NST2601 SG

Tutorial Letter 501/0/2021
Science for classroom 2

NST2601
Year module
Department of Science and Technology Education
This tutorial letter contains important information

about your module.
BARCODE
NST2601: Science for classroom 2
UNIT 1: Science in the context of Society and the Environment
I: Scientists past and present
The history of science is full of great works that have marked a turning point in the
development of a branch of knowledge, and in which the proposals for a new
theoretical frame of reference or a new systematization of the known facts were
preceded by an extensive historical introduction consisting in the evolution of the
topic up to that moment. From the 18th Century on, with the growing specialization
in science that gave rise to new disciplines, and with the acceleration of the
changes in theories and scientific method, the number of works of this kind has
grown considerably. Particularly in the 19th Century, there were many scientists
who were conscious of the profoundly innovative character of their work, and who
did not hesitate to draw self-justifying historical pictures which promoted
appreciation of the significance of their own contributions. Cuvier, Humboldt,
Ritter, Lyell, Darwin, Comte, and many others who made decisive contributions,
were not only aware of being genuine creators and the force behind new scientific
developments, they also took active part in contemporary controversies and felt
the need, to a greater or lesser extent, to convince the general public of the
innovative character of their work.
This led them to write, or rewrite, the history of the discipline, to reveal the
obstacles that had been put in the way of the development of that science, whose
final manifestation was now assured - and to point out those forerunners who had
prepared the way.
The case of Lyell is particularly significant. In the long historical introduction to his
Principles of Geology (1830) (1), Lyell created the myths which allowed him to set
himself in a privileged position in the Pantheon of Geology. He did this both by
claiming to be the true creator of the basic principles of that science, and also by
pointing out the barriers which had hitherto impeded its development: religion,
philosophical speculation, and the anthropomorphic world view (2). In spite of
these obstacles, the way towards a positive and uniformitarian geology had in fact
been discovered gradually, but in talking about this Lyell hands out praise, blame
(and silence) in a way that exaggerates the originality of his own contribution. His
introduction presents the history of geology as an oversimplified dichotomy
between biblical catastrophism and uniformitarianism with its classical roots.
Moreover, and not surprisingly given the epoch, he offers a selective, partial vision
of the past, decontextualising it from its social and intellectual climate. His
conception of history and geology are different: "while Lyell's history of the earth is
uniformitarian, his history of geology is catastrophist: a succession of Gargantuan
figures, great for their contributions or baneful influence, paraded before the
reader without law or cause" (3). It is a catastrophist history in which Lyell's final
contribution achieves its true significance as an authentic, definitive revolution.
The example of Lyell, like that of other great authors, lays bare the distortions and
errors that can be found in the history of science when one accepts the ideas of
one justifications of scientist concerning the evolution of the subject. Biassed
ideas that distort the true evolution and which undoubtedly serve as excuses and
self-justifications: their own work and their personal efforts, just as of the science
which is their field -in this case geology- presented as a branch of knowledge
which finally achieves a truly scientific stature after a prehistory of approximations
and errors.
An appreciation of the distortions that are found in the historical conceptions of

great scientists, and of the personal and corporate factors that can affect these,
allows us also to question the validity of the way that the members of a scientific
community collectively present their discipline. We might well suspect that, as in
the case of the histories of individuals, these histories of communities will have,
due to conscious or unconscious bias, distortions and slants, whose precise
content and purpose we would do well to reveal.
In recent years a great deal of attention has been paid to the histories of
disciplines within the field of the history of science. What has undoubtedly
contributed to this is the incorporation and diffusion of relativist focuses in the
study of the disciplines. The traditional view considered the sciences as
predetermined archetypes, which the progressive unfolding of reason alone
allowed us to see in their true form by stripping them of the mixing and confusion
with other branches of knowledge which existed in the pre-scientific phase. In
contrast, we recognize that the character of the scientific disciplines is determined
by, and contingent on, history; they take shape in changing social and intellectual
contexts, and have boundaries that are not predetermined at all but depend both
on the conditions of their constitution and also on the developing relationship with
other disciplines that are also contingent on history.
The same histories of the disciplines play an important role in the constant
structuring and restructuring of the areas of knowledge, offering scientists an
image of themselves, of the community to which they belong, and of the purpose
of their work. The history of the discipline provides us with a means of making and
spreading the myths and the ideologies that give cohesion to the scientific
community: who their forerunners and outstanding figures are, the dignity of their
science as genuine, the goals and social relevance of their work, the relations of
cooperation and conflict with other disciplines and sub-disciplines.
If every discipline has its own history, at times in contradiction with its neighbors or
overlapping with them, it is also true that within one single discipline the history is
not always the same. The theoretical changes that take place, in particular the
revolutionary changes, i.e. those that lead to the diffusion and imposition of what
Kuhn would call a new paradigm, force the continual rewriting of history, both so
as to justify and support of the change and also to prevent and defend the status
quo, but in any case, to refer to the past in order to legitimize present-day views.
There are, therefore, histories of the disciplines aimed at different audiences:

some at those outside the community, which normally means at other scientific
communities that are in competition. In these cases, one attempts to justify the
identity, the validity and, on occasions, the scientific nature of the discipline, all of
which is essential to achieve recognition within an academic structure competing
for limited resources. More frequently, histories are aimed within the discipline
itself, either to socialize the neophytes, by indoctrinating them, through the
historical presentation of the past, in the principles and methods of the discipline;
or else to defend the viewpoints of scientists in discussions with colleagues or in
disagreements over the theory and methods of the discipline (4).
Through the history of the discipline one can observe the position that a scientist
adopts in controversies and in the changes that affect his science, both in what he
cites and the judgments he makes concerning events and people in the past, and
also in what he omits or glosses over, and, obviously, in the material he chooses
to include. The topic of parents or forerunners is of great interest: they are the
ones who open the way towards the present, anticipating or preparing current
developments; through their prestige, they also lend validity, in the initial stages, to
the proposals which later win through.
It is thus that the history of a discipline serves, as an author has written in

reference to the development of psychology in Germany: "to institute a scientific
tradition, to line up the ancestors in order to give prestige to the field and to fall
into line with the established sciences, or to conceive oneself within a stream on
scientific progress" (5).
What is clear from all of this is the enormous interest to be found in the study of
the different histories of disciplines within the same scientific, and the comparison
between those that have been carried out in separate but related disciplines,
those which sometimes draw on a common past and which have goals of study
that are very close or even overlap. In a similar way, there is a great interest to
establish if there are histories, produced either from within or outside, where the
preoccupation with justification and legitimacy is absent.
ii. Indigenous knowledge
What is indigenous knowledge?
The knowledges of indigenous people have been variably termed Indigenous

Knowledge, Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS), Endogenous Knowledge,
Traditional Knowledge, Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) and Traditional
Environmental Knowledge. These terms are related analogues that all attempt to
define and give meaning to the knowledge of indigenous peoples from different
parts of the world. However, Indigenous Knowledge is a widely used term
throughout the world.
Indigenous knowledge can best be described in terms of the following: people,

place/context, language, knowledge, culture, practices and dynamism (see Shava,
2013). Indigenous people (the knowers) create knowledge from their
experiences during interactions with the lived environment and among
themselves. This knowledge is derived from and related to the local context in
which the indigenous people live. This knowledge is embedded in their culture
and embodied in their practices. It is passed on from generation to generation
orally (through stories, narratives, poetry and songs), visually (through the arts,
such as ‘bushmen’ paintings or rock art, craftware, traditional rituals and dance)
and practically (through such activities as crop farming, keeping livestock, hunting,
traditional healing, making crafts and artefacts). Indigenous language is the main
medium for representing and transmitting indigenous knowledge. Indigenous
knowledge is created over time in relation to changes in the local environment that
bring about changes in the needs of local communities as they adapt to the local
context. In this regard indigenous knowledge is dynamic.
Most indigenous children are born into this wealth of indigenous knowledge in
their local context which they acquire in their day to day life experiences. As they
grow up, they learn about local plant and animal names and uses, the land, crops
and livestock, the seasons, the stars, local cultures, the community, family ties
and kinship, as well as responsibilities.
Such knowledge is useful for survival and livelihood sustenance.
Why is indigenous knowledge important?
Our school curricula have, to a large extent, been highly westernised, with little
opportunity for including indigenous knowledges. Indigenous knowledges have
been excluded, marginalised, misrepresented, invalidated and labelled as inferior.
Education institutions (such as schools) in particular have been zones of exclusion
of such knowledges. This has created a situation where what the learners learn at
school is different from their lived experiences at home. It has also excluded the
role of parents and elderly people in the education of their children about their
culture, values and livelihoods.
How do these units support teaching and learning about indigenous

knowledge?
In an attempt to reframe and contextualise formal education processes,

