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A Novel Methodology to Enhance the Smooth Running of the PM BLDC Motor

Drive Using PWM-PWM Logic and Advance Angle Method

Article in Machines · December 2022

DOI: 10.3390/machines11010041

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 machines
Article
A Novel Methodology to Enhance the Smooth Running of the
PM BLDC Motor Drive Using PWM-PWM Logic and Advance
Angle Method
Balamurali Surakasi 1 , Raavi Satish 1 , Balamurali Pydi 2 , Hossam Kotb 3 , Mokhtar Shouran 4
and Bdereddin Abdul Samad 4, *
Citation: Surakasi, B.; Satish, R.;
Pydi, B.; Kotb, H.; Shouran, M.;
Abdul Samad, B. A Novel
Methodology to Enhance the Smooth
Running of the PM BLDC Motor
Drive Using PWM-PWM Logic and
Advance Angle Method. Machines
2023, 11, 41. https://doi.org/
10.3390/machines11010041
Academic Editors: Cheng Xue and
Ahmed Abu-Siada
Received: 7 November 2022
Revised: 23 December 2022
Accepted: 26 December 2022
Published: 30 December 2022
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Machines 2023, 11, 41. https://doi.org/10.3390/machines11010041
1 Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Anil Neerukonda Institute of Technology and Sciences,
Visakhapatnam 531162, India
2 Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Aditya Institute of Technology & Management (A),
Tekkali 532201, India
3 Department of Electrical Power and Machines, Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University,
Alexandria 21544, Egypt
4 Magnetics and Materials Research Group, School of Engineering, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF24 3AA, UK
* Correspondence: abdulsamadbf@cardiff.ac.uk
Abstract: This paper addresses the active torque ripple compensation of a permanent magnet brush-
less direct-current motor (PMBLDC) drive with a new pulse width modulation (PWM) technique and
advance angle method. Torque ripple is a well-known problem in BLDC motors which is produced
by a discrepancy between the stator current and the back electromotive force (back-emf) waveforms.
The advanced angle method proposed in this paper generates a maximum torque in the PM BLDC
motor by decreasing the displacement between the phase voltage and phase current in proportion to
the load. Further, a simple and comprehensive PWM-PWM logic is proposed in this paper to reduce
the torque ripples. The test results show that the BLDC motor drive achieves good steady-state
performance while maintaining a quick dynamic response. The performance of the PWM-PWM
logic and advance angle method, have been tested and compared with the practical results for the
characteristics of DC bus voltage, DC bus current, electromagnetic torque, shaft torque, mechanical
torque, phase voltage, phase current and PWM signal.
Keywords: BLDC motor; PWM-PWM; AS-voltage method; advance angle method; speed control
1. Introduction
1.1. Background and Motivation
Due to the rapid development in control technology in recent years, the BLDC motor
has wide applications such as actuation, positioning, servo and variable speed applications.
For accurate speed and position control applications, speed regulation is an important part
of the BLDC motor drive. Controllers with maximum bandwidth are essential to handle the
torque ripple frequencies in order to synthesize the right input voltages in the framework
of torque ripple reduction.
1.2. Literature Review
The authors of [1] proposed a magnetic circuit model for carrying out theoretical
mathematical analysis of the magnetic field in the single-phase BLDC slim fan motor, but
the too-high axial magnetic force ripple causes the vibration in the axial direction. In [2], a
special study and research on the individual and combined effects of stator inter-turn fault
and rotor demagnetization effects in a surface-mounted PM BLDC motor were presented.
As well, the comprehensive modeling of faults was accomplished using well-established
fault modeling techniques. But the reduction in torque ripples was not addressed in
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/machines
Machines 2023, 11, 41 2 of 17

this paper. The authors of [3] considered the square wave phase current injection through
predictive current control strategies for the PM BLDC motor in the stationary plane, whereas
the PI-PWM control failed to maintain average torque after 67% of the rated speed.
In [4], a detailed discussion of the PM BLDC motor demagnetization fault was pre-
sented. The modeling of the machine was carried out using various available techniques
such as the method based on an equivalent electric circuit or the analytical method that
takes into account several hypotheses in order to simplify the analysis, but more torque
ripples were generated during the demagnetization fault in the BLDC motor. The authors
of [5] proposed an enhanced flux observation method to filter the harmonic content under
the rotor synchronous reference frame for the PM BLDC motor with a rotor damper cage.
The authors of [6] proposed a technique to minimize the overall torque ripples for the
three-phase PM BLDC motor drive in the presence of phase current shift error. The maxi-
mum phase shift is limited which is not proportional to the load. Authors of [7] proposed a
two-phase dual-stator axial-flux PM BLDC motor with an ironless rotor for higher torque
per magnet volume which is restricted only to the pull drive technique. In [8], a response
surface method for the optimal design of a PM BLDC motor with a three-dimensional
structure was presented. The authors of [9] presented a phase lock loop control algorithm
for the deployment of precision control of a sensorless PM BLDC motor. Authors of [10]
used the virtual work method for obtaining the analytical expression of cogging torque
with asymmetrical rotor magnets in the PM BLDC motor. The authors of [11] implemented
support vector regression and adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system-based controllers for
the position control of a three-phase PM BLDC motor. Authors of [12] proposed a simple
and efficient method to achieve the integrated control of motoring and regenerative braking
of the BLDC motor. Authors of [13] aimed at the problems of the poor adaptive ability
in the current control methods for the BLDC motor, an adaptive fuzzy proportional inte-
gral derivative controller was proposed to realize the better control performance of speed
for the BLDC motor. In [14], a fast commutation error correction method was proposed
to ensure ideal torque performance and low power consumption at constant or rapidly
varying speeds. But when the motor was operating at high frequencies, the corresponding
switching losses were addressed. In [15], Fourier series-based phase delay compensation
was realized by designing an inverter circuit that switches the phase voltages according
to the phase currents. Authors of [16] presented a novel sensorless start-up strategy for
a 315 kW high-speed magnetic suspension BLDC motor with small inductance and non-
ideal back electromotive force. The magnitudes of the transient currents are very high
even though the BLDC motor is operating at low speeds. In [17], a combination of two
and three-phase switching methods to reduce switching loss was presented and in the
conduction region, the conventional two-phase switching topology was used to reduce the
switching loss. Authors of [18] presented a torque ripple compensation technique for a BL
DC motor drive that is operated without a DC link capacitor. But the responses are taking
more time to settle down and also have more ripples. The design of a digital current control
applied to a variable-speed low inductance Brushless DC motor drive was presented in [19].
Authors of [20] proposed a torque ripple minimization method for BLDC motors by using a
novel switching technique. The commutation judgment determines the normal conduction
period and commutation period by tracking the mode of operation according to the speed.
Ripples are present in the experimental three-phase currents. In [21], three fault-tolerant
control methods are compared to reduce torque ripple by controlling the magnitude and
phase angle of healthy phase currents under open circuit failure to remove the second
harmonic component of torque, which has a large influence on torque ripples. A novel
driving technique including phase advance and overlap is introduced in order to obtain
the minimum torque ripples. With a careful selection of the phase advance and overlap
angles, a minimum torque ripple of 12% has been achieved [22]. In [23], an equivalent
magnetizing current method was employed in the mechanical finite element analysis to
adjust the leading angle of the BLDC motor and also studied the electrical characteristics
analysis as well as the mechanical noise and vibration of the BLDC motor.

