o '. Shear-box response of loose and dense soil at the same normal effective stress 1-15Note that: « dow. goul - passes - gome. P fost Deine tr rari (ooled dapeal.an, « les wl: eak small gore straythus+ Landers —> lead “trons food te rast f SoU ctaas —> uniform shaun The contrast between rupturing of "dense" soils, and ductile deformation of "loose" soils is one of the most significant contrasts in soil behaviour that we can observe. Note that we have largely been talking about sands, which can be compacted to some initial voids ratio. In clays, "dense" will refer to heavily overconsolidated, and "loose" means normally or lightly overconsolidated. i.e.: “dons » deve Han outed ak poser effete sts So dense means below the critical state line, loose means above the critical state line. Note that: we forben delay Ho CSL, fee Digan the golf g fetes / diel note 1-16