indigenous knowledge aspects have now been included into the curriculum, as is
evident in the Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) for the
Intermediate Phase Natural Sciences and Technology, Grades 4-6. These units
intend to bring out these Indigenous Knowledge (IK) aspects and also indicate
possibilities for including indigenous knowledges into teaching and learning
processes.
Teaching Indigenous Knowledge and Technology 5
Indigenous Knowledge in the CAPS
The intermediate phase Indigenous Knowledge units
These units work with the Life and Living as well as the Matter and Materials
strands of the
CAPS Intermediate Phase Natural Sciences and Technology for Grades 4-6. The
content
knowledge on indigenous knowledge can be found in Grade 4 (Terms 1 and 3),
Grade 5 (Terms 2 and 3) and Grade 6 (Term 1).The units cover several
indigenous knowledge topics (Habitats of Plants and Animals, Indigenous
Structures, Energy for Life, Movement and Musical Instruments, Traditional
Processing, Use of Metals, and Food Groups) that have been developed to
expand teachers’ knowledge and expertise in ways that also support teaching
Indigenous Knowledge in the CAPS Intermediate Phase Natural Sciences, Grades
4-6 (see Table 1).
The sections do not necessarily follow the sequence of the CAPS; instead the
progression is from exploring ecosystems, to structures, to energy, to systems
and control (movement and music are an example), to processing. This is
intended to build an understanding of indigenous knowledge and how indigenous
knowledge of environmental resources is used for livelihood sustenance.
The three units are:
1. Ecosystems and Structures (including indigenous knowledge of habitats of

plants and animals; indigenous housing structures);
2. Energy and Systems and Control (including traditional energy sources;

traditional musical instruments);
3. Processing (including traditional processing of raw materials; metal processing;

food processing).
In these three units, we support you as a teacher and facilitator or interested

reader to:
 Strengthen your subject content knowledge;

 Enhance your teaching practice; and
 Support your assessment practice.
Teaching practice and assessment aspects are integrated into each unit, with a
reflective summary provided in the Teaching Practice and Assessment activities at
the end of the three units.
Indigenous knowledge in the CAPS
The intention of these units is to draw attention to indigenous knowledge aspects

embedded in the CAPS Intermediate Phase Natural Sciences and Technology for
Grades 4-6. The three units cannot provide all the information or perspectives on
indigenous knowledge, so teachers need to consult other indigenous knowledge
resources. It is also important to review carefully what indigenous knowledge
aspects are presented in textbooks and other information sources.
6 Teaching Indigenous Knowledge and Technology
The same is true for the methods and assessment practices suggested here. A
more extensive learning resource Methods and Processes to support Change-
Oriented Learning is provided as part of the Fundisa for Change materials.
The table below outlines the three units, the topics covered in each and the links
to the CAPS.
Table 1: Outline of Indigenous Knowledge units
Technolog
sciences
Content
Natural
Theme
Grade
CAPS
Topic
Term
Unit
&
3 Processing Traditional Traditional y

p.38 – 5 2
processing processing
of Traditional processing
materials -in Africa people have
processed materials for
hundreds of years to
make
- clay pots and bricks
-baskets, hats, mats,
thatched roofs made
from plant fibre such as
grasses and reeds
Uses of Traditional 5 2
materials processing
of metals p.36 –
Uses of metals
- metals are used to

make
things such as coins,

wire,
jewellery, furniture,
buildings
and bridges, motor cars,
kitchen utensils, roofs

Food Food Traditional
processing groups food and
processing p.48 –
Food groups
- most natural foods

contain
a mixture of more than

one
nutrient group
u most processed
(manufactured) foods
have added salt, sugar,
preservatives,
flavourings
and colourings
p.49 –
Balanced diet
- a balanced diet
contains
sufficient quantities of
food
from all four nutrient

groups,
as well as water and

fibre
- some diseases can be
related to diet
p.49 –
Methods for
processing food
- there are many

different
methods (ways) to
process
food
- researching how to
process food (raw
material) by combining,
cooking, freezing,
pickling, fermenting,
drying
and salting to make a
product, including
indigenous ways of
processing of food in
different communities
Traditional energy sources
Key idea:
Wood from the natural environment has been the primary source of energy
for most indigenous communities. Its sustainable harvesting and use is
essential for the sustainability of wood producing species.
Most indigenous communities in the past (and in the present for rural
communities) have relied on nature for their energy provision. For cooking and
heating purposes, wood has served as the main energy source. Slow burning
wood species are preferred as they have longer lasting coals.
A reliance on wood biomass as a source of energy puts a stress on the natural
vegetation, resulting in loss of preferred species, which then leads to less
selective use of wood species in an area. The long term result of this is
deforestation and environmental degradation.
This then means women, who are traditionally responsible for collecting wood,
have to go longer distances in order to access it.
However, there were some sustainable wood harvesting strategies employed by
local communities. These included harvesting from trees (rather than chopping
down whole trees) (see O’Donoghue et al., 2013) by using only branches and
twigs from multi-branched trees, harvesting dead or dying trees, coppicing woody
species to allow them to regenerate and not harvesting certain key species
through taboo restrictions. For example, the rain tree, icithamuzi or idungamuzi
(Lonchocarpus capasss), was not used for firewood as it was believed burning it in
the home would bring bad luck and cause arguments in the home. Similarly wild
fruit trees and medicinal trees were never cut down for firewood.
Pic: Traditional iziko (fireplace)
The maintenance of sacred forest groves such as spiritual sites and graveyards in
which nobody was allowed to cut trees was another way of conserving woody tree
species. Modern day conservation efforts such as tree planting, woodlots and
energy saving stoves also serve to conserve woody tree species (see
O’Donoghue et al., 2013).
ACTIVITY 3
(Grade 5 Term 3)
GROUP ACTIVITY
Learning focus:
Observing, recording, collecting, analysing and evaluating information,
interpreting information, communicating effectively, developing reading and
writing skills
Resources:
Local community context
What local energy sources are used by local communities in your area?
Discuss.
How can local energy sources in your community be used sustainably?
What other affordable alternative energy sources are available for your
community?
Traditional musical instruments
Key idea:
A variety of musical instruments made from locally available materials from nature
have been used to produce music in southern Africa through displacement of air by
Southern Africa has been the source of vast and varied musical genres (types).
Music accompanies many kinds of communal activities and events including
weeding, harvesting, child nursing, weddings, collecting water, hunting,
celebrations and funerals.
Each different type of music is usually associated with a particular dance form,
lyrics and related musical instruments. Musical instruments that accompany
traditional music include drums, rattles, horns and traditional string instruments.
To produce sound, musical instruments have to be struck, blown or plucked. The
mechanical process causes vibration (resonance) of air around the instrument,
producing a sound or tone. The repeated rhythmical striking, blowing or plucking
of the instrument produces the music.
South African traditional musical instruments include uhadi or ugubhu (a single

string violin with the bow made of a curved twig, a string and a gourd) of the
Xhosa, upondo or the horn of the Zulu and Xhosa, the kwela or traditional bamboo
pan flute, the Zulu ingungu or drum, ankle rattles and calabash or gourd hand-held
rattles.
All traditional musical instruments in the past were made from locally available
materials.
However, this has changed and some have been (partly or wholly) replaced with
more modern varieties.
Ingungu/ ingoma (drum) Upondo
ACTIVITY 4
GROUP ACTIVITY
Learning focus:
Observing, recording, interpreting information, collect, analyse and evaluate
information, communicate effectively, designing, sorting and classifying,
developing reading and writing skills
Resources:
Local community context
Identify some traditional musical instruments used (or that were used) by local
communities in your area.
What materials are they made from?
Explain how these instruments are played and in what kind of ceremonies.
Design a simple traditional musical instrument of your choice.