Machines 2023, 11, 41
achieved [22]. In [23], an equivalent magnetizing current method was employed in the
mechanical finite element analysis to adjust the leading angle of the BLDC motor and also
studied the electrical characteristics analysis as well as the mechanical noise and vibration
3 of 17
of the BLDC motor.

1.3. Contributions
1.3. Contributions
The major
The major contributions
contributionsof
ofthe
thepaper
paperare
areoutlined
outlinedas
asfollows,
follows,
•• Sliding mode
Sliding modecontroller
controllerisisdesigned
designedtotoidentify
identifythe
thespeed
speederror
errorininthe
theBLDC
BLDCmotor.
motor.
•• Back-emf waveforms are generated using hall sensor
Back-emf waveforms are generated using hall sensor signals.signals.
•• Advancedangle
Advanced angle method
method (AS (AS voltage
voltage method)
method) is
is implemented
implemented to to adjust
adjust the
the lead
lead angle.
angle.
•• PWM-PWMcommutation
PWM-PWM commutationtechnique
techniqueisisdeveloped
developedto todrive
drivethe
theBLDC
BLDCmotor.
motor.
•• The toque ripples are minimized for the dynamic
The toque ripples are minimized for the dynamic load. load.
This paper
This paper proposes
proposes aaPWM-PWM
PWM-PWMcommutation
commutation technique and
technique implemented
and implemented an ad-
an
vanced angle method to minimize the torque ripples in the BLDC motor
advanced angle method to minimize the torque ripples in the BLDC motor for dynamic for dynamic load.
In this
load. Inpaper, the speed
this paper, errorerror
the speed is identified by using
is identified a sliding
by using mode
a sliding controller
mode [24].[24].
controller TheTherest
of the paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, the materials of the BLDC
rest of the paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, the materials of the BLDC motor and motor and
controllersare
controllers aredescribed.
described.InInSection
Section3, 3,
thethe method
method forfor minimization
minimization of torque
of torque ripples
ripples of theof
the BLDC motor is presented. Results and discussions are presented in Section
BLDC motor is presented. Results and discussions are presented in Section 4. Finally, the 4. Finally,
the conclusions
conclusions are discussed
are discussed in Section
in Section 5. 5.

2. Materials
2. Materials of
of the
the BLDC
BLDC Motor
Motor and
and Controllers
Controllers
2.1.
2.1. Machine
Machine Model
Model and
and Power
Power Control
Control Theory
Theory
The
The basic
basic control
control of
of PMBLDC
PMBLDC is is shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 1.
1. The
The mathematical
mathematical representation
representation
of
of the
the PMBLDC
PMBLDC motor
motor and
and the
the expressions
expressions for
for stator
stator phase
phase windings
windings are
are well
well presented
presented
in
in [13,24].
[13,24].

Machines2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 18

should be applied in advance to the back-emf with the phase current. Flux weakening,
reduced torque, and low efficiency arise from any phase difference between back-emf and
phase current. When the North pole of the rotor passes through a hall sensor, it produces
aFigure
high1.1.state,
Figure and when
Components
Components thePMBLDC
of the
of the South pole
PMBLDC passes through the hall sensor, it produces a low
drive.
drive.
state. The three hall sensors will produce three states of the signal during any 600 electrical
as shown
The
The shapein Figure
shape of the3.back-emf
of the The three
back-emf hall sensors
induced
induced in
in the will
the statorproduce
stator coils
coils is six states based
is trapezoidal
trapezoidal and
and isison the rotor
commonly
commonly
position.
controlled Based
by on the
trapezoidal six states
control of hall
[25]. sensors,
The stator
controlled by trapezoidal control [25]. The stator magnetic field the controller
magnetic field will
can identify
be the
rotated bytwo stator
commu-
tating
tating two
windings phases
twowhich at
at aa time
phasesneed to bein
time this
this control,
energized.
in As as
control, shown
aasresult,
shownthein
in Figure
Figure2. 2. There
commutation Thereisare six
sixalternative
continuous.
are Each
alternative
rotor
rotoralignments,
phase terminal ofeach
alignments, the60°
each 0 apart.
BLDC
60 apart. It
It means
motor for
for every
is energized
means every 60°,
by the two
600, DC correct
voltage
two phases
which
correct have
have to
to be
is electrically
phases be
commutated.
switched
commutated. everySix-step
Six-step control,
600 of rotation
control,[28].also known
also As as
as trapezoidal
a result,
known the waveform
trapezoidal control, allows
for each
control, us
phase
allows to
to make
make the
us winding is
thea
rotor spin.
staircase
rotor spin. with 60 0 for each step.

