INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF IMPACT ENGINEERING PERGAMON International Journal of Impact Engineering 29 (2003) 437-447 Progress Towards an Analytical Modelling Capability for Kinetic Energy Penetrators and Complex Armours N. J. Lynch” and I. Townsend” * QinetiQ Ltd, Fort Halstead, Kent, TN14 7BP, UK.;"* Ordnance Technologies Ltd, Basingstoke, Hampshire, RG21 4HG, UK. Abstract By combining the Walker-Anderson penetration model with the rod-bar impact model of Eicheiberger an analytical model has been developed for semi-infinite, finite, oblique and moving plates. Tate’s energy balance equation for target crater diameter is included in the model. The predicted effect of pitch angle against 0° and 60° obliquity RHA compares well with experimental data at 1.65 km/s for negative pitch angles. At high angles of positive pitch, the penetration depth into an oblique target is over-predicted. A bulging algorithm for the target face is required to represent such impact conditions accurately. Comparisons with reverse ballistic ‘experiments at up to 2.6 km/s predict the residual rod shape and erosion quite accurately. © 2003 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Keywords: KE projectiles, penetration, analytical modelling 1. Introduction The challenge of being able to predict the penetration performance of kinetic energy (KE) projectiles dates from the days of Benjamin Robins in the 18" century. Since that time, analytical theory has advanced considerably, but so has the complexity of the problem. Predictions for the simplest case of a right circular projectile shape penetrating a thick steel target can be accurately made using a variety of approaches. But such a case is increasingly less relevant for predicting performance against current and future armoured vehicles. ‘Thick steel is used increasingly less, as more mass efficient armours are used which deflect and fracture the projectile. Without experimental data it is difficult to accurately assess how a new projectile design will perform against these ‘complex’ armours, except when a comparison to a previous design can be made. Numerical simulations using hydrocodes can be used but parametric analysis using this method can be lengthy. Predictive techniques have historically followed both empirical and theoretical approaches. The former has provided, for example, the well known Milne-de Marre and Lanz-Odermatt [1] equations which use empirically derived constants. Theoretical analysis led to the modified Bernoulli equation in 1967 [2]. With just the material ‘strengths’ and densities this equation provides a good estimate of how the projectile is eroding during penetration, and also the final depth obtained. A more recent model, which in effect refines the Tate equation, was introduced 0734-743X/S - see front matter © 2003 Published by Elsevier Ltd. doi:10.1016/).ijimpeng.2003.09.040438 N.J. Lynch, I. Townsend / International Journal of Impact Engineering 29 (2003) 437-447 by Walker and Anderson in 1995 [3]. This model has been chosen by QinetiQ as the basis for a tool (called KEPEN) which can be used for rapid parametric studies of projectile designs against various target configurations. This paper reports extensions to the basic model to provide a capability for pitched rod impact against normal and oblique targets and moving plates. 2. The Model The basic requirements are a capability to model the following types of target configuration: Semi-infinite rolled homogeneous steel (RHA) Finite thickness of RHA Oblique impact of static plates (single or multiple) Interaction with moving plates such as Explosive Reactive Armour (ERA) 2.1 Semi-infinite armour ‘The first case uses the Walker-Anderson model with a Runge-Kutta-Fehlberg numerical integration routine. In addition to the empirical crater radius relationships used in [3], Tate’s ‘energy balance equation has been included [4]: 5 142, W=W a) Where R, is the projectile radius, V the impact velocity, p, is the projectile density, U is the interface velocity, and R, is a target strength term. This allows a penetration velocity dependent crater radius, and a more generalised application to a wider range of target and projectile materials. ‘Actual KE projectiles are rarely flat nosed in design and usually take an aerodynamically efficient taper or ogival form. To represent the entry effect of different initial nose shapes, an option to apply a tapered or radiused nose is included in the model. This takes the instantaneous rod radius dimension to form the crater in the target. A reversed taper profile is then formed in the crater mouth which is important in correctly predicting yawed impact trends with blunt and conical projectile nose shapes. A comparison