UNIT 2: Matter and Materials: Approaches, resources and case studies
II Particle model of matter, phases of matter

Particle model of matter
We know that atoms are the building blocks of matter, whether living or non-living.
This is one of the Big Ideas of science that science teachers should work
towards and that a learner should know when he or she leaves school,
“All matter in the Universe is made of very small particles.”
The atoms are too small to be seen with the naked eye, even with a
microscope. Therefore, we use models to visualise and describe the structure
and behaviour of the atom. In this learning unit we look at the nature of atoms and
how they are com- bined and are arranged to form a variety of compounds.
We will also work towards the Big Ideas of science,
“Objects can affect other objects at a distance”
“The total amount of energy in the Universe is always the same,

but energy can be transferred from one energy store to another
during an event.”
Protons and electrons attract each other at a distance, keeping these

subatomic particles together in the atom. Atoms also engage with each other to
form chemical bonds, which results in the formation of compounds. It is very
important to know how atoms and molecules are kept together, the effect that they
have on each other and the energies that are associated with chemical bonding and
intermolecular forces.
The development of the atomic model highlights a Big Idea about science,
“Scientific explanations, theories and models are those that best fit the
evidence available at a particular time.”
The atomic model developed over a period according to the evidence that was
available at the particular time. As new data and evidence emerged, the
atomic models were revised and adapted to provide the atomic model that we
know today.
THE ATOMIC MODELS
In ancient times, the Greek philosophers believed that, if you keep on cutting a
material into smaller pieces, you will get indivisible particles that cannot be
broken into smaller particles. They called these particles atoms (“atomos” – meaning
unbreakable).
Many years later, John Dalton (1766–1844) had no evidence to question the
atomic model of the Greeks. He reinforced the idea that atoms cannot be
subdivided and called his atomic model the billiard model. He added that atoms of
a given element are identical in mass and size, but that atoms of different
elements are different in mass and size. Dalton also stated that atoms can
combine in certain ratios to form compounds.
Scientists accepted this atomic model until the first subatomic particle, the
electron, was discovered by JJ Thomson (1856–1940). He made the discovery by
mistake. At the time, Thomson was doing experiments with cathode ray tubes. A
cathode ray tube is a sealed glass tube from which most of the air has been
evacuated. When a high voltage is applied across two electrodes at one end of
the tube it causes a beam of particles to flow from the cathode to the anode. The
tube is called a cathode ray tube because the particle beam, called the cathode
ray, originates at the cathode.
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We know from our knowledge of current electricity that a potential difference (volt-
age) between two points in a conductor results in a flow of electrons. However,
at the time, Thomson had no knowledge of electrons. According to him, a
cathode ray was a ray of atom-sized particles.
To test the properties of the particles, Thomson placed two oppositely charged
electric plates on opposite sides of the cathode ray. The cathode ray was
deflected away from the negatively charged electric plate and towards the
positively charged plate. This indicated that the cathode ray was composed of
negatively charged particles.
Thomson placed two magnets on either side of the tube and observed that the
magnetic field also deflected the cathode ray. He determined the mass-to-
charge ratio of the cathode ray particles, which led to a fascinating discovery. He
found that the cathode rays travelled faster through the air than was expected
for atom-sized particles. He further deduced that the mass of each particle was
much smaller than that of any known atom. Even if he used different metals as
electrodes, the properties of the cathode ray remained constant.
From this evidence, Thomson made the following conclusions:
• The cathode ray is composed of negatively charged particles.
• The particles exist as part of the atom, since the mass of each particle is
only a fraction of the mass of a hydrogen atom. Their masses are always
the same regardless of the type of atom they came from.
• These subatomic particles are found within the atoms of all elements.
He called these particles electrons. Dalton’s atomic model had not made
provision for any subatomic particles, so Thomson suggested a plum pudding
model. He knew that atoms are neutral and that the negative electrons have to be
balanced by positive charges. Therefore, he proposed that electrons are
distributed in a uniform sea of positive charge, much like plums are distributed
in the dough of a plum pudding. In our context, we could call it the watermelon
model. The red flesh represents the positive matter and the black pips the
negatively charged electrons.
https://e1trajede1emperador.files.wordpress.com/2013/09/atomic-structure-5.jpg
A cathode ray tube (CRT) is a very interesting apparatus and is included in
some grade 12 curricula.
A cathode ray is a beam of electrons that is created by heating a filament.
The released electrons are attracted by the positive cathode and focused on
a phosphor coating screen by using a control grid, focusing system and
deflection plates. In the diagram the bottom vertical deflector has a positive
potential and therefore the electron beam is attracted to it.
The inventor, Philo Taylor Farnsworth (1906 –1971), used technology to change
the science concepts of a cathode ray tube to build a television set. Although a
cathode ray was not useful to people the television set definitely was. Start- ing
in high school, he began to think of a system that could capture moving
images and then move them along a device to a different location. This would
allow people to watch an action that was taking place far away from them.
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Farnsworth’s cathode ray system captured moving images using a beam of
electrons. The first image ever transmitted by electronic television was a simple
line in 1938.
This concept was refined and used in the first television sets. Your older rela- tives
might still have one of these “box” televisions. Let us explain how it works.
A video signal is sent to a circuit in the television that fires a beam of electrons down a
cathode ray tube, which is at the back of the television.
Electromagnets steer the electron beam from side to side so that it moves
systemati- cally in lines across the screen. The screen is made of tiny dots of
chemicals called phosphors. As the electron beam hits the phosphor dots, they
make tiny dots of red, blue and green light. By switching the electron beam on and
off as it scans past the red, green and blue dots, an entire picture is built up. The
electron beam moves so fast that you cannot see the building up of the picture.
Now you know why the old television sets were so big at the back. They had to
house the cathode ray tube. It is amazing how science influences technology to
improve our lives. It supports the Big Idea about science,
“The knowledge produced by science is used in engineering and tech-

nologies to create products to serve human ends.”
Compare this type of television to flat-screen televisions with plasma screens and
the more modern televisions with LCD (Liquid crystal display) screens. You can
read about the development of televisions at the following website:
History of the Television | From the 1800s to Current Time
https://bebusinessed.com/history/history-of-the-television/
LCD and plasma screens work in different ways. In a plasma screen, each pixel
is a tiny fluorescent lamp switched on or off electronically. In an LCD television,
the pixels are switched on or off electronically using liquid crystals that rotate
polarized light.
Read about LCD screens and plasma screens:
How does a plasma TV work?–Explain that Stuff

www.explainthatstuff.com/plasmatv.html
How do LCDs (liquid crystal displays) work?–Explain that Stuff

https://www.explainthatstuff.com/lcdtv.html
Ernest Rutherford (1871–1940) was one of Thomson’s students. He was experimenting with
alpha particles, which are the positive nuclei of He atoms. You might ask, “Why alpha
particles and not cathode rays?” Well, Henri Becquerel (1852–1908) discovered natural
radioactivity in 1896. After many experiments with non-phosphorescent uranium
salts, he realised that uranium radiated alpha particles could penetrate materials. For
this reason, experiments with alpha particles were the trend at the time.
Rutherford bombarded thin gold foil with positive alpha particles. According to the plum
pudding atomic model, he expected all the positive alpha particles to bounce back.
However, most of the alpha particles passed straight through the gold foil. A small
number of alpha particles were deflected by small amounts, while even fewer particles
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deflected to a greater degree and even bounced off the foil. This became his famous
gold foil experiment.
What did Rutherford conclude from his famous gold foil experiment? The fact that
only a few alpha particles bounced off the gold foil made him question the plum
pudding model. He suggested that the positive charges of an atom are grouped
together with the electrons moving in the space around them.
He provided an alternative model called the nuclear model. According to his model, the
atom consists of a small, dense, positively charged nucleus at the centre of the atom
and lighter, negative charged electrons in the empty space around the nucleus. He
called the positively charged particles in the nucleus protons, from the Greek
word “protos” meaning “first”.
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A few years later, the findings that Niels Bohr (1885–1962) made from his spectro-
scopic experiments provided evidence regarding the atom that necessitated a change to
the nuclear atomic model. Spectroscopy is the study of the interaction between matter
and electromagnetic radiation. Bohr was fascinated by the fact that heated atoms
emitted different colours.
Throw table salt into the flames when you braai or make a fire. The salt
produces an orange flame. The excited electrons in the salt particles emit an
orange colour when it is cooled. You can also throw Borax into the fire. It will
produce a green flame.
What was even more interesting was the fact that atoms could only absorb fixed
amounts of energies of different colours of light. Once excited, the atoms only released
fixed amounts of energy which were related to certain frequencies and colours of light
(E = hf ). Bohr argued that electrons can only have fixed quantities of energy and
concluded that electrons move in fixed energy levels in an atom.
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The diagram shows an atom with its energy levels and the connection between the
frequency of light and the quantized energy levels of an atom. If light with a certain
frequency corresponds with the energy change between two energy levels, the elec-
tron in the atom can absorb the light energy and jump to the next energy level. If an
excited electron moves down an energy level, it loses energy in the form of light with a
frequency that corresponds with the change in energy.
Rutherford’s model could not make provision for this interesting concept of quantised
energy. Bohr suggested a model that is similar to the planets that orbit the Sun, hence his
planetary model. According to this model, the positively charged nucleus is surrounded by
electrons that travel in fixed circular orbits at different energy levels around the nucleus.
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School textbooks usually conclude with Bohr’s atomic model. However, at a later stage
when electron configurations are addressed, learners are expected to understand
orbitals. An orbital is the most likely place to find an electron in an atom. (We will deal
with orbitals later in this learning unit.) However, orbitals are described in terms of the
wave mechanical model that followed Bohr’s model. You can read
about the wave mechanical model of an atom in the block below.
The field of quantum mechanics took off in the early 1900s and supported three
basic principles:
• Energy, momentum and other quantities of a system may have discrete

