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 Phys. Scr. 98 (2023) 015217 https://doi.org/10.1088/1402-4896/acaad4

PAPER

Statefinder diagnosis of Tsallis holographic dark energy model in

f (R, T) Theory
RECEIVED
21 August 2022
REVISED
28 October 2022
ACCEPTED FOR PUBLICATION
Melis Amet Memet1,∗ and Can Aktaş2
12 December 2022 1
School of Graduate Studies, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Çanakkale, 17020, Turkey
2
PUBLISHED Department of Mathematics, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Çanakkale, 17020, Turkey
∗
21 December 2022 Author to whom any correspondence should be addressed.
E-mail: melisahmet.1805@gmail.com and canaktas@comu.edu.tr

Keywords: tsallis holographic dark energy, f(R, T) theory, statefinder parameters

Abstract
In this study, Tsallis Holographic Dark Energy (THDE) was studied in the framework of f (R, T)
gravitational theory by taking into consideration the homogeneous and anisotropic Bianchi-I
spacetime. The Hubble horizon was chosen as IR cutoff of the system. To obtain solutions of field
equations, THDE density and a form of Hubble parameter were used. Additionally, various physical
parameters such as energy of state parameter, deceleration parameter and scale factor have been
discussed. The characteristics and parameters of the model have been also examined by plotting their
evolution graphics for redshift z. Furthermore, statefinder parameters, which are effective tools for
separating dark energy models, have been explored. By the illustration of trajectory in r − s plane, it is
found that this model behaves like Chaplygin gas at initial stage, then ranging in quintessence region it
finally approaches to Λ Cold Dark Matter. Lastly, from the evolutions of r − q and s − q planes it is
seen that the model evolves to the De Sitter expansion point.

1. Introduction

Recognizedly, based on several observations of stars and galaxies, the Universe is suggested to be in an
accelerating phase [1–4]. A cosmic ingredient called dark energy is presumed to be responsible for this
acceleration. Dark energy dominates among the ingredients of universe with a high percentage. To be more
precise, according to Planck observational data dark energy contributes to the 68.3% of the observable universe,
while the percentages for dark matter and baryonic matter are 26.8% and 4.9% respectively [5]. Cosmological
constant (Λ) was introduced as the simplest candidate for dark energy, with Energy of State (EoS) parameter
ω = −1. Many other candidates like tachyon, quintessence, k-essence have been proposed from an approach
over scalar fields.
The holographic dark energy model (HDE), which is of great interest today, has emerged through a
theoretical enterprise of applying the holographic principle to dark energy [6]. Holographic principle states that
the volume of a space can be thought of as encoded on its surface. In the cosmological sense, this principle
determines a superior limit for the Universe’s entropy and there occurs a hypothetical relation between infrared
(IR) and Ultraviolet (UV ) cutoffs. Based on this principle Cohen et al [7] recommended that dark energy should
conform to holographic principle, being limited by an IR cutoff. The definition for energy density of the
standard HDE is given as rDE = 3c 2Mp2 L-2 with L denoting the IR cutoff radius, c being a numerical constant
1
and Mp2 = 8pG being the Planck mass [6]. This definition is related to the entropy-area connection of black
holes, S ∼ A ∼ L2, where A = 4πL2 is the horizon area [7]. Also Cohen et al [7] formulated a connection between
the entropy (S), the IR cutoff (L) and UV cutoff (Λ) as:
3
L3L3  S 4 (1)

© 2022 IOP Publishing Ltd

Phys. Scr. 98 (2023) 015217 M Amet Memet and C Aktaş

A new development in HDE context, has done by Tsallis and Cirto taking Tsallis generalised entropy