The rotor position can be identified by the hall sensors [26] to properly commutate
the motor at the right times with the correct phases. Commutation occurs in such a way
that the rotor never aligns with the magnetic field of the stator but rather chases it. The
motor produces zero torque when the magnetic fields of the rotor and stator are com-
pletely aligned and develops a maximum torque when the fields are separated by 900. To
keep the BLDC motor running at a constant speed, it requires a constant voltage which is
produced by a three-phase converter. However, in order to drive the BLDC motor at dif-
ferent speeds, the variable voltage must be applied. This can be achieved by PWM logic.
The BLDC motor phase current lags the phase voltage because of the inductance of the
winding and this angle depends on the speed [27]. If the BLDC motor is running at high
speed, then this angle will be greater. To achieve maximum torque, the phase voltage

Figure 2.
Figure 2. Control
Control block
block diagram
diagram of
of the
the BLDC
BLDC motor.
motor.

The space vector produced from these three-phase currents results in a smooth rota-
tion. The highest torque is produced in the BLDC motor by energizing the correct phase
pair in sequence to produce a smooth constant torque. But in practice, the phase current
cannot change instantly from low to high. There will be transient periods of rise and fall
Machines 2023, 11, 41 4 of 17

The rotor position can be identified by the hall sensors [26] to properly commutate
the motor at the right times with the correct phases. Commutation occurs in such a way
that the rotor never aligns with the magnetic field of the stator but rather chases it. The
motor produces zero torque when the magnetic fields of the rotor and stator are completely
aligned and develops a maximum torque when the fields are separated by 90°. To keep the
BLDC motor running at a constant speed, it requires a constant voltage which is produced
by a three-phase converter. However, in order to drive the BLDC motor at different speeds,
the variable voltage must be applied. This can be achieved by PWM logic. The BLDC motor
phase current lags the phase voltage because of the inductance of the winding and this
angle depends on the speed [27]. If the BLDC motor is running at high speed, then this
angle will be greater. To achieve maximum torque, the phase voltage should be applied in
advance to the back-emf with the phase current. Flux weakening, reduced torque, and low
efficiency arise from any phase difference between back-emf and phase current. When the
North pole of the rotor passes through a hall sensor, it produces a high state, and when the
South pole passes through the hall sensor, it produces a low state. The three hall sensors
will produce three states of the signal during any 60° electrical as shown in Figure 3. The
three hall sensors will produce six states based on the rotor position. Based on the six
states of hall sensors, the controller will identify the two stator windings which need to be
energized. As a result, the commutation is continuous. Each phase terminal of the BLDC
Machines2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
motor is energized by DC voltage which is electrically switched every 60° of rotation 5 of 18
[28].
As a result, the waveform for each phase winding is a staircase with 60° for each step.

Figure 3.
Figure 3. Hall
Hall sensor
sensor signal,
signal, back-emf,
back-emf, output
output torque
torqueand
andphase
phasecurrent.
current.

3. Methodology for Minimization

The space vector produced fromof Torque
these Ripplescurrents
three-phase in the BLDC
resultsMotor
in a smooth rotation.
The highest torque is produced
3.1. Advance Angle Adjustment in the BLDC motor by energizing the correct phase pair in
sequence to produce a smooth constant torque. But in practice, the phase current cannot
To obtain the constant torque of a BLDC motor that drives with a square-wave cur-
change instantly from low to high. There will be transient periods of rise and fall that
rent of electrical 1200 duration, we need to ensure that the phase current is commuted
every electrical 600 degrees of rotation. Commutation induces a phase lag and deviations
from the ideal square-wave current as a result of the inductance levels of the motor wind-
ing process. The torque characteristic is changed by the commutation timing because
torque is derived from the multiplication of the back-emf and the phase current. The ad-
Machines 2023, 11, 41 5 of 17

will generate ripples at the output, which will coincide with each phase switch. This
causes a ripple in the motor’s output torque, so vibrations will be generated in the BLDC
motor. When a sudden load is applied to the BLDC motor, the variation in torque is
continuous and looks sinusoidal. This continuous change in torque ripple can be termed
torque ripple frequency.

2.2. Advance Angle Method

The stator windings of the BLDC motor are excited only by using a DC voltage source.
In this method, the displacement between the phase voltage and phase current is reduced
by energizing the phase in advance by 0° to 58°. Later, the angle of the phase current is
advanced. This reduces the lag between phase voltage and phase current in the BLDC
motor. This prevents the current phase from lagging behind the back-emf, which results in
lower motor output efficiency [29].

2.3. Pulse Width Modulation

In this PWM logic, with the 120°rotor magnetic pole position detection, each N-S
performs 360° cycles on three hall sensors, so only six signal changes occur. The switching
voltages are applied to the stator windings of the BLDC motor by PWM to modulate current
through the inductor. The frequency of PWM depends on stator winding inductance and
resistances [30].