values (quanta)
• Objects have both particle and wave characteristics (wave-particle duality)
• It is not possible to know the exact position or momentum of particles with
precision (uncertainty principle).
According to quantum mechanics, it is not possible to fully describe electrons

orbiting around a nucleus in terms of being particles. In other words, electrons
cannot be described simply as solid particles. The particle properties of electrons
imply that a whole number of electrons that orbit the nucleus and that electrons
can jump between orbitals, depending on the energy that they receive or emit.
However, electrons also act as waves. This means that electrons do not orbit the
nucleus as a planet orbits the Sun, but instead exist as standing waves. (When you
pull the string of a guitar or any other stringed instrument, a standing wave is
formed.)
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Electrons are moving so fast that we can see only the electron cloud that they
produce. The electrons are never in one single location and it is difficult to pinpoint
an electron, just as we cannot see the exact position of a vibrating guitar string.
They move in an area, called an orbital, which rather resembles an atmosphere
(electron cloud) around a tiny planet. An orbital is a function that can be used to
calculate the probability of finding any electron of an atom in any specific region
around the atom’s nucleus. In school science books this definition of an atomic orbital
is simplified to be the region around the nucleus where one is most likely to find an
electron (probability). Although Bohr did include the quantised energy of electrons,
the wave nature of electrons did not fit Bohr’s atomic model. The atomic orbitals are
the basic building blocks of the wave mechanical model.
Although we do not use this model at school level, we have to consider orbitals
when dealing with electron configuration.
SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
Over the ages, scientific research has provided enough evidence for us to believe
that atoms are not indivisible but consist of three subatomic particles, namely pro-
tons, neutrons and electrons. Neutrons are not discussed in the development of the
atomic model, but they were discovered by James Chadwick (1891–1974) in 1932.
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You can read more on the discovery of the neutron:
This Month in Physics History–American Physical Society

https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200705/physicshistory.cfm
Protons and neutrons

According to the Bohr model, an atom looks as follows:
Each atom has a nucleus at its centre containing protons and neutrons. The protons
and neutrons are collectively referred to as nucleons. The protons and neutrons have the
same mass and are the heaviest subatomic particles. We say that the mass of the atom
is situated in the nucleus. The mass number (A) of an atom is the number of nucleons
in its nucleus.
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The much lighter electrons move freely in an area around the nucleus. They do not
contribute to the mass of the atom. The volume that the electrons occupy around the
nucleus of the atom is often called the electron cloud.
Only the protons and electrons have electric charge. Protons have a positive (+)
charge (symbol p+) and electrons carry a negative (–) charge (symbol e-). The nega-
tive charge of an electron is equal but opposite to the positive charge of a proton.
These charges are very small. Protons have a charge of +1.602 x 10 -19C and electrons
a charge of –1.602 x 10 -19C. Neutrons do not have a charge and are neutral (symbol
n°). An atom is neutral and has the same number of electrons and protons.
Atoms differ from each other because of the different numbers of subatomic particles
that they have. This is why we have different elements. An element consists of atoms of
the same kind, and different elements have different kinds of atoms. The difference
lies in the number of protons, which is called the atomic number of an element (Z ).
Each element has its unique atomic number. All 118 known elements are listed on the
Periodic Table.
Let us consider the two elements, magnesium and chlorine, on the Periodic Table.
The number in the top left-hand corner indicates the atomic number (Z) of the
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element. The atomic number for magnesium is 12, which means that a magnesium
atom has 12 protons in its nucleus. Similarly, the atomic number for chlorine is 17,
which means that a chlorine atom has 17 protons in its nucleus. The elements are
arranged in the Periodic Table in increasing order of atomic number. The number of
electrons is equal to the atomic number in a neutral atom.
How many electrons does a magnesium atom have? And a chlorine atom?
We can write the nuclear notation of an element. It shows the composition of the
nucleus of the atom of an element.
For Helium:
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Atoms of the same element can have different mass numbers. Such atoms are called
isotopes of that element. They have the same number of protons but different numbers
of neutrons.
Look at the three isotopes of carbon below.
In each case we have a carbon atom with 6 protons in its nucleus (the same atomic
number). Looking at their mass numbers we can deduce that the first carbon atom has
6 neutrons, the second carbon atom has 7 neutrons and the third carbon atom has 8
neutrons in its nucleus. Carbon-12 is the common isotope, while carbon-13 is also a
stable isotope. However, the higher number of neutrons in the nucleus of the carbon-14
atom makes it unstable.
Carbon-14 is thus radioactive. This means that it can be used for carbon dating.
Carbon dating has many applications in real-life.
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You can read about the interesting application of carbon dating in the fight
against elephant poaching:
Radiocarbon dating of seized ivory confirms rapid decline in African

elephant populations and provides insight into illegal trade
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5127328/
• Carbon dating also assists us with our historical background. Read the
following article on the migration from Africans to the East. Carbon dates
cast doubt on Near East’s role in human migration
https://phys.org › Other Sciences › Archaeology & Fossils
• The following extract is taken from the Maropeng website:

www.maropeng.co.za
“Estimates of the age of hominids from the Cradle of Humankind can be

obtained by comparing them and associated animal remains with similar fossils
from East Africa that were found in association with volcanic ash deposits. The
East African sediments can be dated ac- curately using techniques such as
carbon dating, which entails the analysis of isotopes of radioactive potassium
(K) and stable argon (Ar). The natural decay rate of the potassium isotopes
relative to argon can be used as a measure of elapsed time. Unfortunately, this
dating technique cannot be applied to South African fossils as they are not
associated with volcanic materials. But by drawing comparisons, scientists
believe that the early Homo remains that have been found, is between 1.5-
million and 1.9-million years old.”
At this point, you should be asking what keeps the subatomic particles together.
The answer lies in the fact that the protons and electrons are charged particles. As a
result, there exist both attractive and repulsive electrostatic forces in an atom. Elec-
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trostatic forces are non-contact forces. Like charges repel (electrons) while unlike
charges attract (protons and electrons). It is clear that the overall attractive forces are
greater than the repulsive forces, keeping the electrons and protons together.
Because of the electrostatic forces that exist between the protons and electrons in the
atom, electrons have potential energy. This energy increases as the electrons move
further away from the nucleus in higher energy levels.
The protons and neutrons are tightly packed in the nucleus. How is this possible? The
protons should repel each other, right? Well, the protons and neutrons of an atom are
held together in the nucleus by a force known as the nuclear force. Nuclear forces are
the strongest known forces. They are involved when a nuclear reaction takes place.
During a nuclear reaction a large amount of energy is released. Nuclear energy was
released by the atom bombs during the Second World War, destroying many lives.
To explain nuclear forces, think of the force that you have to apply with your hands to
keep a spring compressed. The spring can be held contracted by your hands but has
potential energy to expand. When you remove your hands, the spring will “spring” back
and release its energy in the form of kinetic energy.
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The nuclei of some atoms are unstable because of the great number of protons and
neutrons that they contain. These atoms may emit particles, such as alpha (α) particles,
beta (β) particles or gamma (γ) rays, together with large amounts of energy. This
process is called radioactivity. Let us take the example of uranium-238, which is the
most abundant isotope of uranium in nature. Uranium-238 emits an alpha particle,
which is a helium nucleus, to form a new element called thorium. The uranium loses two
protons and four neutrons. The element with an atomic number of 90 is thorium.
[U ----- Th + He]
This process releases α-radiation as well as an amount of energy far greater than any
reaction between atoms. Rutherford used these alpha particles in his gold foil
experiment. The released nuclear energy is used to generate electricity. Nuclear energy
is produced in the nuclear power station at Koeberg in the Western Cape and used to
generate electricity.
Electron configuration
Due to their mobility, electrons move rapidly in matter, forming electric currents and
magnetic forces. Gilbert Lewis (1875–1946) recognised that electrons play an
important role in chemical bonding. He proposed that atoms bond by sharing their
valence electrons. So, a knowledge of electrons is very important.
An atom’s electrons are found in the space around its nucleus. The way in which the
electrons are arranged and distributed in this space is called the electron configura-
tion of the atom. It helps to keep track of where the electrons are in a given atom.
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There is no way we can represent an atom to scale on paper. This is because
of its proportions. The nucleus of an atom is very small compared to the size of the
electron cloud around it. If you imagine an atom to be the same size as a football,
then its nucleus would be the size of a grain of rice in the centre. The rest of the
atom constitutes the electron cloud.
Initially, the Bohr model of the atom was used to indicate where electrons are found in
an atom. According to the Bohr model, electrons move in fixed energy shells because
they have fixed energies. The energy shells are numbered from one upwards, starting
from the shell closest to the nucleus and with the lowest energy. Electrons with little
energy are found in an energy shell close to the nucleus, while electrons with more
energy are able to move in an energy level further away from the nucleus.
Electrons occupy these shells according to two basic rules:
(1) Shells are filled starting from the lowest energy shell.
(2) The maximum number of electrons in any shell, n, is 2n2 .
Draw a sulfur atom using Bohr’s atomic model. Indicate the correct number of protons
and neutrons in the nucleus as well as the correct number of electrons in each energy
level
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The electrons in the highest occupied energy shell are called valence electrons while
the electrons that are found in the lower energy shells are called core electrons. The
diagram below shows the representation of the atoms of elements in the second
period of the Periodic Table: lithium, beryllium, boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen,
fluorine and neon.
Write down the number of core and valence electrons for the atom of each element.
Valence electrons can be removed from neutral atoms to form positive ions, while
electrons can also be added to neutral atoms to form negative ions. Ions are atoms with
a charge.
Example
(1) A neutral sodium atom loses an electron to form a positive sodium ion.
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https://lindseylester.files.wordpress.com/2011/03/sodium-ion.jpg
(1) A neutral chloride atom obtains an electron to form a negative ion.
https://qph.fs.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-d6b1c91f6540b6a7b75e5561379d8dd5-c
Electrons are found in orbitals with different shapes. An orbital is the area in which we
are most likely to find an electron. It is not possible to determine the exact position or
movement of an electron and we can therefore only estimate where it can be found.
Watch: Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