Sd = gAd (2)

where γ is an unknown constant and δ shows a non-additive parameter [8]. The new dark energy model that
makes use of Tsallis Entropy was named Tsallis Holographic Dark Energy (THDE). In the wake of combining
the equation (1) with the entropy of equation (2), occurs L4  (g (4p )d ) L2d- 4 where Λ4 shows the vacuum
energy density which is the energy density of dark energy in HDE formulation. Using this inequality, the energy
density of THDE is estimated as:
rT = DL2d- 4 (3)
with D being an unknown parameter [9]. Here, another point worth mentioning is the special cases of parameter
δ. For δ = 1 the expression of energy density reduces to the standart HDE model (rDE = 3c 2Mp2 L-2, with
D = 3c 2Mp2), and for δ = 2 the density is obtained as rT = constant , as this corresponds to the cosmological
constant [10]. Taking into account the Hubble horizon as the IR cutoff of the system L = H−1, the THDE energy
density becomes
rT = DH 4 - 2d (4)
Different dark energy models have found place in the literature. In an attempt to distinguish between them,
Sahni et al [11] developed a geometrical tool, known as statefinder parameters. These parameters have been
examined in many studies for different dark energy models. For instance, statefinder diagnosis was included in
recent studies of THDE utilizing different Bianchi type metrics [12–14].
Sharma and Pradhan [15] applied the statefinder diagnostic to non-interacting THDE in the context of flat
FRW universe. The trajectory planes were plotted for different intervals of δ, concluding that THDE behaves like
quintessence and Chaplygin gas for 1 < δ < 2 and for δ > 2, respectively. A similar study, analyzing both
interacting and non-interacting (interaction between dark matter and dark energy) THDE models was done by
Varshney et al [16]. Here, THDE starts its r − s plane evolution from Standart Cold Dark Matter (SCDM) only
when interaction is absent, while it tends to Λ Cold Dark Matter (ΛCDM) point for both models. Again in r − q
plane it starts evolving from SCDM only when interaction is absent, while it tends to de Sitter point for both
models. Srivastava et al [17] examined Tsallis agegraphic holographic dark energy (TADE) without interaction
and considering FRW universe. In this study for r − q plane the evolution starts from SCDM point, go towards
the de Sitter point but it arrives to a final point far from the de Sitter expansion. Also, the s − q evolutionary plane
shows that this model is far from the cosmological constant point at the beginning. An another study was held by
Srivastava et al [18] considering a new TADE interacting model for FLRW universe. The study shows that the
(s,r) curve evolves from quintessence region at an early stage and tends to the ΛCDM point, while (q,r) curve
starts from the left of SCDM point tending to the de-Sitter expansion point.
Although General Relativity attempts to describe the structure of the Universe on a vast scale, it is unable to
explain issues such as the Universe’s expansion, dark matter and dark energy. As a result, alternate theories to
this idea are required. Lyra Theory, Creation Field Theory, f (R), f (G) and f (R, T) theory are examples of
modified theories that have been proposed by additions to General Relativity. Harko et al [19] proposed the
f (R, T) theory in 2011 in which Einstein field equations are re-expressed using a f (R, T) function and making
additions to both the matter and geometry parts. Here, R is the Ricci scalar, and T represents the trace of the
energy momentum tensor. The f (R, T) gravity can be thought of as a fundamental gravitational theory that
explains the evolution of the Universe.
General Relativity, f (R), f (T) and Brans-Dicke have all found applications for THDE [20–24]. Let us focus on
studies in the f (R, T) gravity theory. The Kantowski Sachs universe model, which is filled with dark matter and
THDE in f (R, T) theory, was investigated by Bharali and Das [25]. Sharma [26] studied the similarities between
the quintessence dark energy model and the THDE in the context of f (R, T) and attempted to reconstruct them.
Varshney et al [27] researched reconstruction of models by proposing a link between the THDE and the
k-essence and dilaton scalar fields in f (R, T) theory. Sarma [28] studied THDE in f (R, T) theory using the axially
symmetric Bianchi-I space time in a recent paper. By studying volumetric power and exponential laws, Shaikh
and Wankhade [29] discovered solutions in f (R, T) theory with Bianchi I Kasner form spacetime. In a different
study, Varshney et al [30] looked at the equivalence of the scalar fields of tachyon, phantom, and Dirac Born-
Infeld-essence with THDE in the context of f (R, T) gravity.
There is so much in the Universe that is astonishing. With its gigantic size, different wonders it contains and
its mysterious nature, it has always been a matter of curiosity for humanity. As a living being of this universe,
curiosity about its formation and its development over time, constitutes a source of motivation for this analysis.
Dark energy, nominated as the reason for the accelerating expansion of the Universe, is a very interesting subject
due to its mysterious nature. HDE; on the other hand, is one of the most researched dark energy candidates in
the recent past. Thus, after a comprehensive literature research, a universe model was created for THDE with the