3. Methodology for Minimization of Torque Ripples in the BLDC Motor

3.1. Advance Angle Adjustment
To obtain the constant torque of a BLDC motor that drives with a square-wave current
of electrical 120° duration, we need to ensure that the phase current is commuted every
electrical 60° degrees of rotation. Commutation induces a phase lag and deviations from
the ideal square-wave current as a result of the inductance levels of the motor winding
process. The torque characteristic is changed by the commutation timing because torque is
derived from the multiplication of the back-emf and the phase current. The advance angle,
which maximizes the torque-to-current ratio, can be calculated by analyzing the average
power variation in relation to the advance angle. Once the voltage angle is advanced, the
angle of the current phase angle is advanced as well. The current phase does not lag behind
the back electromotive force, where lag leads to reduced motor efficiency. The current
phase angle is adjusted in proportion to the load based on the AS voltage level. At full load,
a full AS voltage of around 4.5 volts is applied; at no load, a minimum value of the voltage
is around 0.5 volts. Here, the angle variation is considered to be linear.
The stator current flowing into the three-phase coil lags behind the three-phase voltage
by an angle φ° DEGREE SIGN due to the inductance of the winding. As a result, the stator
current fails to share the same phase with the back-emf and thus generates poor torque.
Using the AS voltage level, the angle of the output voltage can be advanced by 0–58°.
Once the voltage angle is advanced, the angle of the current phase angle is advanced as
well. In this way, the current phase does not lag behind the back electromotive force where
lag leads to reduced motor efficiency. The current phase angle is adjusted in proportion to
the load based on the AS voltage level. At full load, a full AS voltage of around 4.5 volts is
applied while at no load, a minimum value of the voltage is around 0.5 volts. Here, the
angle variation is considered to be linear.
In this method, the displacement between phase current and phase voltage can be
adjusted by the AS voltage signal as shown in Figure 4.
 is applied while at no load, a minimum value of the voltage is around 0.5 volts. Here, the
angle variation is considered to be linear.
In this while
is applied method, theload,
at no displacement
a minimum between phase
value of currentisand
the voltage phase
around 0.5voltage can be
volts. Here, the
adjusted by the AS
angle variation voltage signal
is considered as linear.
to be shown in Figure 4.
Machines 2023, 11, 41 In this method, the displacement between phase current and phase voltage can 6 ofbe
17
adjusted by the AS voltage signal as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Internal view of the advance angle adjustment.

Figure 4. Internal view of the advance angle adjustment.
The4.lead
Figure angle
Internal block
view is designed
of the to adjust
advance angle the AS voltage as shown in Figure 5, keep-
adjustment.
ing theThe
equivalent feedback
lead angle block isparameters and
designed to dead
adjust bands
the into consideration.
AS voltage The angle
as shown in Figure var-
5, keeping
iation is
Theconsidered
lead angle
the equivalent toblock
be linear.
feedback is designed
parameters andto dead
adjustbands
the AS voltage
into as shownThe
consideration. in Figure 5, keep-
angle variation
ing the equivalent
is considered to befeedback
linear. parameters and dead bands into consideration. The angle var-
iation is considered to be linear.

Figure
Figure 5. 5. Phase
Phase angle
angle correction
correction forfor current
current leading.
leading.

3.2. Pulse Width Modulation Scheme

3.2. Pulse5.Width
Figure Phase Modulation
angle correction Schemefor current leading.
PWM is a method of reducing the average power delivered by an electrical signal by
PWM is a method of reducing the average power delivered by an electrical signal by
effectively
3.2. chopping
Pulse chopping
Width it up into
Modulation Schemediscrete parts. The average value of the voltage (and current)
effectively it up into discrete parts. The average value of the voltage (and cur-
fed to the load is controlled by turning the switch between supply and load on and off at a
rent) fedPWM to theis aload
method is controlled
of switch
reducing by turning
theperiod the switch
average power between
delivered supply
byperiods, and load signal
an electrical on andby
fast rate. The longer the is on compared to the off the higher the
offeffectively
at a fast rate. The longer the switch is on period compared to the ofoffthe
periods, the(and
higher
total powerchoppingsuppliedittoup theinto
load.discrete parts. The average value voltage cur-
the total
rent) fedpower
to the supplied
load is to the load.
controlled by turning the switch between supply and load on and
BLDC motor controller with a three-phase square-wave drive; the detection position
off BLDC
at a fast motor
rate. controller
The longer with
the a three-phase
switch is on square-wave
period compared
is at the 120° rotor magnetic pole. With just a small number of peripheral components, itdrive;
to thethe
off detection
periods, position
the higher
isthe
at the
can total120
control
0 rotor magnetic pole. With just a small number of peripheral components, it
powerBLDC supplied
motorsto onthe load.
a stand-alone basis. In coordination with the controller, it can
can control
BLDC BLDC
motor motors
controlleron a stand-alone
with a basis.
three-phase
also be used for complicated motor control applications. In coordination
square-wave with the
drive;
It is suitable the controller,
fordetection it canfor
position
motor control
also
is bethe
at
various used120forrotor
0
products, complicated
magnetic
such motor
as fans,pole. control applications.
With just
water/oil a small
pumps, It ismachines,
number
tooling suitable for
of peripheral
etc.motor control for it
components,
various products,
can control BLDC such
motorsas fans,
on a water/oil
stand-alone pumps,
basis. tooling
In machines,
coordination
A square-wave PWM commutation mode is known as PWM-PWM [31]. This simula- etc.
with the controller, it can
also A besquare-wave
used for PWM
complicated commutation
motor mode
control is known
applications.
tion uses a square-wave drive of PWM-PWM commutation to start the motor and drive as
It PWM-PWM
is suitable for [31].
motor This simu-
control for
it.
lation
varioususes a square-wave
products,
In standalone mode, drive
suchsoaslongfans, of PWM-PWM
aswater/oil
the motor’spumps, commutation
runningtooling
status to start
machines,
complies the motor and drive
etc.with the conditions
it.required
In standalone
A square-wave
for the mode, so long
PWM
square-wave as the motor’s
commutation
drive. moderunning statusascomplies
is known PWM-PWM with the[31].conditions
This simu-
required
lationWith for the
uses the square-wave
a square-wave
120° drive.
drive
rotor magnetic of PWM-PWM
pole positioncommutation
detection, each to start the motor360°
N-S performs and cycles
drive
it.
onInWith
three the
hall120
standalone 0 rotor magnetic pole position detection, each N-S performs 3600 cycles
mode, so long
sensors, onlyas sixthe motor’s
signal running
changes statusAs
occur. complies
long aswith the conditions
the corresponding
onrequired
three hall
current forsensors, soprovided
the square-wave
directions are only sixdrive.
signal
on thechanges
three-phaseoccur. As longof
windings asstators
the corresponding
based on six cur-signal
rent directions
With rotating
changes, are provided
the 120 magnetic
0 on
rotor magnetic the three-phase
fields pole windings
position detection,
are generated of
to attracteach stators based
N-S performs
the rotor on six
to rotate. 360signal
0 cycles
Each type
on threesignal
of Hall hall sensors,
corresponds so only tosix
onesignal
PWMchanges
output occur. As long
type; there are as
sixthe corresponding
different PWM output cur-
rent in 360◦ , with
typesdirections are provided
commutation on the three-phase
occurring every windings of stators
60°. Therefore, based
it is also on six
called signal
a six-step,
square-wave drive.
At any instant, one of these three phases is continuously ON for every 120° (two
steps), while the other two phases get conducted at different 60° low sides. Each phase
outputs PWM every two steps, so it is called PWM-PWM commutation mode. PWM-
PWM commutation mode facilitates the use of a high-side driver IC in combination with a
Machines 2023, 11, 41 7 of 17