of the modelled crater entry shape with experiment is shown in Figure 1. Fig. 1. The crater produced by a conical nose L/D 20 tungsten rod into 150 mm thick RHA at 1520 m/s compared to KEPEN.N.J. Lynch, I. Townsend | International Journal of Impact Engineering 29 (2003) 437-447 439 2.2 Yawed Impact It is important to have the capability to obtain predictions for projectiles having a yaw angle at impact. In KEPEN, the projectile and target are defined geometrically and the model checks for interactions between the surfaces defining the projectile and the walls of the crater. If the projectile strikes the crater wall, the crater is eroded and lateral momentum is transferred to the projectile. The crater wall erosion is defined using a modified Bernoulli algorithm, derived from the Alekseevskii-Tate equations and cavity expansion theory. R,= 6,((2/3)}+In(2E/39,)) Q) @) where 1 equals (p, /p,)"” and p, and pp are the target and projectile densities. Ve is the effective impact velocity, A-2(RrY,)(I-1?)/pp where oy is the target yield strength, and U is the rod/sidewall interface velocity. The penetration depth during the current time step, 6t, is then: aL=Uat Oy and the pressure at the interface is P=0.5. ppU*+ oy (6) The geometry of the rod/target interface is analysed to obtain the area of contact between them, taking a chord length across the rod in the same way as [5]: Aa= yr? — (rd)? (6) where r is the projectile radius and d is the depth of penetration. ‘The local mass of rod involved is calculated (My=nr’p) which gives the force acting on the rod as F=pAj,. The resultant local rod velocity decrement is then given by: by, = (i) 12) a It is known that at high angles of yaw the penetration becomes diameter rather than length dependent, In KEPEN the effective rod length transitions from L cos a for shallow pitch angles to D/sin a for yaw angles above 20°. The crater shape produced by KEPEN for a L/D 20, flat nosed, tungsten projectile at 1650 m/s having 19° of yaw is shown in Figure 2 at 0, 40, 80 and 120 us. The final crater shape can be compared to an experimental result for this projectile-target configuration by Hohler and Behner [6], shown in Figure 3. The features of the crater are well represented, though with slightly less depth to the crater floor in the KEPEN result.440 N.J. Lynch, I. Townsend | International Journal of Impact Engineering 29 (2003) 437-447 Figure 4 shows the predicted trends for yaw angles up to 60° compared with the experimental results in 6}, and also for velocities of 2.1 km/s and 2.6 km/s. As velocity increases the effect of yaw has less influence on the reduction in penetration. This trend is similar to that shown in hydrocode simulations [7]. There is currently no representation of rod fracture in KEPEN. 80 ns sous 120ys, Fig. 2. KEPEN graphical representation of 19° yaw impact at 1650 mvs. 4 42 + Bann ad 1 Be KEPEN 1.65 a ne | 9 eT Ae KEPEN21 | 1 £06 tus | = ost ec erEN2S =. 0.2 a 0 0 20 40 60 80 ‘Yaw angle (°) Fig. 3. Experimental result from 1650 mvs, Fig. 4, Predicted and experimental trends in 19° yaw impact. yawed penetration up to 2.6 km/s. 2.3 Exit from a finite thickness target For impact at normal obliquity, if the strain field in the target reaches the rear surface, a spherical bulge will begin to develop. If the extent of the bulge exceeds a critical value, a plug or scab will be ejected. KEPEN uses the algorithms by Walker [8] and Ravid et al [9]. A ‘momentum exchange calculation is carried out to obtain the rod residual velocity. The estimated target plug mass at the time of failure is obtained from the x, y co-ordinates and assuming a frustum shape. The plug velocity is taken as an average of the bulge velocity and the penetration velocity. The rod residual velocity is then:N.J. Lynch, I. Townsend | International Journal of Impact Engineering 29 (2003) 437-447 441 Mors * West + Moog * Vous Moos + Mote V,= (8) This velocity is used as the value for impact on subsequent plates. 24 Oblique impact of static plates The simplest equivalence for an oblique target plate is to use the penetration path length, i.e, using Ucos 0 in place of t, where tis the plate thickness and @ is the obliquity. This simplification ignores two main features of oblique plate perforation. Firstly, the loss of penetrator material due to lateral flow of the asymmetric impact surface, and secondly the reduction in target thickness caused by the projectile tendency to “break-out” normal to the rear surface of the target, rather than along the shot line. The reduction in penetration performance due to the entry effect is slight at 1500-1600 m/s and up to 70° obliquity [10,11], and could be expected to reduce with increasing velocity, as the low-velocity ricochet condition