2nd Quarter Horticulture 10
Select quality seeds
A seed is a fertilized and ripened ovule which
may develop into a plant by germination. Its primary
function is for reproduction. Because of this, the
vegetable grower must be knowledgeable about seeds
specially for planting purposes. He must be familiar with
the characteristics of good quality seeds such as being:
 Viable which is the ability of the seed to
germinate and continue its growth and
development until the reserved food has been
consumed by the young plant.
 Clean when there are no impurities or mixtures
of any kind.
 Free from seed-borne diseases
 Free from damages
 Matured and plum
 True–to-type which means it carries the
characteristics of the mother plant.
Securing Seeds
According to Calacala (1977), there are two ways of
securing the seeds to be planted:
1. Seeds can be bought from seed stores in the
locality or ordered from reliable seed producers.
2. Seeds can also be produced by farmers
themselves for open pollinated crops.
In the early years local vegetable growers used to
produce their own seed stocks to plant because of
reasons such as:
 A supply of seeds is always made available.
 A higher percentage of germination is assured.
 Knowledge of the performance of the plant is
present.
 An improvement of quality and quantity of the
produce is possible
Methods of Seed Testing
There are several ways to test seeds. These
methods have been practiced by local farmers and other
crop growers according to Calacala (1977).
 Breaking the seed coat. This method is
practiced with seeds that have a hard seed coat
which impermeable to water and oxygen.
 Winnowing. Seeds are placed in a shallow
woven basket or “bilao” to winnow the seeds. All
seeds being blown away are empty and are not
viable. Those that remain in the “bilao” are good
seeds.
 Germination test. This may be done in
seedbeds, seed boxes, seed trays, petri dishes,
recycled materials, polyethylene bags or in a
piece of cloth (ragdoll method).
 Floating in water. According to INGO (2005),
seeds usually contain an embryo inside and
some food reserves to provide the energy for
germination. When seeds are placed in water, it
could be observed of that some of the seeds
sink and some float. Seeds that sink have a
higher germination rate. It can be expected that
the floating seed is not filled well and may not
germinate as readily as the sinking seed. Seeds
that sank are expected to have higher
germination rate than those that float in water
because they physiologically matured and with a
complete endosperm. Seeds that float are
normally immature, infertile, or no complete
endosperm or embryo
Seed Germination
Germination in its simplest definition is the
development of the seed into a young plant or
seedling
In some cases, when seeds sown fail to germinate,
the following maybe the reasons according to Calacala
(1977):
 The seeds are in their dormant stage.
 The seed coat is thick and hard.
 The seeds are immature.
 The seeds have dead embryo.
 The ground is too dry
The weather is too cold
Determining the Percentage Germination of Seeds
Based on the Lecture Notes in Agronomy 11
(NVSIT), there are rules in computing for the percentage
of germinating seeds.
Rule 1: If you test 100 seeds, the number of seeds
germinated equals the percentage germination of the
seeds.
Example: You tested 100 seeds of eggplant using the
rag doll method, 85 seeds germinated. The percentage
germination of the seeds then is 85%.
Rule 2. If you test less than or more than 100 seeds use
the formula below in computing the percentage
germination of the seeds.
Example: Mr. X tested 125 seeds of hybrid tomato and
105 germinated. What is the percentage germination of
the tomato seeds?
No . of seeds ger min ated
% Germination = no . of seeds tested X
100
105
= 125 X 100
% G = 84
Rule 3. If you found out that the percentage germination
of your seeds is below 80, you need to adjust your seed
bulk. Use the formula below in adjusting the seed bulk.
amount of seeds needed
Adjusted amount of seed = % ger min ation
X 100
Example:
You needed 200 seedlings to plant your garden.
You found out that your seeds have only 75 %
germination. How many seeds will you sow?
Let: X = the number of seeds to sow or your adjusted
seeds
amount of seeds needed
Adjusted amount of seed = % ger min ation
x 100
200
X = 75 x 100
X = 266.6 or 267 seeds
Soil Sterilization
Soil sterilization should be done prior to use.
According to Bautista and Mabesa (1977), the soil mix
should be sterilized before use to kill weed seeds,
insects, and numerous soil pathogens. Soil sterilization
can be accomplished by using heat or chemicals. Heat