driver circuit whose high and low sides both use an N-channel MOSFET or IGBT as the
driver circuit for the motor. This is because the high side does not keep being conducted
during any commutating period, and when the high side closes, its low side with the
same phase is conducted, and as a result, synchronous rectifying is enabled to improve
efficiency. At this moment, the bootstrap circuit of the high-side driver IC has the chance to
charge, supplementing energy for the driving MOSFET. Although PWM output using these
commutation features is a somewhat simple driver circuit that does not require concern
about turn-on failure or partial conduction of the high-side MOSFET, between two-step
continuous PWM output, negative current may return to the power source side when the
low sides of the other two phases exchange conduction. Such a negative current is one
of the major noise sources for the square-wave drive. When U-phase outputs PWM, at
the instant low-side conduction of the W-phase switches to low-side conduction of the
V-phase; when both the low side of the MOSFET and PWM of U-phase close, polarities of
the inductance of U-phase and W-phase are reversed. Thus, the energy that has been stored
in the inductance becomes negative current IW-U and returns to the power supply side via
the built-in diode of the high-side MOSFET of the W-phase. In this way, a negative current
is generated.
A new PWM-PWM logic is implemented for the controller circuit. The emf signal
block is fed by theta. Unlike a brushed DC motor, the commutation of a BLDC motor is
controlled electronically. In order to rotate the BLDC motor, the stator windings should be
energized in a defined sequence. It is important to know the rotor position (theta) in order
to understand which winding will be energized following the energizing sequence. The
rotor position is sensed using Hall Effect sensors embedded into the stator. Most BLDC
motors have three Hall sensors embedded in the stator on the non-driving end of the motor.
Whenever the rotor magnetic poles pass near the Hall sensors, they give a high or low
signal, indicating the N or S pole is passing near the sensors. Based on the combination of
these three Hall sensor signals, the exact sequence of commutation can be determined and
back-emf can be generated.
The back-EMFs are generated based on theta value. The output of this emf signal
block truth table is generated. The truth table is generated by a gate signal based on the out
of back-emf. Based on this truth table, multiple ON-pulses are created at which U and X, V
Machines2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 18
and Y, W and Z pairs enter the active position. The remaining states of the gates are not
disturbed as shown in Figure 6.

Digital logic from truth table in PWM-PWM mode.

Figure 6. Digital

Figure 7 shows the logic diagram from the truth table by applying the K-map and
deducing relations for each gate signal. The PWM width depends on the closed-loop con-
trol algorithm. Directional change is also considered in the deduction of logic [32].
Machines 2023, 11, 41 8 of 17

Unlike a brushed DC motor, the commutation of a BLDC motor is controlled electron-

ically. In order to rotate the BLDC motor, the stator windings should be energized in a
defined sequence. It is important to know the rotor position (theta) in order to understand
which winding will be energized following the energizing sequence. The rotor position is
sensed using Hall Effect sensors embedded into the stator. Most BLDC motors have three
Hall sensors embedded in the stator on the non-driving end of the motor.
Whenever the rotor magnetic poles pass near the Hall sensors, they give a high or low
signal, indicating the N or S pole is passing near the sensors. Based on the combination of
Figure
these6.three
Digital logic
Hall from signals,
sensor truth table
theinexact
PWM-PWM
sequencemode.
of commutation can be determined and
back-emf can be generated.
Figure
Figure7 shows
7 shows the
thelogic
logicdiagram
diagram from
fromthe truth
the truthtable byby
table applying
applyingthe
theK-map
K-map andand
deducing
deducing relations
relationsforfor
each gategate
each signal. The PWM
signal. The PWMwidthwidth
depends on theon
depends closed-loop con-
the closed-loop
trol algorithm.
control Directional
algorithm. change
Directional is alsoisconsidered
change in theindeduction
also considered of logic
the deduction [32]. [32].
of logic

Figure
Figure 7. 7.
PWMPWM Generation
Generation in in PWM-PWM
PWM-PWM mode.
mode.