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Phys. Scr. 98 (2023) 015217 M Amet Memet and C Aktaş

help of a metric and modified gravity theory and its theoretical analysis including also observational data was
made. With the results and comments obtained in this study, it is aimed to contribute to this field and to create a
reference for future studies.
The outline of the paper is as follows: in section 2, the formulation of f (R, T) was given and the field
equations for THDE model using Bianchi-I metric were obtained. In section 3 the solutions for field equations
were given and different physical dynamics of the model were examined through the instrument of various
graphics. Also, statefinder parameters an stability were analyzed and were interpreted in this section. Section 4
presents the discussion and summary of the results.

2. Field equations for f (R, T) theory

Harko et al [19] proposed a modificated form of General Relativity, the f (R, T) gravitation theory. Here R is the
Ricci tensor and T represents the trace of energy momentum tensor. The field equations are derived from the
Einstein-Hilbert action principle as follows [19]:
1
fR (R , T ) R ij -
f (R , T ) gij - (
i j + g ij  ) fR (R , T )
2
=8pTij - fT (R , T )(Tij + Qij ) (5)
¶f ¶f
where fR = ,f
¶R T
= ¶T
, ∇i is the covariant derivative and , = ∇i∇i and [19]
¶ 2L
Qij = - 2Tij + gij L m - 2g kl ij mkl (6)
¶g ¶g
Note that Lm is the matter Lagrangian density and the energy momentum tensor (Tij) represented by the
energy density (ρ), the pressure (p) and the four-velocity ui, is considered as: [19]
Tij = (r + p ) u i u j - pgij (7)

Here ui satisfies uiu i = 1 and u i∇kui = 0. Also, the trace of it can be calculated with T = g ijTij. [19] Matter
Lagrangian may be taken as Lm = − p , so equation (6) becomes
Qij = - 2Tij - pgij (8)

Additionally, Harko et al [19] have proposed three different types for the f (R, T) function, the choice which of
them lead to several models. In the present study this function is considered as f (R, T) = R + 2f (T) and the
gravitational equations from equation (5) considering also (8) are given as:
1
R ij - Rg = 8pTij + 2f ¢ (T ) Tij + (2pf ¢ (T ) + f (T )) gij (9)
2 ij
Here prime means derivative with respect to the argument and the function has been taken as f (T) = μT where μ
is a constant. Also it is worth mentioning that for the choice of μ = 0 the equations reduce to General Relativity.
The cosmological view that the Universe was anisotropic in its early phases dominates [31]. The Cosmic
Microwave Background (CMB), as a crucial piece of observational evidence, has revealed several anomalies that
point to the presence of an anisotropic phase which evolves into a homogeneous and isotropic universe [3]. In
order to understand the early universe, homogeneous and anisotropic models are essential. So, THDE will be
investigated using the homogeneous and anisotropic Bianchi type-I spacetime in this study. Bianchi-I spacetime
is described as
ds 2 = dt 2 - A2 dx 2 - B2dy 2 - C 2dz 2 (10)
Here A, B and C are functions of cosmic time t and the metric is given in the cartesian coordinates (x, y, z, t).
Additionally some kinematical quantities for this spacetime like Hubble parameter H, expansion scalar θ and
volume V are found as following:

1 ⎛ A B C
H= ⎜ + + ⎞ ⎟ (11)
3⎝A B C⎠

A B C
q= + + (12)
A B C
V = a3 = ABC (13)
Here dot shows derivative with respect to cosmic time t. On the other hand, the Universe is filled with matter as
well as a hypothetical fluid known as holographic dark energy. The energy momentum tensor Tm ij for matter is