will kill any pathogen in the soil while chemicals may be
specific or non-specific. Non-specific chemicals will kill
all organisms in the soil; while specific chemicals will kill
only certain pathogens.
traditional and new practices in soil sterilization such as:
1. Burning organic materials on the soil- This is a
traditional way of soil sterilization where local farmers
follow. This is done by burning organic materials above
the soil.
A common method of soil sterilization is heating
up the soil. The high temperature will cause the death of
many micro-organisms, including pathogens on the top
of the soil and insect pests with soil-dwelling stages such
as cut worms.
2. Pouring boiling water on to the soil- This method of
soil sterilization is commonly done by pouring boiling
water (100oC) on the soil to kill whatever pathogens are
present in the soil then allowing the soil to cool prior to
use
3. Solarization- Solarization as a method of soil
sterilization uses the sun to heat the soil. Solarization
can control soil borne diseases, weed seeds, and some
nematodes including root-knot nematodes.
To solarize soil, the soil is covered with clear
polyethylene or plastic sheets. The best time is during
the hot season, where there is plenty of sun. The sun
heats up the soil through the plastic and the plastic sheet
keeps the heat inside the soil. The sheets should be left
in the field for four weeks.
4. Bio-fumigation-Soil borne pests and pathogens can be
suppressed by chemical compounds that are released
during decomposition of certain crops. This is called bio-
fumigation. The chemical compounds that kill or
suppress pathogens are principally isothiocyanates.
Those crops with bio-fumigation potentials are used as
rotation crop, a companion or a green manure crop
5. Chemical treatment- Treat the soil with chemicals like
Formaldehyde, 1 tablespoon per 1 gallon of water.
However, the use of chemicals is not environment-
friendly because chemicals may kill not only destructive
micro-organisms, but also the beneficial ones and can
be hazardous to one’s health when inhaled.
Sowing seeds
INGO (2005), states that sowing is the most
important operation in crop production. The seed must
be placed at a required depth in moist soil so as to get
the optimum condition for their germination.
Too shallow sowing results in thin germination
due to inadequate soil moisture at topsoil layer.
Similarly, if the seeds are sown very deep in the soil, the
young seedlings may not be able to push their shoots
above through thick soil layer. Seeds must be sown at
proper depth and should be properly covered with soil so
as to get adequate moisture for its germination.
Steps in Sowing Seeds in Seed Boxes and Seed
Beds
INGO (2005), enumerated the different steps in
sowing of seeds as follows:
1. Moisten the soil media.
2. Sow the seeds in rows or broadcast
evenly and thinly. Broadcasting is
spreading seeds evenly on to the
ground and covering the seeds
subsequently with thin layer of soil.
This method of sowing is less
satisfactory than sowing the seeds in
rows a few centimeters apart unless
pricking is to be done. Broadcasting of
seeds, however, is not advisable
because of the following reasons:
 The air circulation between
the plants is not sufficient.
 Seedlings dry less quickly,
and such a condition is
favorable for the growth of
fungi.
 Weeds are harder to control.
 It is hard to produce stocky
seedlings because the seeds
are not properly covered with
soil.
3. Cover the seeds with thin layer of fine
soil sufficient enough to cover the
seeds.
4. Press down firmly the whole surface
of the seed box or seed bed with a flat
board to ensure a compact surface.
5. Water the seed beds/seed boxes
using a sprinkler with fine holes or
water hose with fine spray.
6. Protect the seeds sown in seed beds
from ants by spraying insecticides
which drive away ants. In the case of
seed boxes, let the legs of the seed
boxes stand in cans filled with water
and a little petroleum to prevent the
ants from reaching the seed boxes.
7. Seed boxes should be placed under
the shade and should be provided
with temporary shelter.
8. Regulate watering. Too much or too
little of it may prevent germination
Safety precautions in the use of pesticides (The-Voc
CBLM)
Practically all of the pesticides commercially
available are toxic to man and animals. The people most
likely to encounter these hazards are the operators and
applicators.
Pesticides enter the body in three ways: 1) by
ingestion or swallowing; 2) by breathing the dusts or
vapors; and 3) by absorption through the skin. One form
can prove just as fatal as the other, but most cases of