A revolving magnetic field is generated to attract rotors to rotate [33], as shown in

A revolving magnetic field is generated to attract rotors to rotate [33], as shown in
Figure 8. The PWMs continuously operate every 120° in all instances, whereas the other
Figure 8. The PWMs continuously operate every 1200 in all instances, whereas the other
two phases operate at distinct 60° 0low sides. The PWM-PWM commutation mode is named
two phases operate at distinct 60 low sides. The PWM-PWM commutation mode is
after the fact that each phase outputs PWM for every two steps. By changing the current
named after the fact that each phase outputs PWM for every two steps. By changing the
directions, a revolving magnetic field is created in the reverse direction to rotate the rotor
current directions, a revolving magnetic field is created in the reverse direction to rotate
in a counterclockwise direction as shown in Figure 9.
the rotor in a counterclockwise direction as shown in Figure 9.
The BLDC motor speed and torque control by using PWM and advance angle method
with a reference speed of 2000 rpm are shown are Figure 10.
When the BLDC motors are used in underwater defense applications, because of
torque ripples, the machine will generate vibrations so that the enemy can identify the
location of this BLDC motor. So, torque ripples must be minimized to reduce the vibrations
caused by the BLDC motor for smoother and noiseless operation.
BLDC motors find applications in every segment of the market. Automotive, appliance,
industrial controls, automation, aviation and defense so on, have applications for BLDC
motors. Out of these, we can categorize the type of BLDC motor control into three major
types: constant load, varying load, and positioning applications.
Machines 2023, 11,
Machines2022, 12,41
x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 18 9 of 17
Machines2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 18

PWM-PWM Commutation
Figure 8.PWM-PWM
Figure at CW/CCW = 1.
Figure 8.
8. PWM-PWM Commutation
Commutation at
at CW/CCW
CW/CCW == 1.
1.

Machines2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 18

Figure
Figure 9. PWM-PWM Commutation at
at CW/CCW == 0.
Figure9.9.PWM-PWM
PWM-PWMCommutation
Commutation CW/CCW
at CW/CCW0. = 0.

The
The BLDC
BLDC motor
motor speed
speed and
and torque
torque control
control by
by using
using PWM
PWM andand advance
advance angle
angle method
method
with
with aa reference
reference speed
speed of
of 2000
2000 rpm
rpm are
are shown
shown areare Figure
Figure 10.
10.
When
When the the BLDC
BLDC motors
motors are
are used
used in in underwater
underwater defense
defense applications,
applications, because
because ofof
torque
torque ripples, the machine will generate vibrations so that the enemy can identify the
ripples, the machine will generate vibrations so that the enemy can identify the
location
location ofof this
this BLDC
BLDC motor.
motor. So,
So, torque
torque ripples
ripples must
must bebe minimized
minimized to to reduce
reduce the
the vibra-
vibra-
tions caused by the BLDC motor for smoother and noiseless
tions caused by the BLDC motor for smoother and noiseless operation. operation.
BLDC
BLDC motors
motors find
find applications
applications in in every
every segment
segment ofof the
the market.
market. Automotive,
Automotive, appli-
appli-
ance,
ance, industrial controls, automation, aviation and defense so on, have applications
industrial controls, automation, aviation and defense so on, have applications for
for
BLDC
BLDC motors.
motors. OutOut of
of these,
these, we
we can
can categorize
categorize thethe type
type of
of BLDC
BLDC motor
motor control
control into
into three
three
major
major types:
types: constant
constant load,
load, varying
varying load,
load, andand positioning
positioning applications.
applications.

Figure 10.10.Simulation
Figure Simulation of
of PMBLDC motorwith
PMBLDC motor with PWM-PWM
PWM-PWM logic
logic and and advanced
advanced angle angle method.
method.

4. Results and Discussions

A PM BLDC motor driving scheme is used to test the control approaches using sim-
ulation and mathematical modelling. The parameters of the motor utilized in this paper
are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Parameters of the PM BLDC Motor.

Symbol Quantity Value of Parameter

Machines 2023, 11, 41 10 of 17

4. Results and Discussions

A PM BLDC motor driving scheme is used to test the control approaches using
simulation and mathematical modelling. The parameters of the motor utilized in this paper
are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Parameters of the PM BLDC Motor.

Symbol Quantity Value of Parameter

J Moment of inertia 0.155 kg m2
B Friction coefficient 0.0031575 kg/ms
Kb Back-emf constant 0.07 volt/rad/sec
L Inductance 0.0000462 H
P Number of pole pairs 9
R Resistance per phase 0.0127 ohms

The motor is switched to PWM-PWM commutation logic triggering pulses as shown

in Figure 11. Figure 12 shows that the variation in current is proportional to the applied
load. In Figure 13, the changes in line currents are observed and supplied from the DC
bus voltage. So, the DC bus currents that are drawn from the DC bus voltage also have
a proportional effect. These effects are proportional to the load applied at t = 0, and the
corresponding torque also varied to meet the current variations can be observed in Figure 14
For about 100 N-m torque the DC bus current is around 100 A for a given DC bus voltage
of 470 V. Figure 13 shows the line currents, phase and line voltage variation with respective
times during loading conditions.
The rotor angle and variation in torques with profile load are shown in Figure 14.
The electromagnetic and shaft torques almost coincide in all cases, and the torque has no
ripples even higher-power BLDC motor operates at 2000 rpm, along with the phase current
shift method. The variation in torques with a stair-case load is shown in Figure 15. The
electromagnetic and shaft torques almost coincide in all cases.
The electromagnetic and shaft torques almost coincide and can be observed in Figure 15,
and the torque has no ripples even higher-power BLDC motor operates at 2000 rpm, PWM-
PWM logic along with the advance angle method produces a smooth torque without
any ripples.
Figures 16 and 17 show the real-time response of the motor at different load conditions.
In Figure 16 the phase currents and DC Bus currents are overlapped, the DC bus currents
have more ripple content at every peak due to inductance at full load, and also Figure 17
gives a clear picture of lagging currents with respective phase voltages at full load. These
phase currents are drawn from the DC bus. So, these DC bus currents have more ripple
than the phase currents because of the inductance effect. The hall and respective phase
PWMs signals are also presented. The phase current (Magma) in Figure 16 has a peak
value in each cycle, which reflects the DC bus current (red). This is going to deteriorate the
performance of the machine at loading conditions.
Figures 18 and 19 show the phase currents and relative phase voltages with an ad-
vanced angle loop mechanism for various loads. In Figure 18, the phase voltage and current
(blue) slightly lead the voltage at 70% duty cycle. At full load, both phase and line voltage
are almost aligned with each other as shown in Figure 19. The DC bus current has fewer
peaks and ripple content also less. This shows the more uniform behavior of the drive
compared to earlier results.
Machines2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 18
Machines 2023, 11, 41 11 of 17