3
Phys. Scr. 98 (2023) 015217 M Amet Memet and C Aktaş

Tijm = rm u i u j (14)

where ρm represent the density of matter [32]. The energy momentum tensor TTij for THDE is defined as
TijT = (rT + p ) u i u j + p gij (15)

where ρT and p state THDE energy density and pressure, respectively [32]. Thus, the total energy momentum
tensor takes the form
Tij = Tijm + TijT (16)

Now, using the metric of equations (10) and (16) in (9) the field equations for the discussed metric in f (R, T) are
obtained as
B̈ C̈ 
BC
+ + = - (3m + 8p ) p + mrm + mrT (17)
B C BC
Ä C̈  
AC
+ + = - (3m + 8p ) p + mrm + mrT (18)
A C AC
Ä B̈  
AB
+ + = - (3m + 8p ) p + mrm + mrT (19)
A B AB
 
AB 
BC  
AC
+ + = (3m + 8p )(rm + rT ) - pm (20)
AB BC AC
Here dot indicates derivative with respect to cosmic time t.

3. Solutions and physical characteristics

The system consists of four field equations and six unknowns as A, B, C, p, ρm, ρT. The solution of this system of
equations necessitates the use of two auxiliary equations.

(i) To begin, the THDE energy density by estimating the Hubble horizon as a IR cut-off, with D being an
unknown parameter can be used as in equation (4)
(ii) Also, Hubble parameter can be used in order to obtain exact solutions. Hubble parameter, implying how fast
the Universe is expanding, is crucial in cosmology and this information can be used to calcuate universe age.
The Hubble parameter which was preferred in this study is [33]

a b
H= = (21)
a t+a
in which α and β are constants and a indicates the scale factor. From the equation (21) the scale factor as well as
the deceleration parameter q are calculated as
a = c1 e 2b t +a (22)
d 1 1
q = -1 + ⎛ ⎞ = -1 + (23)
dt ⎝ H ⎠ 2b t + a
Here c1 is an integration constant. Primarily, from equations (13) and (22) the metric potential A can be obtained
as follows
c1 e 6b t + a
A= (24)
BC
Now, using the field equations (17)–(20) and the equations (21)–(24) metric potentials are found as
1 c 3 e-6b t + a (1 + 6b t + a ) + 36b 3 t + a - c 4 (6b 2+ 1)
B = e 18b 2 (25)
1 c1 e-6b t + a (1 + 6b t + a ) + 36b 3 t + a - c 2 (6b 2+ 1)
C = e 18b 2 (26)
where c1, c2, c3, c4 are integration constants.
After that, from equation (4) and the field equations (17)–(20), the THDE energy density and matter energy
density are obtained as
rT = Db 4 - 2d (t + a)d- 2 (27)

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Phys. Scr. 98 (2023) 015217 M Amet Memet and C Aktaş

Table 1. The values corresponding to the α and β, which were chosen such as to be compatible with the
q0 value of the observation data.

Data α β c1 c2 c3 c4 μ δ D

SN Ia [35] 0.88 0.4833 0.025 4.4 1 2 −6.25 1.4 3

1 (c12 + c1 c3 + c32) b m + 6b (4p + m) t + a ⎞

rm = - + ⎛⎜ ⎟ - Db
4 - 2d (t + a)d - 2 (28)
2 (4p + m) e 12 b t + a 8 ⎝ (t + a)3 2 (2p + m)(4p + m) ⎠
Additionally, the pressure is found as
1 (c12 + c1 c3 + c32) b ⎛⎜ (8p + 3m)
p=- + - 6b ⎞⎟ (29)
2 (4p + m) e12b t + a 8(t + a)(2p + m) ⎝ (t + a)1 2 (4p + m) ⎠
In addition, let us calculate the other dynamics. EoS parameter which is indicated as ωT, can be found by the
p
formulation wT = r as following
T