poisoning occur through taking in accidentally.
Unfortunately, children are the most frequent victims of
such negligence by the adults. Because of this, all
materials should be kept in their original containers and
locked up or placed out of the reach of children.
A. Before application
1. Read the label
 Determine the target organism.
 Identify the rate and time of application.
 Wear personal protective equipment (PPE).
 Remember the antidotes and other safety
measures.
 Observe field re-entry intervals after
treatment.
2. Check the sprayer
 Fill the tank with plain water and test the
sprayer to be used that there are no leaks or
loose connections and the equipment is
 working properly.
 Repair or replace any worn-out or faulty
part.
3. Mixing and filling
 Extra precaution is necessary when mixing
and filling sprayers because pesticides are
concentrated.
 Wear personal protective equipment.
 Open pesticide container carefully to avoid
splashes, spills, or drifts.
 Keep your head away from the opening of
the sprayer.
 Wash and change clothes immediately if
pesticide is spilled on clothing.
 Do not use bare hands in mixing pesticides,
nor allow concentrated materials to touch
bare skin.
B. During application
1. Wear personal protective equipment.
2. Do not eat, drink, smoke, or blow clogged
nozzles with your mouth while applying
pesticides.
3. Do not spray when it is windy to avoid pesticide
drift.
4. Spray areas near homes in early mornings or
evenings when humans, pets and livestock are
less likely to be exposed.
C. After application
1. Store remaining pesticides properly.
2. Bathe and change clothing after application of
pesticides.
3. Stay away from treated field one to two days.
This prevents poisoning through contact with
treated plants, or inhalation of pesticide fumes.
. Center pivot is often used in flat, spacious crop
1. Inorganic (chemical) fertilizers) usually result
from chemical processes such as sulfuric acid
treatment or rock phosphate to produce
superphosphate. It consists of materials
processed or transformed into a chemical
material or fertilizer.
Types of fertilizer based on the fertilizer
element present
1. Single element fertilizer contains only
one of the major fertilizer elements.
Examples: Ammonium sulfate, urea,
and superphosphate
2. Incomplete fertilizer contains only two
major elements like ammophos
(nitrogen and phosphorus).
3. Complete fertilizer contains the three
primary plant food elements: nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium.
Methods of irrigation
The are several methods of irrigating the field
according to http://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-the-
different-types-of-agricultural-irrigation.htm
1. “Manual irrigation is one of the most basic
types of agricultural irrigation. Farmers or
laborers use watering cans to saturate the crops
by hand. Since manual irrigation is often time
consuming and physically demanding, it tends to
be used for small farms or in poverty-stricken
areas.”
2. “Before advances were made in irrigation
technology, surface irrigation tended to be the
most implemented irrigation system for large
scale watering. In surface irrigation, small canals
are dug across the entire length of the crop area
and water is poured at the top of the canals.
Surface irrigation uses no pumps or other
mechanisms and relies on gravity to distribute
water across crops through the canals.”
3. “Sub-irrigation is a method often used for
vegetable crops such as peppers or tomatoes.
The method applies water to crops from below
the soil’s surface. A pipe system is buried
beneath the roots of the crops and the water is
pumped upwards into the roots to ensure the
roots receive the correct water amounts.”
4. “Center pivot irrigation uses an automated
system of sprinklers that are attached to fixed
towers in the center of the crop area. The
sprinklers rotate in a circular motion to evenly
distribute water across the entire crop area.
areas.”
5. Windmill irrigation is done by a machine that
harnesses wind energy for a purpose like
grinding grain, pumping water, or generating
electricity.
6. Drip irrigation is a system that delivers water
directly to the root zone of a plant, where it
seeps slowly into the soil one drop at a time.
7. Irrigation by power machinery is done when
water pumps are set in the source of water.
Water is then delivered to the field through a
water hose.
8. Irrigation by hand requires hand labor. This
system is used only where a valuable crop can
be grown in a small piece of land, as in school
and home gardens. Water is applied either early
morning or late in the afternoon