Figure 11. Cont.

Machines2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 18
Machines2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 18
Machines 2023, 11, 41 12 of 17
Machines2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 18

Figure 11. PWM-PWM commutation logic triggering pulses.

Figure
Figure 11.PWM-PWM
11.11.
Figure PWM-PWM
PWM-PWM commutation
commutation
commutation logic
logictriggering
logic triggering pulses. pulses.
triggering pulses.

(a)
(a)
(amp)

(a)
(amp)
current
DC Bus current (amp)
Buscurrent
DCBus
DC

(b)(b)
Figure
Figure
Figure12.12.
12. DC
DC Bus
Bus
DC values
values
Bus (a)(a)
values Voltage
Voltage
(a) vs vs
Time
vs Time
Voltage andand
Time (b) (b)
(b)and Current
Current Vs Time.
Vs Time.
Current Vs Time.
(b)
Figure 12. DC Bus values (a) Voltage vs Time and (b) Current Vs Time.

(a)
(a)

(a)

(b)
(b)

Figure 13. Cont.

(b)
Machines2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 18
Machines 2023, 11, 41 13 of 17

(c)
Figure 13. BLDC motor voltages and currents: (a) Line current vs Time (b) Line voltage vs Time and
(c) Phase voltage vs Time.

The rotor angle and variation in torques with profile load are shown in Figure 14.
The electromagnetic and shaft torques almost coincide in all cases, and the torque has no
(c)
ripples even higher-power BLDC motor operates at 2000 rpm, along with the phase cur-
rent
Figure shift
Figure 13.method.
13. BLDC motor
BLDC The
motor variation
voltages
voltages incurrents:
andand torques
currents: with
(a)(a)
Line a current
stair-case
current
Line vsvs load
Time
Time(b)isLine
(b) shown
Line in Figure
voltage
voltagevs Time15.
vsTime and
and
(c)The
(c) electromagnetic
Phase voltage
Phase and shaft torques almost coincide in all cases.
vs Time.
voltage vs Time.

The rotor angle and variation in torques with profile load are shown in Figure 14.
The electromagnetic and shaft torques almost coincide in all cases, and the torque has no
ripples even higher-power BLDC motor operates at 2000 rpm, along with the phase cur-
rent shift method. The variation in torques with a stair-case load is shown in Figure 15.
The electromagnetic and shaft torques almost coincide in all cases.

(a)

(a)

(b)

(b)

(c)
Figure 14.14.
Figure The variations
The in in
variations Te,Te,
Rotor angle
Rotor and
angle speed:
and (a)(a)
speed: Electromagnetic torque
Electromagnetic vsvs
torque Time (b)(b)
Time Rotor
Rotor
angle vs Time and (c) Speed Vs Time.
angle vs Time and (c) Speed Vs Time.

(c)
Figure 14. The variations in Te, Rotor angle and speed: (a) Electromagnetic torque vs Time (b) Rotor
angle vs Time and (c) Speed Vs Time.
 The electromagnetic and shaft torques almost coincide and can be observed in Figure
15, and the torque has no ripples even higher-power BLDC motor operates at 2000 rpm,
Machines 2023, 11, 41 PWM-PWM logic along with the advance angle method produces a smooth torque with- 14 of 17
out any ripples.

Figure 15. T-Electromagnetic, T-Shaft, T-Mechanical Vs Time during CW with staircase load.

Figures 16 and 17 show the real-time response of the motor at different load condi-
tions. In Figure 16 the phase currents and DC Bus currents are overlapped, the DC bus
currents have more ripple content at every peak due to inductance at full load, and also
Figure 17 gives a clear picture of lagging currents with respective phase voltages at full
load. These phase currents are drawn from the DC bus. So, these DC bus currents have
more ripple than the phase currents because of the inductance effect. The hall and respec-
tive phase PWMs signals are also presented. The phase current (Magma) in Figure 16 has
a peak value
Figure in each cycle, whichT-Mechanical
reflects the DCTime
bus currentCW
(red). This is going to dete-
Figure15.
15.T-Electromagnetic,
T-Electromagnetic,T-Shaft,
T-Shaft, T-MechanicalVsVs Timeduring
during CWwith
withstaircase
staircase load.
load.
riorate the performance of the machine at loading conditions.
Figures 16 and 17 show the real-time response of the motor at different load condi-
tions. In Figure 16 the phase currents and DC Bus currents are overlapped, the DC bus
currents have more ripple content at every peak due to inductance at full load, and also
Figure 17 gives a clear picture of lagging currents with respective phase voltages at full
load. These phase currents are drawn from the DC bus. So, these DC bus currents have
more ripple than the phase currents because of the inductance effect. The hall and respec-
tive phase PWMs signals are also presented. The phase current (Magma) in Figure 16 has
a peak value in each cycle, which reflects the DC bus current (red). This is going to dete-
riorate the performance of the machine at loading conditions.