https://www.khanacademy.org/.../heisenberg-
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uncertainty-principle
We can determine the likelihood of finding an electron in a certain area by considering

the electron density. The density of the dots in the diagram below shows the probability
of finding the electron of a hydrogen atom in various regions of the atom. Simply put, if
we could take photos of the electron, each dot would represent a photograph of the
electron at that specific time. The higher the density of the dots (and electrons) the
better the chance is to find the electron there. The diagram should remind you of a
spherical s-orbital.
http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/3311/3390683/imag0605/AAAUAWJ0.JPG
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Electrons with different energies are found in different areas around the nucleus.
These areas have distinct shapes and are known as orbitals. This means that the
electrons have different probability distributions around the nucleus, depending on their
energies.
Electrons in the subshells of the second energy shell show the following distributions.
This should remind you of the double-tear shapes of p-orbitals.
2px
2py 2pz
http://www.introorganicchemistry.com/basic/2py.jpg
There are also d-orbitals and f-orbitals but we will conclude with the s-orbitals and p-
orbitals. The s-orbitals are spherical and symmetrical in three dimensions around the
nucleus. This means that an electron in an s-orbital is more likely to be found inside
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the spherical boundary surface than outside it (although it can be outside oc-
casionally). All p-orbitals are double-lobed, with a region of high electron density on
each side of the nucleus. The three p-orbitals of a given energy level are shown as px,
py, or pz depending on the axis with which they are aligned. P-orbitals do not have any
electron density at the nucleus, which means that an electron in a p-orbital will almost
never be found near the nucleus.
Rules for assigning electrons to orbitals
 Electrons fill orbitals in a way that minimises the energy of the atom. This
means that electrons will fill the lowest energy levels first. The order of filling
the energy levels is:
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, and 7p
Energy level Sub-

1 s
2 s,
3 s,
4 s, p,
• A maximum of two electrons may occupy a single orbital at a time provided that
they spin in opposite directions. This is called Pauli’s Exclusion Principle. When two
electrons occupy an orbital, they are paired.
• When assigning electrons to orbitals, each electron first fills all the orbitals with
similar energy before pairing with another electron in a half-filled orbital. Paired
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electrons are unstable because of the repelling forces. As the negative charged
electrons fill orbitals they first try to get as far as possible from each other before
having to pair up. This is called Hund’s Rule.
Instead of drawing the orbitals each time to show the electron configuration of an
atom, we use the sp notation or the orbital box notation. The diagram below shows the sp
notation and orbital box notation for the electron configuration of a few elements.
Element sp notation orbital box notation
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https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9gcQz-y-
3WQFMb7LszwgnKcvcy _
fgRT8T5TTdJYPCkqYT7HwM7fMX
The electron spin is symbolised by a vertical arrow and the two possible spin values
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are shown by upward and downward-pointing arrows.
https://textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com/boundless-chemistry/gram-four-2p-hund-27s-
rule.svg
Watch this YouTube video for an example on how to write the electron
configuration for the atom of an element:
Electron configurations orbital diagrams IB Chemistry Past Paper Exam Qs

2016 Specimen P2 SL HL Q1d
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zBi-5hDaobI
There is a connection between the electron configurations of elements and the order of
the elements on the Periodic Table. Niels Bohr was the first to recognise that the
periodicity in the properties of the elements could be explained by the periodic way of
filling the orbitals (Auf bau principle). Can you see the pattern in the Periodic Table
below? The order for filling the subshell orbitals can also be deduced from the
Periodic Table.
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http://ddgrafx.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/ravishing-orbitals-on-periodic-table-
gallery-
for-lighting-style-orbitals-on-periodic-table.gif
The Periodic Table can be divided into several numbered rectangular blocks, namely the
s-block, p-block, d-block and f-block. The elements belonging to a given block
have common features.
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Groups 1 and 2 make up the s-block, the transitional elements make up the d-block, and
groups 13 to 18 make up the p-block and rest of the elements are in the f-block.
Give the relationship between the number of valence electrons in an atom’s valence
electron shell and the position of the element on the Periodic Table.
UNIT 3: Energy and Change: Approaches, resources and case studies
I: Sources of energy, energy transfer, sound and movement
Energy and energy transfer
From the earliest of times, humans have searched for sources of energy. We use
energy to survive, provide light, stay warm and cook food. In addition, the quest for
energy sources to generate electricity has escalated as the demands for electricity has
increased. With growing populations and our technology driven environment, the
electrical supply cannot keep up.
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There are many issues surrounding electricity generation. Coal and other fossil fuels are
still the main source of electrical energy, although wind energy, nuclear energy and hydro-
electrical energy are also used. There is a search for alternative energy sources as fossil
fuels are not environmentally friendly and are not going to last forever.
For most of us, it is impossible to think of a life without electricity, yet many people still
do not have access to electricity in their homes. They have to rely on basic energy
sources, such as paraffin, wood and candles.
What is the status of the electricity supply in your community?
In this unit we focus on the Big Idea of science,
“The total amount of energy in the Universe is always the same, but energy
can be transferred from one energy store to another during an event.”
Ii: Stored energy, heat transfer, energy saving, energy transfer,
From the earliest of times, humans have searched for sources of energy. We use
energy to survive, provide light, stay warm and cook food. In addition, the quest for
energy sources to generate electricity has escalated as the demands for electricity has
increased. With growing populations and our technology driven environment, the
electrical supply cannot keep up.
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There are many issues surrounding electricity generation. Coal and other fossil fuels are
still the main source of electrical energy, although wind energy, nuclear energy and
hydro-electrical energy are also used. There is a search for alternative energy sources
as fossil fuels are not environmentally friendly and are not going to last forever.
For most of us, it is impossible to think of a life without electricity, yet many people still
do not have access to electricity in their homes. They have to rely on basic energy
sources, such as paraffin, wood and candles.
What is the status of the electricity supply in your community?
In this unit we focus on the Big Idea of science,
“The total amount of energy in the Universe is always the same, but energy can
be transferred from one energy store to another during an event.”
and the Big Ideas about science,
“The knowledge produced by science is used in engineering and technology to

create products.”
“Applications of science often have ethical, social, economic and political