becomes more remote, The asymmetry of the crater shape needs to be correct if the interaction of pitched rods or moving plates is to be accurately modelled. Figure 5 is a hydrocode simulation illustrating the proximity of the projectile and target material in the pitch plane. The symmetrical crater shape is just starting to develop. In KEPEN the following entry assumptions have been made: The deflection and erosion are proportional to the impact velocity; the vector along which the pressure acts is proportional to the cosine of the attack angle, and the rod tip volume involved is proportional to the sine of the attack angle. For the case of a projectile penetrating an oblique target, the projectile material flow will have a lateral component, due to the asymmetry of the target surface. The asymmetry reduces as penetration depth increases. Some illustrations of these effects are shown in [12]. In KEPEN this change is represented by having the projectile and crater diameters bi-axial initially, but joining at a common axis after three crater radii of penetration, Figure 6 shows the offset between r; and rc, The extent of radius ris limited by a rod radius to crater radius factor of 1.1; a value obtained from observation of hydrocode simulations. This geometrical model represents the end states of the entry crater development rather than the process. If the plate is thick in relation to the projectile diameter, there will then be a region of symmetrical flow, until the plastic extent reaches the rear surface. The flow then reverses direction, pulling the projectile nose downwards. Fig. 5. Hydrocode simulation of oblique entry Fig. 6. KEPEN representation of oblique into a 60° target at 2150 m/s. target entry.442 NJ. Lynch, I. Townsend | International Journal of Impact Engineering 29 (2003) 437-447 Bending of the projectile nose, and pressure release on exit from the plate cause the nose to fracture. The criteria which govern projectile fracture are tri-axial and difficult to represent correctly in a ‘1% D’ model, however values of tensile strain in the projectile are calculated by KEPEN to examine the scope for simple failure theories. Where the target consists of multiple oblique plates separated by an air-gap the target becomes slightly more efficient due to the continued loss of projectile material and separation of the projectile fragments. Currently in the model the plastic extent or a user defined multiple of the rod diameter is removed after the momentum balance calculation (eqn.8). The rear surface bulging of finite plates is an extension of the zero obliquity algorithms defined in [8,9]. ‘The Walker-Anderson model uses a hemispherical crater expansion to derive the plastic flow field in the target. This is fairly complex and only provides exact solutions parallel and normal to the penetration axis. In [8] Walker derives a simplified flow field which varies with the angle away from the axis. The parallel, vz, and normal, vx, flow vectors are derived as: a (8) (1-asin? 0) a “ (2) cosOsin® 0) r where R is the crater radius, r is the distance from the crater edge tip to a point at the target rear surface along a radius at angle @ to the axis, u is the penetration velocity, and ?. is a weighting factor, based on the volume of the bulge at the back surface, compared to that of the hemispherical plastic flow region in a semi-infinite target. _(3T) {TY tg. (3) o( 5) where R'=(a-1)R (10) is the normalized extent of the plastic flow and T is the distance from the rod tip to the target rear. The application of equations (9) and (10) to the code led to the prediction of the back surface bulging seen in Figure 7. For an oblique plate, the distance ‘r’ in equation (9) will automatically be reduced below the rod axis and increased above the axis, thus modifying v, and v, . However, it was found that the degree of surface bulging was not well predicted for an oblique plate, using the equations as stated. A simple cosine(g) adjustment was then made to the logic to refer to the minimum distance between the current rod tip and the back surface instead of the axial distance. Plastic extent -.