Machines2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Figure 16. Phase currents, and DC bus currents are aligning with respective Hall, PWM signal 15
Vs of 18
time.
Figure 16. Phase currents, and DC bus currents are aligning with respective Hall, PWM signal
Vs time.

Figure 16. Phase currents, and DC bus currents are aligning with respective Hall, PWM signal Vs time.

Figure 17. Phase

Figure Phase voltages,
voltages,and
andphase
phasecurrents
currentsoverlap
overlapwith
withthe
therespective
respectivePWMs
PWMsVsVstime
timeatat
full Load.
full Load.

Figures 18 and 19 show the phase currents and relative phase voltages with an ad-
vanced angle loop mechanism for various loads. In Figure 18, the phase voltage and cur-
rent (blue) slightly lead the voltage at 70% duty cycle. At full load, both phase and line
voltage are almost aligned with each other as shown in Figure 19. The DC bus current has
fewer peaks and ripple content also less. This shows the more uniform behavior of the
drive compared to earlier results.
 Figures 18 and 19 show the phase currents and relative phase voltages with an ad-
vanced angle loop mechanism for various loads. In Figure 18, the phase voltage and cur-
rent (blue) slightly lead the voltage at 70% duty cycle. At full load, both phase and line
voltage are almost aligned with each other as shown in Figure 19. The DC bus current has
Machines 2023, 11, 41 15 of 17
fewer peaks and ripple content also less. This shows the more uniform behavior of the
drive compared to earlier results.

Machines2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 18

Figure 18.
Figure 18. Phase
Phase currents,
currents, phase
phase voltages
voltages with
with lead
lead angle
angle adjustment
adjustment Vs
Vs time
timeat
at70%
70%duty
dutycycle.
cycle.

Figure 19.
Figure 19. Phase currents,
currents, Phase
Phase voltages
voltages with
with lead
lead angle
angle adjustment
adjustment at
at full
full load.
load.

Discussions
Discussions
PWM-PWM
PWM-PWM logic logic along
alongwith
withthetheAdvance
Advance angle
angle Method
Method for for
the the
BLDCBLDC
motormotor is
is sim-
simulated using mathematical relations and is incorporated into the simulation
ulated using mathematical relations and is incorporated into the simulation block. The block. The
characteristics
characteristics of
of BLDC
BLDC motors
motors are
are studied
studied in
in detail
detail in
in different
different modes
modes ofof operation
operation and
and
loading
loading profiles. In the report, a high-power motor’s parameters are taken as
profiles. In the report, a high-power motor’s parameters are taken as reference
reference
and
and simulation
simulation results
results are
are validated
validated with
with the
the practical
practical testing
testing results.
results. By
By using
using the
the AS
AS
voltage
voltage angle method, the phase lag between phase voltage and phase current cancan
angle method, the phase lag between phase voltage and phase current be
be de-
decreased by increasing the AS voltage angle is proportional to the load current which
creased by increasing the AS voltage angle is proportional to the load current which can
can be shown in the graph. So, the dynamic response also can be improved in addition
be shown in the graph. So, the dynamic response also can be improved in addition to the
to the torque response of a BLDC motor drive. The proposed techniques are successfully
torque response of a BLDC motor drive. The proposed techniques are successfully imple-
implemented in a practical high-power BLDC motor and the results are validated with the
mented in a practical high-power BLDC motor and the results are validated with the prac-
practical responses.
tical responses.

5. Conclusions
The realization of PWM-PWM logic along with the advance angle method for the
BLDC motor is used to reduce the torque ripples even if the high-power BLDC motor is
loaded. If the developed torque has no ripples, then there will not be any vibrations or noise
Machines 2023, 11, 41 16 of 17

5. Conclusions
The realization of PWM-PWM logic along with the advance angle method for the
BLDC motor is used to reduce the torque ripples even if the high-power BLDC motor is
loaded. If the developed torque has no ripples, then there will not be any vibrations or
noise generated during operation. This is the main requirement for underwater defense
applications. This paper studies the characteristics of BLDC motors in different modes of
operation and loading profiles. A high-power motor’s parameters are taken as a reference,
and simulation results are validated with the practical testing results. The detailed study of
torque and advanced angle loop features are considered to simulate the developed model
so as to verify the novelty of the control logic by using controllers. It is justified that the
features are well-suited to operate the drive in rugged and user-defined loading profiles.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, B.S., R.S., B.P., H.K., M.S. and B.A.S.; methodology, B.S.,
R.S., B.P., H.K., M.S. and B.A.S.; software, B.S., R.S., B.P., H.K., M.S. and B.A.S.; validation, B.S., R.S.,
B.P., H.K., M.S. and B.A.S.; formal analysis, B.S., R.S., B.P., H.K., M.S. and B.A.S.; investigation, B.S.,
R.S., B.P., H.K., M.S. and B.A.S.; resources, B.S., R.S., B.P., H.K., M.S. and B.A.S.; writing—original
draft preparation, B.S., R.S., B.P., H.K., M.S. and B.A.S.; writing—review and editing, B.S., R.S., B.P.,
H.K., M.S. and B.A.S.; visualization, B.S., R.S., B.P., H.K., M.S. and B.A.S.; supervision, B.S., R.S.,
B.P., H.K., M.S. and B.A.S.; project administration, B.S., R.S., B.P., H.K., M.S. and B.A.S.; funding
acquisition, B.S., R.S., B.P., H.K., M.S. and B.A.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: The data sources employed for analysis are presented in the text.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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