implications.”
Many processes require energy to make them happen. Heat energy can cause
materials to change state, electricity can make light bulbs shine and wind can turn the
blades of a wind turbine. Energy can be transferred from an energy source to a system
in various ways. However, energy cannot be created or destroyed. The amount of
energy that one object loses is the same as the amount of energy that another object
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has gained. Sometimes it may seem as if energy has “disappeared”, but not all energy
is in an accessible form.
5.1 ENERGY RESOURCES
We have a constant need for energy and have become very dependent on energy to
get us from point A to point B, to prepare meals, to provide light and to support all our
online and social media activities. As a result, we are continually searching for energy
sources that are sustainable and environmentally friendly.
5.1.1 The Sun: our main source of energy
We only have to look up into the sky to see our main source of energy, the Sun. The
Sun releases energy during powerful nuclear reactions.
The Sun is made up of two types of hydrogen isotopes, namely deuterium ( 2/1 H) and
tritium ( 3/1 H). The hydrogen atoms are fused together as a result of the high temperatures
of the Sun and the fact that the atoms are compressed together. Two hydrogen nuclei
combine to form a helium nucleus with two protons and two neutrons. A large amount of
energy is released during the process. This is called nuclear fusion.
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The Sun provides this important energy in the form of light and heat that reaches the Earth
and is used to sustain life on Earth. Plants are the only organisms that can use the energy
from the Sun to make food. This is a chemical process called photosynthesis. Together with
carbon dioxide and water, the plants use the energy from the Sun to produce food in the
form of glucose. The chemical equation for the reaction is,
CO2 + H2O + energy → C6H12O6 + O2
The reaction is endothermic and the energy is stored in the glucose molecules. We access
the energy that is stored in the plants when we eat the plants. Our bodies break down the
molecules and the energy is released in our bodies through the process of respiration. We
also use the energy that is stored in wood to make fires. The energy in plants and animals
can be stored for millions of years in the form of fossil fuels, such as oil, coal and natural
gas.
5.1.2 Non-renewable sources of energy
Fossil fuels are a form of stored solar energy. The fossilised remains of dead plants and
animals were exposed to heat and pressure in the Earth’s crust over millions of years.
When these plants and animals died, their remains were covered by layers of mud and soil.
As the layers pressed down on these remains, the pressure on them increased. Coal, oil
and natural gas formed as a result of the high temperature and pressure.
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mainly of carbon. When carbon burns in sufficient oxygen it produces carbon dioxide
and energy. One kilogram of carbon produces 2928 kJ of energy, according
to the chemical equation,
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
Natural gas consists mostly of methane. Below is a balanced chemical equation for
the combustion reaction of methane with oxygen,
CH4(g) + O2 → CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Fossil fuels are non-renewable energy sources because there are limited amounts of
fossil fuels on Earth and they can be used up. Given the rate at which humans are using
fossil fuels, there will be none left for future generations. Therefore, scientists and
engineers are looking for alternative sources of energy.
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Another reason for finding alternative sources of energy is the fact that the combustion
of fossil fuels produces carbon dioxide, which is a greenhouse gas. Carbon dioxide
traps the heat energy of the Sun in the atmosphere and contributes to global warming
and climate change. Carbon dioxide also dissolves in rainwater to make it acidic. As a
result, fossil fuels are not considered “clean energy”. In addition, coal and oil release a
variety of other potentially harmful air pollutants during combustion.
Natural gas, consisting mainly of methane, is considered the cleanest burning fossil fuel
because it does not release harmful by-products.
The use of fossil fuels poses ethical, social and economic problems. The mining of oil
and the production of petroleum is a lucrative business and many people rely on it for
jobs and an income. Fossil fuels are used for transport and to generate electricity.
However, we have a responsibility to look after our environment and the safety and
health of humans.
Fracking in the Karoo
Natural gas extraction in the Karoo is promoted as the solution to South Africa’s energy
crisis, according to Shell.
Hydraulic fracturing, or “fracking”, is used to recover natural gas from shale rock.
It is the process of drilling down into these rocks before high-pressure water, sand and
chemicals are forced into the rock layers to release the gas inside.
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Although feasibility studies show that there is enough gas to make fracking viable and
economical, there are environmental concerns about fracking:
•• Fracking uses huge amounts of water, which must be transported to the fracking site.
The Karoo is a semi-desert and water is scarce there. This means that, fracking can
lead to further water shortages.
•• Potentially carcinogenic chemicals that are used may escape and contaminate
groundwater around the fracking site. Groundwater is the main source of water for
towns in the Karoo.
•• The fracking process can cause small earthquakes.
•• Natural gas is just another non-renewable source of energy.
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Another non-renewable source of energy is nuclear energy. Nuclear energy is stored in

the nuclei of atoms and is released in two ways: fission and fusion. Nuclear fusion takes
place in the Sun when hydrogen atoms combine to form helium atoms and energy.
During nuclear fission large atoms are hit with neutrons and split to form smaller atoms,
releasing large amounts of energy in the form of heat and radiation.
Nuclear reactions differ from normal chemical reactions because new elements or
isotopes are formed.
Nuclear power plants use the nuclear fission of uranium-235 (or plutonium) to generate
heat, which is used to produce electricity. The atoms of the uranium can easily be split
apart. During the nuclear reaction, neutrons are released that can split nearby atoms
and produce a nuclear chain reaction of sustained energy release. This reaction is
controlled to produce the right amount of heat.
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Uranium is considered a non-renewable energy source because there is only a fixed
amount of uranium on Earth. Although uranium is a metal commonly found in rocks and is
more available than silver, Uranium-235 is relatively scarce.
South Africa is the only country in Africa that uses nuclear energy to generate electricity.
It has two nuclear reactors at the Koeberg nuclear power station where 5% of the country’s
energy is generated.
Nuclear energy has its own problems. Despite the fact that it is considered a
nonrenewable source of energy, nuclear waste poses threats to the environment. It is
difficult to get rid of nuclear waste because the waste is still radioactive and can remain
so for many years. Nuclear waste from Koeberg is disposed of at Vaalputs Radioactive
Waste Disposal Facility in the Northern Cape.
5.1.3 Renewable sources of energy
Renewable sources of energy include hydro energy, wind energy, solar energy and
biofuels (grains). Renewable energy sources are energy sources that are always being
replenished.
Solar panels use the energy from the Sun to generate electricity. Solar panels that are
able to generate electricity are called photovoltaic solar panels. Simple solar panels are
used to heat the water in geysers. Solar panels are used in rural areas to provide
electricity as well as hot water.
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The numbers of wind farms are growing, particularly in the Eastern Cape region. (A
wind farm consists of many wind turbines that are used to generate electricity.)
This makes South Africa the biggest contributor to wind power generation in Africa.
Other African countries, such as Morocco, Egypt, Ethiopia and Kenya, are also
investing in wind farms to generate power. In South Africa, engineers are experimenting
with sunflower oil and maize to produce biofuels, such as ethanol, that can be used in
motorcars. In the rest of Africa, many European companies are growing crops to
produce biofuels.
Read about solar panels. How can solar panels be implemented in your community?
[DF] Leeupan solar PV project–Urban Energy Support