- oR @ plate angle Fig. 7. Oblique Bulge Development.NJ. Lynch, I. Townsend | International Journal of Impact Engineering 29 (2003) 437-447 443 Figure 8 overlays the analytical model (the projectile is shown with segments) with a hydrocode simulation using cAst Euler 3D at 2150 m/s. The entrance asymmetry and rod erosion compares very well with the hydrocode simulation, The bulge on the left side is not as extensive in the analytical model, but ahead of the projectile they are in close agreement. o i 204s | 40us | } L KEpen | i Iydrocode 90s 120 us Fig. 8. KEPEN comparison with a cAst Euler simulation at 2150 nv/s. 2.5. Interaction with moving plates When the target plates are moving, new target material is fed into the path of the projectile. This causes further erosion and fracture, and deflects the projectile from its intended path. KEPEN checks contact points between the projectile and crater and erodes the slot in the plate in a similar way to the slot cutting of a pitched attitude penetrator. The relevant work by Eichelberger [5] on rod-bar collision is incorporated to obiain the transverse velocity, bending and the strain in the rod. The strain is defined by: ay where x and y are the axial and radial positions of the projectile element respectively, and the dividend gives the extension of the material from the original length, Ax. The pitch angle of each element is estimated from: o, = tan? GY (2)444 NJ. Lynch, I. Townsend | International Journal of Impact Engineering 29 (2003) 437-447 The segment transverse momentum is propagated as a shear wave down the rod. The degree of momentum transfer is controlled by a factor, ms, which has a default value of 0.115, obtained empirically. Vt, =Vt, +m, (m, Vt, ~m,. Vt. )/(m, +m.) a3) An obvious extension to the single plate interaction capability, is a combination of the forward moving plate with a static or rearward moving plates. The same principles defined above have been used to represent the interaction of the projectile with subsequent plates. Interaction with a rearward moving plate will usually be on the opposite side of the projectile to a forward moving plate, and other conditions can arise which need to be tested for in the contact algorithms between the rod and plate. 3. Comparisons with Experiment The following material parameters have been used to compare the model with experimental data, ‘Table 1. Material parameters used in the comparisons with experiment ‘Material Density Yield Sound Hugoniot Bulk Shear Strength Speed Slope Modulus Modulus (GPa)___ (GPa) 164 80 Tungsten alloy 17, 8 23 3.1 Oblique impact of static plates The craters produced by L/D 20 tungsten rods perforating 40 mm thick RHA at 60° at two velocities are shown in Figure 9. Overlaid on the craters is the shape produced by the analytical model. The outline of the craters are quite well represented at both velocities. The right hand side of the crater at exit has been strained more than the prediction. This was suggested in the ‘comparison with the hydrocode simulation in Figure 8. Fig. 9. Comparison of craters in 40 mm RHA from KEPEN and experiment. Left L/D 20 (D=6.8 mm) at 2150 m/s. Right L/D 20 (D=8.6 mm) at 1550 m/s.N.J. Lynch, I. Townsend | International Journal of Impact Engineering 29 (2003) 437-447 445 3.2 Pitched impact on thick oblique plates The asymmetry of the crater entry in oblique plates causes the projectile performance to deteriorate if it impacts with positive ‘nose up’ pitch (for the target geometry illustrated in Figure 5). A small amount of negative pitch is usually favourable to increased penetration. Experimental data for the penetration reduction at hypervelocity is scarce. Experiments at 1.65 knv/s for pitch angles up to 90° [13], showing cross sections through the target raters, are useful since they reveal a limitation with the current analytical model at high angles of positive pitch. Expt -ve pitch — Expt ove pitch © KEFEN-ve pitch NE S| a7 x 9 PIPo Pitch angle (*) Fig. 10, Comparison of L/D 20 vs. normalised penetration into 60° RHA from [13] with KEPEN model at 1.65 km/s. ‘The comparison for negative pitch angles up to 25° is very encouraging. At positive pitch angles above 4° the penetration depth (measured as d/cos @ where d is the crater depth normal to the front face of the target) over-predicts the depth of penetration due to the lack of a front surface bulging algorithm. A planned improvement to the model will be to apply similar equations to those for rear surface bulging to the front surface, 3.3 Pitched impact on thin oblique plates ‘The moving plate interaction can be represented using a static, pitched projectile impacting a moving target plate. To compare predictions using KEPEN with experiment, the reverse ballistic tests reported by the Institute for Advanced Technology in [14] and [15] are used for comparison, Table 2 gives the projectile and target configuration and the amount of erosion. In these runs 1.5 times the rod radius is removed at breakout from the plate. The target strength used was 1.15 GPa, Table 2. Comparison of LAT experiments with the KEPEN model Shot Plate Target Rod Impact ___ Rod Rod Erosion Erosion ‘No. Thickness Obliquity Pitch Velocity Diameter Length (Expt) (KEPEN) (mm) OQ (©) (hanls) (mm) _(mm)_(mm)__ (mm) 2593.13 104-967 2.39 219 78.96 ‘II 7 2654.5 53 69237 2.58 88.3 6 62446 NJ. Lynch, I. Townsend | International Journal of Impact Engineering 29 (2003) 437-447 Fig. 11. Comparison of initial and final (at 55ps) projectile shapes from KEPEN, and comparison with experiment (IAT test 265). The initial and final projectile shapes, and the experimental result for test 265 are shown in Figure 11. The predicted transverse velocity along the projectile is compared to experiment in Figure 12, with a good correlation along the majority of the projectile length. 