1 ⎛ 2(c12 + c1 c3 + c32)(t + a)2 - d b 2d- 4 b 2d- 3 (t + a)2 - d (8p + 3m) 3b 2d- 2 (t + a)1 - d ⎞
1

w=- ⎜- - + ⎟
4D ⎝ (4p + m) e12b t + a 2(2p + m)(4p + m) 2p + m ⎠
(30)
Thereafter, the mean anisotropy parameter (Δ) has the form
1 3 Hi - H 2(c12 + c1 c3 + c32)(t + a)
D= å ⎛
3 i=1 ⎝ H ⎠
⎞=
3b 2e12b t + a
(31)

The scalar expansion θ and the volume V depending on t are obtained as following
3b
q= (32)
t+a
V = c1 e 6b t +a (33)

3.1. Graphical discussion

From the solutions is seen that ρm, p and ω have singularity at t = − α, μ = − 2π and μ = − 4π. So, these
parameters cannot take the specified values. Phase transition takes place at the point where the deceleration
parameter takes the value of zero, q (ttr ) = 0, where ttr is the phase transition point. From equation (23), this
point is found as:
1
ttr = - a + (34)
4b 2
Here, while the Universe is passing from deceleration to acceleration for t = 0, q > 0 so the constrain for the
parameters is obtained as b a < 12 . Also, t0 showing the age of the Universe, in this study is considered as
t0 = 13.8Gyr relying on SN Ia+OHD (SN:Supernovae, OHD:Observational Hubble Data) [34]. On the other
hand, for the deceleration parameter there is the value of q0 = q(t0) = − 0.73 according to SN Ia observational
data [35].
Now, taking into consideration all the limitations, the constants to be compatible with the observational data
of q0 are calculated as
Here using equation (23), values of α and β were selected to satisfy q0 = − 0.73 and with the constraint of
1
b a < 2 as mentioned above. Afterwards using equation (22), c1 was selected such as to satisfy a0 = 1. For all
graphical representations the values of table 1 were used.
According to observational and theoretical perspectives, the deceleration parameter q is the main indicator
of universe expansion or contraction based on its sign [32]. A positive q means decelerating expansion, while a
negative q shows accelerating expansion. If the plot of deceleration parameter in figure 1 is analyzed, it appears a
sign changing from positive to negative and it is lying in the range −1 < q < 0 which is consistent with
observations [1, 2].
The relation between the scale factor (a) and redshift z is expressed as:
a0
=1+z (35)
a (t )
Here a0 is the present value of the scale factor, which is accepted to be a0 = 1, so the relation becomes
1
a (t )
= 1 + z . Using this relation, the following time-redshift connection is acquired:

5
Phys. Scr. 98 (2023) 015217 M Amet Memet and C Aktaş

Figure 1. The evolution of deceleration parameter q with redshift z.

Figure 2. The variation of redshift z versus cosmic time t.

2
1
t (z ) = - a + ⎡ t 0 + a - ln (1 + z ) ⎤ (36)
⎢
⎣ 2b ⎥
⎦

Figure 2 shows the variation of redshift z with cosmic time t. From this figure it is observed that for t → 0,
z → ∞ and for t → ∞ , z → − 1.
Behaviors of ρm and ρT against cosmic time t are shown in figure 3 and figure 4, respectively, where both are
positive and decreasing functions as time passes.
The pressure obtained in equation (29) is shown in figure 5 which is negative, as expected in a dark energy
model, while dark energy is considered to be a kind of energy with negative pressure [36]. It also approaches zero
as z → − 1, i.e. t → ∞ .
p
Also, equation (30) represents the expression for Eos parameter w = r which is time depended and tends to
T
−1 by the time increasing. Figure 6 depicts the evolution of EoS parameter againts redshift z, It varies in
phantom model era with ω < − 1 and it approaches to −1 i.e. ΛCDM while z → − 1. Moreover, if the present
value of EoS parameter of this model is calculated, it takes the values of w0 = − 1.307 for z = 0, showing affinity
with the observational data for w0 values shown in table 2.
Lastly, scale factor is a parameter that changes with time and characterizes universe’s expansion. The
behavior of scale factor of equation (22) against redshift z is plotted in figure 7. It is an increasing function from
past to future in which the present value equals to a0 = a(t0) = 1.