www.cityenergy.org.za/uploads/resource_339.pdf
Solar cells (or photovoltaic cells), convert the energy of light into electricity via the
photovoltaic effect. Light consists of discrete energy particles, called photons, which
excite the electrons of a metal when the light shines on it.
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The separation of the electrons causes an electric potential. The efficiency of solar
panels has risen in recent years. In fact, those currently being produced by SolarCity, a
company co-founded by Elon Musk (a South African), have achieved an efficiency of
22%.
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-does-solar-power-work/
•• Read the article on biofuels and list the ethical issues regarding biofuels that are
addressed in the article.
Biofuels boom in Africa as British firms lead rush on land for plantations
Controversial fuel crops linked to rising food prices and hunger, as well as increased
greenhouse gas emissions
Damian Carrington and Stefano Valentino
The Guardian, Tuesday 31 May 2011 21.00 BST
https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/may/31/biofuel-plantations-africa-
british-firms
Commonly known
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Commonly known as batteries, electric cells are a part of our daily lives. We use cells in
torches, clocks, radios, cellphones, remote controls and even medical devices, such as
pacemakers. Cells are a source of chemical energy that can produce an electrical current. A
simple cell functions on the principle of an electrochemical cell with electrodes and
electrolytes.
There are many different varieties of cells available. There are primary cells that cannot
be recharged, as well as secondary or storage cells. Dry cells are still very popular and
are sometimes preferred to “wet” cells with electrolyte solutions. The latest material to
be used in cells is lithium. Lithium is a light-weight metal and has a good conductivity.
5.2 ENERGY SYSTEMS
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When the energy in an energy source is released, it can be changed to a form of energy
that is useful to us. Systems are used to produce such energy. A system is a set of
interacting parts that work together. In particular, an energy system is all the
components related to the production, conversion, delivery and use of energy.
In every system there is a flow of energy from input energy to output energy. Energy
can be transferred in a system when different parts of the system interact with one
another and cause energy changes. Energy can also be transferred from one system to
another, such as from an electrical system to a mechanical system. One of the most
important systems is a power station that generates electricity.
5.2.1 National Grid: A system that provides electricity
Power stations use the potential energy that is stored in sources of energy to generate
electrical energy. Examples of such energy sources include fossil fuels, wind, waves,
nuclear energy and dams. These energy sources are the input energy for the power
station while the electrical energy is the output energy. Let us look at the process.
Step 1
The first step is to turn a turbine. There are various ways in which this is done. Most
power stations in South Africa use coal as a fuel to boil water. These coal power
stations are predominantly situated in Limpopo and Mpumalanga. When the coal burns,
it produces heat energy to boil water. The steam that is formed, releases a large
amount of energy, which is used to turn a turbine. A turbine is a machine that
uses the energy from a moving liquid or gas to turn. During this process heat energy is
converted to kinetic energy.
At Koeberg nuclear power station, the heat energy released by nuclear reactions is
used to boil water that produces steam. The steam is used to turn turbines. In the
Eastern Cape, the strong winds are used to turn large wind turbines. In a hydroelectric
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power station, the water stored behind the dam wall is released and the gravitational
potential energy of the water is used to turn a hydraulic turbine. There are two
hydroelectric power stations in South Africa. One is situated at the Gariep dam and the
other one at the Van der Kloof dam in the Northern Cape. Turbinesare also put in the
way of sea waves, which turn the turbines. This technology has not yet been developed
in South Africa.
You might ask how it is possible for steam to turn a turbine. Do the following simple
experiment. Fill a pot two-thirds full with water and close the lid. Put the pot on the stove
and boil the water. After a while you will first hear and then see the lid moving up and
down. This is the steam doing work by pushing the lid up.
Step 2
In the next step the turbine turns a generator. A generator converts the kinetic energy of
the turbine to electrical energy. The science concept that is used in this step is
electromagnetism. We will use a simple a.c. (alternating current) generator as an
example to explain the concept of electromagnetism.
At the heart of a simple generator is a bent wire coil in a magnetic field. In short, when
the wire coil moves in the magnetic field a current and a voltage are induced in the coil.
This is called electromagnetic induction. The diagram shows a simplified a.c. generator.
Two slip rings and a coil are fixed so that they rotate in tandem with the shaft as it is
turned. Fixed carbon brushes electrically connect the coil to the external circuit
throughout the rotation. They “brush” against the slip rings, maintaining an electrical
connection to the circuit but without causing resistance to the movement of the coil.
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Let us explain electromagnetic induction. When a force is applied to a conductor in
a magnetic field so that the conductor moves, a current and potential difference are
induced in the conductor. Fleming’s right-hand dynamo rule allows us to work out the
direction of the induced current when a force is applied to the coil in a magnetic field.
(1) Point your First finger in the direction of the magnetic field.
(2) Point your seCond finger in the direction of the current.
(3) The Thumb will then give you the direction of the force (thrust).
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These three components should always be at right angles with one another for a current
to be induced. When the force and direction of magnetic field lines are in the same
direction, no current will be induced.
(1) When the coil is at the vertical position, the magnetic lines are parallel to the coil
wire and there is no induced current.
(2) As the coil rotates towards the horizontal position, the current increases until
its maximum value at the horizontal position.
(3) As the coil continues on its rotation, the current decreases until at the vertical
position it is zero again.
(4) We have now done half a turn of the coil.
(5) The current increases as the coil rotates until, upon reaching the horizontal position
again, the induced current is at its maximum, but the direction of the induced current
flowing through the external circuit is now reversed.
(6) The direction of the induced current keeps changing depending on the orientation of
the coil.
This induced current is known as alternating current as, in each half of the cycle, the
flow of current alternates in its direction. The current is positive (+) in one direction and
negative in the other (–).
The turning turbine in the power station provides the force with which the generator is
rotated. This mechanical energy is then converted to electrical energy in the generator
by means of electromagnetic induction.
Step 3
The power station distributes the electrical energy along the national grid at high
voltages. The national grid is a network of interacting parts that forms the national
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electricity supply system to industries and homes. The voltage is stepped up when it
leaves the power station to reduce the current and the amount of heat loss (heating
effect of a current). Power lines carry the electricity at high voltages before it is
stepped down by transformers before it reaches our homes.
A generator at a power station might produce electricity with a voltage of 25 000 V and
a current of 8 000 A. The cables that would have to carry such a large current would get
hot and energy would be lost as heat energy to the atmosphere. (The heat energy
would not be destroyed, but would not be accessible anymore.) To reduce this energy
loss, the voltage is stepped up to 400 000 V, which is 16 times the input voltage of 25
000V. This means that the current will be 16 times smaller, namely 500 A.
Draw a flow diagram to indicate the conversion of energy in a power station.
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The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed.
In an ideal situation the amount of input potential energy should be equal to the output
electrical energy. However, this is not the case. Energy is lost due to heat and
transmission and is thus no longer in a usable form. The power station also uses some
of the electricity for its operations. Only about a third of the energy stored in the fuel is
transferred as electrical energy to homes and industries.
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It is evident that power stations are not very energy efficient Around 60% of the output
energy of a power station is wasted as it is transferred to the surroundings as heat
energy. This means only about 36% is useful output energy (electrical energy) which is
transferred through the grid system to our homes. At each point along the grid where a
change or conversion of energy occurs, energy is transferred to the surroundings as
heat and sound energy. By the time the energy is fed through your meter-box into your
home, it is far less than 36%.
5.2.2 Electrical systems at home
Electrical energy is used as input energy for many systems in our homes, such as
electrical appliances, tools, vehicles and machines. These systems provide us with
useful energy outputs. Let us use a hairdryer as an example.
In a hairdryer, the input energy is electrical energy and the output energy is heat
energy, kinetic energy and sound energy. The heat energy and the movement of the air
causes the water in our hair to evaporate and our hair becomes dry.
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The hairdryer contains an electric motor that uses the same electromagnetic principles
as a simple generator. Where a simple generator converts kinetic energy to electrical
energy, an electric motor converts electrical energy to kinetic energy (rotation).
According to the Motor Rule, when an electric current flows through a conductor that is
in a magnetic field, the conductor will experience a force. We can use Fleming’s left-
hand rule to determine the direction of the force.
Electric motors are found in any appliance that rotates, such as computers, cooling
fans, electric shavers, washing machines, dishwashers and handheld drills.
The motor rule is a very good example of the Big Idea about science,
“The knowledge produced by science is used in engineering and technology to create