Table 8. Analysis of common inorganic or commercial

fertilizers (INGO 2005)
Percent
Material N P2O5 K2O
Anhydrous ammonia 82 0 0

Ammonium sulfate 21 0 0
Ammonium 16 20 0
phosphate
Ammonium chloride 25 0 0
Urea 46 0 0
Superphosphate 0 20 0
Trial superphosphate 0 48 0
Muriate of potash 0 0 60
Sulfate of potash 0 0 50
Complete 14 14 14
 Types of
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Damage
Harmful
ENTOMOLOGY: A branch of science that deals

*Insects Chewing
with the study of insects.
PLANT DISEASE: An abnormal plant condition
caused by a pathogen, improper environmental

Cate on
condition or a nutritional deficiency.

Type of leaves
PLANT PATHOLOGIST: A person who studies
plant diseases and works to diagnose and

rpilla
control them.

Damage
HARMFUL EFFECTS AND ECONOMIC

rs
LOSSES OF INSECTS
A- Damage and destroy agricultural crops.
1- Reduce crop yield Chewing
2- Reduce quality of the crop.
3- Cost of control practices.
B- Aid in the spread of diseases in man, *Aphids Transmitting
on
animals, and plants.
Mites diseases
leaves,
C- Annoy man and animals.
D- Destroy homes, timber resources, and other Beetl
goods.
Leafhopp Transmitting
boring,fe
BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF INSECTS
• 1- POLLINATION ACTIVITIES make possible es diseases
the increase yields of many agricultural crops.
• 2- PROVIDE us with useful PRODUCTS such ers ed on
as silk, honey, beeswax, shellac, and permanent
Transmitting
INSECTS
Termites fruit
inks and dyes.
• 3- SERVE as FOOD for fish, birds, and other

*Scale diseases
wildlife.
• 4- PERFORM valuable services as
SCAVENGERS.

Three distinctChewing
Gras Feed on
• 5- HELP TO CONTROL harmful animals
(especially other insect pests) and plants. insects
• 6- Have MEDICINAL VALUE.

parts– on
shop structural
LIST OF BENEFICIAL AND HARMFUL
INSECTS Fruit flies
Beneficial Insects Useful

Head,Thorax,Abd leaves,st
timber
Fliespers em
Product,Service

LIST OF
Silkworm moth- Silk
Honey bees- Honey,beeswax,pollination
omen
House
Shellac and
Scale and gall insects Pigments and dye
* Twig fruit
Insect Classification By Feeding Habits

BENEFICIAL Used in
Fig wasp- Pollinate figs • CHEWING : Insects with chewing mouthparts
Wasps- Parasites, predators
flies
Three pairs of potato
bore
have toothed jaws that bite and tear the food.
Beetles- Predators, natural control of weeds
Lacewings- Predators
Examples: grasshopper,
scientific
armyworm,

: Insects with Boring

AND
beetle, blister beetle
Harmful Insects • Mosquito
jointed
SUCKING
legs beaks used
a piercing-sucking

* Caterpillars- Chewing on leaves s

mouthparts
force into
have tube-like
study
into
es leafhopper, thrips, hessian
a plant to suck out
which they
fluids.Examples:

HARMFUL for
* Beetles- Chewing on leaves, boring,feed on fruit aphid, fly,greenbug
* Grasshoppers- Chewing on leaves,stem and fruit
Parasites,
* Twig bores- Boring into leaves stem and fruit
Fleas leaves
jumping,running,
* Leaf miners- Sucking plant juices
predators
INSECTS *digging,attacking,
Leaf stem Spread
Benefici Useful mine
swimming
and
disease fruit
al Product,Se rs Sucking
Bite
One pair of plant
humans,spre
Insects rvice
antennaejuices ad disease
Silkwor Silk (feelers) Bite humans
m Honey,bee
moth
Eyes are usually and animals
swax,pol
compound, but