6
Phys. Scr. 98 (2023) 015217 M Amet Memet and C Aktaş

Figure 3. The evolution of density of matter ρm according to redshift z.

Figure 4. The alteration of THDE density ρT versus redshift z.

Figure 5. The behavior of pressure p depending on redshift z.

3.2. Statefinder diagnostics

Statefinder diagnostics, developed by Sahni et al [11], are geometrical diagnostic tools that can be used to
distinguish between different dark energy models. They are denoted as a (r,s) pair where r represents the rate of
change of the deceleration parameter and s is a basic combination of r and q. It’s worth noting that the positive r
parameter enables accelerated expansion [14]. The statefinder pair is defined as follows [11]:

7
Phys. Scr. 98 (2023) 015217 M Amet Memet and C Aktaş

Figure 6. The EoS parameter evolution with redshift z.

Figure 7. The scale factor a evolution versus redshift z.

Table 2. Observational data for the present value of EoS parameter.

w0 Data Reference

−1.028 ± 0.031 68 % Planck TT,TE,EE+lowE [37]

+lensing+SNe+BAO
−1.03 ± 0.03 Planck + Pantheon + BAO [37]
−1.084 ± 0.063 WMAP + eCMB + BAO + H0 [38]
+ SNe

Note. BAO:Baryon Acoustic Oscillation, WMAP:Wilkinson Microwave

Anisotropy Probe, eCMB: extended CMB

a⃛ r-1
r= , s= 1
(37)
aH 3
3 (q - 2 )

Now, applying equation (22) in (r,s) formulation, can be obtained:

6b t + a - 3
r=1- (38)
4b 2 (t + a)
2b (t + a) - t + a
s= (39)
2b (t + a)(3b t + a - 1)
Here r and s are time dependent functions. According to the values that takes the (r,s) couple, different dark
energy models such as Λ Cold Dark Matter (ΛCDM), Standart Cold Dark Matter (SCDM), Chaplygin Gas (CG),
quintessence occur. More precisely [24]:

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Phys. Scr. 98 (2023) 015217 M Amet Memet and C Aktaş

Figure 8. The first parameter of statefinder parameters r versus redshift z.

Figure 9. The second parameter of statefinder parameters s versus redshift z.

• (r, s) = (0, 1) corresponds to ΛCDM

• (r, s) = (1, 1) corresponds to SCDM
• r > 1, s < 0 corresponds to CG region
• r < 1, s > 0 corresponds to quintessence region

The behavior of r and s versus z are displayed in figures 8 and 9, respectively. The r parameter is seen to stay
positive throughout of the evolution of universe. This confirms a transition from deceleration to the present
accelerating phase [39]. It also evolves below the ΛCDM line with a decreasing behavior at the beginning and
then increases approaching to the ΛCDM. It is observed that both the statefinder parameters r and s diverge from
the ΛCDM in the beginning, i.e. at high redshift both tending to it in the future.
The evolution in r − s plane is plotted in figure 10 with fixed points of ΛCDM and SCDM, as (r, s) = (1, 0)
and (r, s) = (1, 1), respectively. Here from the r − s trajectory it is observed that it starts its evolution from the
region of r > 1, s < 0 which corresponds to Chaplygin gas region. It then passing through the ΛCDM point
enters into the region of r < 1, s > 0 which is the characteristic of quintessence model. Finally, it is observed that
the statefinder couple tends to ΛCDM point at late times. For the sake of complementarity, the evolutionary
behavior of the model was studied in r − q plane in figure 11. Here, the fixed point for SCDM is (r, q) = (1, 0.5)
from which the model is seen to show a small deviation and evolves to the De Sitter expansion fixed point
(r, q) = (1, − 1). Lastly, the s − q trajectory was plotted in figure 12 where it shows again convergence to the De
Sitter fixed point (s, q) = (0, − 1). The trajectories of our model show comformity with the models of [14, 40].