8 Transverse velocity (mvs) eee A 8 38 4 ° ° 20 40 60 80 100 Position along the measured from the rear (mm) Fig. 12. Comparison of transverse velocity along the projectile at SSus. 4, Conclusions and Future Work ‘The essential components of an analytical modelling capability for the penetration of kinetic energy penetrators and complex armours have been assembled. The core of the model, calledNJ. Lynch, I. Townsend | International Journal of Impact Engineering 29 (2003) 437-447 447 KEPEN is the Walker-Anderson model working in conjunction with a rod-bar collision type model similar to Eichelberger's. The boundaries of the projectile and target crater are geometrically defined such that sidewall interaction can be determined, and projectile bending predicted. The penetration of pitched attitude penetrators into thick steel targets at zero obliquity is quite well represented using the above models with a transition from length to diameter dependence at high pitch angles. By using a crater entry offset for oblique targets the effects of projectile pitch have been included. The predicted trends overestimate the penetration depth for positive pitch angles above 4° due to the lack of a bulge algorithm on the impact face. A planned improvement to the model will be to apply similar equations to those for rear surface bulging to the front surface. Additional development is planned to handle different rod and target geometries as well as the introduction of material constitutive models (such as Johnson-Cook) to enable altemate rod materials to be accurately assessed. Acknowledgement ‘The provision of crater images for yawed impact by Dr V. Hobler of EMI Freiburg, and X-ray images from Dr S. Bless of the IAT, Austin is gratefully acknowledged. This work was supported by the UK ‘MoD Corporate Research Programme. References [1] Lanz W, Odermatt W. Penetration limits of conventional large calibre anti-tank guns/Kinetic energy projectiles, TB32, 15 International symposium on ballistics, Jerusalem, Israel, May 1995, [2] Tate A. A theory for the deceleration of long rods after impact, J. Mech. Phys. Solids 15, 387-399, (1967). [3] Walker JD, Anderson Jr. CE. A time dependent model for long rod penetration. Intnl, Jnl. of Impact Engng., Vol. 16-1 pp 19-48, (1995). [4] Tate A. Long rod penetration models ~ Part Il. Extensions to the hydrodynamic theory of penetration, Int. J Mech. Sci. Vol. 28, No 9 ppS99-612, (1986). [5] Eichelberger R. Dynamics of Rod/Bar collision at high velocity, TB11, 15* Intemational symposium on ballistics, Jerusalem, Israel, May 1995, [6] Hobler V, Behner T. Influence of the yaw angle on the performance reduction of long rod projectiles, 18° Intemational Symposium on Ballistics, San Antonio, USA, 1999, [7] Gee Di, Littlefield DL. Yaw impact of rod projectiles, INE, 26 (2001) 211-220. [8] Walker JD. An analytical velocity field for back surface bulging, pp1239-1246, 18" International symposium ‘on ballistics, San Antonio, USA, November 1999, [9] Ravid M, Bodner SR, Walker JD, Chocron S, Anderson Jr. CE, Riegel JP. Modification to the Walker- Anderson penetration model to include exit failure modes and fragmentation, TB34, 17" International symposium on ballistics, Midrand, SA, March 1998 [10] Tate A, Green KEB, Chamberlain PG, Baker RG. Model scale experiments on long rod penetrators, 4 International symposium on ballistics, Monterey, California, October 1978, {11} Roecker E, Grabarek C, The effect of yaw and pitch on long rod penetration into rolled homogeneous armour at various obliquities, 9® Intnl. Symposium on Ballistics, 2:467-473, Shrivenham, UK, April 29-May 1, 1986. [12] Lynch NJ. Constant kinetic energy impacts of scale size KE projectiles at ordnance and hypervelocity, LIE, 23 (1999) 573-584. [13] Behner'T, Hohler V, Anderson Jr. CE, Goodlin D. Influence of yaw angle on the penetration reduction of long zods in oblique targets, 20* International Symposium on Ballistics, Orlando, USA, 2002. [14] Bless $, Subramanian R, Normandia M, Campos J. Reverse impact results for yawed long rods perforating ‘oblique plates, pp653-701, 18° International symposium on ballistics, San Antonio, USA, November 1999. [15] Bless S, Satapathy S, Normandia M. Transverse loads on a yawed projectile, UIE, 23 (1999) 77-86, © QinetiQ Ltd 2002.