9
Phys. Scr. 98 (2023) 015217 M Amet Memet and C Aktaş

Figure 10. The statefinder evolutionary trajectory in r − s plane. The green dot indicates the present value of the parameters (s0, r0).

Figure 11. The statefinder trajectory in r − q plane. The green dot shows the present value of (q0, r0).

Figure 12. The statefinder trajectory in s − q plane. The green dot is the current value of the parameters (q0, s0).

10
Phys. Scr. 98 (2023) 015217 M Amet Memet and C Aktaş

Figure 13. The squared sound speed v2s against redshift z for different δ parameters.

3.3. Stability
dp
In this section, by taking squared speed of sound vs2 = drT
model stability against perturbation is examined. The
squared sound speed is found as:

vs2 =
b 2d - 4 ( a + t ) 3 - d ( 3b (c12 + c1 c 3 + c 32 ) e-12b
(m + 4p ) a + t
a+t
+
3b 2
4 (m + 2p )(a + t )2
-
3b (3m + 8p )
16 (m + 2p )(m + 4p )(a + t )5 2 ) (40)
(d - 2) D
Stability can be itendified by the determination of the sign of v2s . For better analysing, the evolution of v2s
against redshift z is plotted in figure 13. For vs2 > 0 means that the model is stable against perturbations, while a
negative v2s implies an unstable model. It is observed that here, the sign of v2s depends on the value of δ. For δ < 2,
it is seen that vs2 < 0 so the THDE model is unstable, while δ > 2 provides vs2 < 0 which means that THDE
model is stable against perturbation.

4. Conclusion

This study is about examining THDE in homogeneous and anisotropic Bianchi-I universe in the framework of
f (R, T) theory. The THDE energy density and a model of Hubble parameter was used in order to obtain the
solutions for field equations. It should be pointed that while t = 0 (z → ∞) shows the beginning,
t → ∞ (z = − 1) indicates late times of the Universe. For the adjustment of the constants used in the figures, an
observational data for deceleration parameter q0 was used. Also, the graphics were plotted in terms of redshift z.
At the beginning (t = 0) metric potentials A, B, C which have a very small value, they increase by time passing.
From the behavior of deceleration parameter in figure 1, can be concluded that the Universe shows a phase
transition from decelerating to accelerating. The energy densities as shown in figures 3 and 4, have high values at
the initial stage and they decrease over time. The pressure stays negative throughout the evolution of universe,
tending to zero, as seen in figure 5. This is in line with the nature of dark energy that has negative and repulsive
pressure. The EoS parameter of the model behaves like phantom energy and it converges to −1, which
corresponds to the ΛCDM. Also, the present value of EoS parameter is obtained as ω0 = − 1.307 showing
proximity with the observational data of table 2. The scale factor is an increasing function with present value
a0 = 1. Also, for t → ∞ the mean anisotropy parameter Δ → 0, so the anisotropic feature of the Universe
vanishes and goes to isotropy. On the other hand, the statefinder parameters for the model were examined by
plotting different trajectories. Firstly, the behaviors of r and s of figures 8 and 9 depicts that both parameters have
tendency to ΛCDM in the future. Afterwards observing the r − s plane in figure 10 it is observed that the (r,s) pair
shows various behaviors. Starting from the Chaplygin gas region, continues with the quintessence era and finally
it tends to the point (1, 0) which is the fixed point for ΛCDM. The statefinder diagrams of r − q and s − q reveals
that the evolution curves of our model will approach to the De Sitter expansion fixed point. Finally, the stability
of the model using square sound speed v2s was discussed, with a result that the stability varies according to the
value of δ parameter.

Data availability statement

All data that support the findings of this study are included within the article (and any supplementary files).

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Phys. Scr. 98 (2023) 015217 M Amet Memet and C Aktaş

ORCID iDs

Melis Amet Memet https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4607-5046

Can Aktaş https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0603-7862

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