products to serve human ends.”
The link between electricity, magnetism, and movement was originally discovered by
André-Marie Ampère (1775–1867) and represents the basic science behind an electric
motor. We know that a current-carrying conductor creates a temporary magnetic field
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around it. If you place this conductor in a permanent magnetic field, the field lines will
either attract each other or repel each other, resulting in the conductor moving.
However, this science discovery was not useful to people. The inventors who changed
this amazing scientific discovery into a more practical technology were Michael Faraday
(1791–1867), William Sturgeon (1783–1850) and Joseph Henry (1797–1878).
They bent a wire into a loop so that there are effectively two parallel wires running
through the magnetic field. One part takes the electric current in the one direction and
the other part takes the electric current in the opposite direction.
Because the current flows in opposite directions in the wires, Fleming’s left-hand rule
shows that the two wires will move in opposite directions. As a result, the wire loop
rotates.
These gentlemen realised that they had to modify their simple set up so that the coil
would rotate in the same direction the whole time and so that the wires would not tangle
up. They added commutator rings and connector brushes made of graphite.
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They also realised that their experimental motor was not capable of producing enough
power. They experimented with more powerful permanent magnets, increased the
electric current, made a coil with more loops and used a very thin wire so that it could
be turned more easily. By keeping the magnet and coil closer together, the motor also
produced a greater force.
Today electric motors are used in almost everything around us, including electric
lawnmowers, vacuum cleaners, washing machines, drills and so on.
The motors in these appliances have two essential components:
 A permanent magnet around the edge of the motor case, which is called the
stator of the motor.
 A rotor inside the stator. It is a coil that is mounted on an axle that spins around
at high speed. It turns the drive shaft.
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Go to www.explainthatstuff.com for an animation of the motor effect.
A simple electric circuit is a system that transfers electrical energy from a source in this
case, the cell), through a closed, external circuit, to an output device, such as a light
bulb, as shown in the diagram below. The energy is also transferred to other
components that are connected in the circuit. These output devices may include
beepers, buzzers and LEDs.
Resistors, found in the elements of kettles, geysers and stoves, provide useful heat
energy. A resistor is a conducting material that resists the flow of electrons. It is difficult
for electrons to move through a resistor and they have to use more energy to overcome
the resistance to movement. As a result, the resistor becomes hot.
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5.2.3 Efficiency
Energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can only be converted from one form to
another. Thus, within a system, we expect the input energy to be equal to the output
energy. However, this is not the case and the useful output energy is always less than
the input energy. Does this mean that energy is destroyed? No. Energy is always
conserved, but some of the output energy cannot be used and is wasted. However, the
total amount of energy is still conserved.
Input energy = Useful output energy + Wasted output energy
Let us explain this by looking at some examples.
Hair dryer
The output energy of a hair dryer is heat energy, kinetic energy and sound energy.
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We use a hair dryer to dry wet hair. Therefore, the heat and kinetic energy is useful for
this purpose. The water on the hair evaporates and the hair becomes dry. The sound
energy is not useful for drying hair. It is considered wasted energy and is released into
the surroundings.
Drill
In a drill, electrical energy is transferred to the drill bit and changed to kinetic energy.
The drill bit turns and is used to drill into a piece of metal or a wall. However, the drill
also makes a lot of noise and gets warm. This means that some of the electrical energy
is also converted to heat energy and sound energy. This energy are not useful in the
drilling process and is released to the surroundings.
We have to save energy to protect our energy resources. This means that we have to
reduce the amount of wasted output energy. Unfortunately, many of the systems we use
are not very energy efficient and wasted energy is much greater than useful energy
output. For example, a motor car uses only about 60% of the chemical energy that is
stored in the petrol it uses to get from place to place. The other 40% of the energy is
wasted in the form of heat, sound and friction.
A Sankey diagram can be used to show how energy is transferred in a system. Sankey
diagrams are named after Matthew Sankey, who first used this type of diagram in 1898
in a publication on the energy efficiency of a steam engine. This diagram is useful
because it shows the useful and wasted output energy.
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An efficient system is one where the useful output energy arrow is only slightly smaller
than the input energy. In the yellow Sankey diagram, the wasted output energy is far
greater than the useful output energy. This means that the device for which the diagram
has been drawn is very energy inefficient.
Example
We constantly hear that we have to replace our normal light bulbs with energy saving
light bulbs. The input energy of a light bulb is electrical energy. The useful output energy
of the light bulb is light energy, while the wasted output energy is heat energy. This heat
energy is released to the surroundings and cannot be used again. An ordinary light bulb
contains a thin metal filament that provides resistance to the flow of current. As a result,
the filament is heated. At a temperature of about 1100°C it glows with a bright white
light. Light bulbs that give off light when hot are called incandescent bulbs.
Most of the electrical energy is transferred as heat energy instead of light energy.
See the Sankey diagram for an ordinary light bulb. Note how energy is conserved
despite the huge amount of energy being wasted.
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Fluorescent light work on the principle of fluorescence (see the section on plasmas).
Electrical energy is supplied to electrodes that generate fast moving electrons that pass
through a tube filled with mercury gas and argon. When the electrons collide with the
mercury molecules, the mercury gas changes to a plasma and the molecules radiate
ultraviolet light. The ultraviolet light shines on phosphor molecules that are coated
around the tube converting the ultraviolet light to visible light. Visible light does not have
a high temperature and therefore little heat energy is released. However, fluorescent
lights are rapidly being replaced by modern energy-saving LED’s.
Fluorescent light bulbs transfer a greater proportion of their electrical energy to light
energy and much less electrical energy is transferred as heat energy. As with other
devices, the total input energy is equal to the total output energy (useful and wasted)
and energy is conserved.
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It is clear that fluorescent light bulbs are far more energy efficient than incandescent
light bulbs which use a heated wire to produce light. People are advised to change to
energy saving light bulbs to do their bit for the environment and save energy.
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Activity
Complete the following
An electric beater
Energy input Useful Energy Output Wasted energy Output
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A car engine
Welding metal together
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Athletes running
A television
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5.3 THERMAL ENERGY AND TRANSFER
Energy cannot be created, but it is constantly moving around the Universe. We know
that energy is conserved when it is converted from one form to another. Energy is also
conserved when it is transferred from one object to another. In this section we are going
to focus on the transfer of thermal energy from one object to another.
Thermal energy transfers are continuously taking place around us. If you sit in the Sun,
you feel the warmth of the sunlight. When you boil water for tea, thermal energy is
transferred from the kettle element to the water until it boils. You know from experience
that you will burn your hand when you use a metal spoon to stir hot porridge on the
stove.
5.3.1 Temperature and thermal energy
The amount of thermal energy that an object has is determined by its temperature.
Temperature is a measure of the average amount of kinetic energy that the molecules
of an object have and is independent of the amount of matter in the object.
All matter is made up of molecules that are in constant motion because of the kinetic
energy they possess. The kinetic energy of molecules is directly relational to thermal
energy. A cold object has a low temperature and its molecules have little kinetic energy.
As the object is heated (energy is added), the kinetic energy of the molecules increases,
the vibrations or movement of the molecules increases and they collide more with each
other. The kinetic energy of the molecules are converted to thermal energy. The result
is an increase in temperature.
At some point, the energy that is added to a substance does not result in a temperature
increase of the substance. The added energy is used to break the intermolecular bonds
between the molecules and the substance will change state.
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Activity
Consider the following heating curve of water.
1. At what stages the increase in energy results in a temperature increase of the

water?
2. At what stages does the increase in energy result in a state of change of the
water?
5.3.2 Thermal energy transfer
When we heat an object, a transfer of energy is involved. Heat transfer is the physical
act of thermal energy being exchanged between two systems and heat flow represents
the movement of thermal energy.
Thermal energy is transferred from one object to another only when there is a difference
in temperature between the two objects. Thermal energy is transferred between a hot
and a cold object until both objects are at the same temperature.
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On a microscopic level, molecules with a higher kinetic energy will transfer their kinetic
energy to molecules with a lower kinetic energy when they collide with them.
This transfer of energy will continue until the molecules collide with other molecules that
have the same kinetic energy.
Once there is thermal equilibrium, the thermal transfer stops. This means that both
objects are at the same temperature. How quickly this happens depends on the kind of
material which is heated and the materials between them.
Thermal energy is transferred through conduction, convection and radiation. During

conduction, convection and radiation energy is conserved.
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5.3.3 Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy through a substance from molecule to

molecule. Thermal energy is transferred throughout the substance until the whole
substance is at the same temperature. Conduction is most effective in solids although it
can happen in fluids as well.
A steel spoon in a cup of hot soup becomes warmer because the thermal energy from
the soup is conducted along the spoon. Have you ever noticed that metals tend to feel
cold? Believe it or not, they are not colder than their surroundings! In fact, they only feel
colder because they conduct thermal energy away from your hand.
You perceive the loss of thermal energy as “being cold”.
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The molecules of a solid are closely packed and vibrate in one position. If one end of a
solid object is heated, the molecules at that end gain greater kinetic energy and vibrate
more vigorously. As the vibrating molecules collide with each other, some of the kinetic
energy is transferred to neighbouring molecules with lower kinetic energy. The kinetic
energy of these molecules increases because of the backward and forward movement
of the electrons. This process continues and passes energy from the hot end of the
object to the colder end until all the molecules have the same kinetic energy.
Conduction depends on the following factors:
•• Temperature gradient – The bigger the temperature difference, the more quickly
thermal energy is transferred.
Cross-section of the material – The greater the surface area that is exposed, the greater
the thermal energy transfer.
•• Length of the travel path – The greater the size and length of an object, the more
energy is required to transfer thermal energy throughout the object.
•• The physical properties of the conductive medium – Metals are good conductors of
thermal energy. The reason for this is that the sea of free-moving electrons they contain
transfers thermal energy rapidly through the metal. Good electrical conductors are also
good conductors of thermal energy. The molecules of a weak conductor of thermal
energy, such as wood or plastic, do not have free-moving
electrons that can transfer thermal energy easily. Such materials, also known as
insulators, prevent or slow down the conduction of thermal energy.
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Activity
Do the following experiment to compare the conductivity of different materials.
1. Set up the experiment similarly to the one in the diagram.
2. Use any rods made from different materials that you can find in your home.
You can even use plastic, metal and wooden spoons.
3. Cut pieces of candle wax and place them around one end of the rods/spoons.
4. Fill the container with boiling water.
Write down which rod melted the wax first?
Write down which rod took the longest to melt the wax?
5.3.4 Convection
Convection is the transfer of thermal energy from a hot place to a cold place by the
movement of liquid or gas particles. Convection is the only thermal energy transfer
method that involves the movement of matter. Let us use the example of a geyser that
heats water.
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Water expands when it is heated by the element at the bottom of a geyser. As the water
molecules gain more kinetic energy, they move further away from each other.
This means that the volume of the water increases and its density decreases. As a
result, the water moves upwards. Cooler, denser water takes the place of the warmer
water. The cooler water is also heated by the element and moves upwards. As the
water moves further away from the element of the geyser it starts to cool down. It
becomes denser and sinks to the bottom of the geyser where it is heated again. This
continuous circulation motion is called convection current. The transfer of thermal
energy takes place until all the water in the geyser is at the same temperature.
Air in a room is heated in a similar way by a heater or fire. When air is heated it
becomes less dense and moves upwards. As it moves away from the heat source it
becomes cooler and denser and sinks again to the bottom of the room.
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The change in density that accompanies the heating and cooling of gases can be
explained by Charles’ law. At constant atmospheric pressure, the temperature of a gas
is directly proportional to its volume. As the temperature increases, the kinetic energy of
the gas molecules also increases. The more energy these gas molecules have, the
faster they move. An increase in speed corresponds with a larger average distance
travelled between collisions, which in turn corresponds with a larger volume being
occupied by the same number of molecules. Volume is inversely proportional to density
for the same mass (d ∝ 1 /v ) and, therefore, an increase in volume corresponds with a
decrease in density.
Next time you heat a room with a heater or fire, take strips of tissue paper and hold
them about 30 cm above the heater or fire. The tissue strips will move in the convection
current.
Many convection currents occur in the atmosphere. As the Earth’s surface is warmed by
the Sun, the warm air close to the surface rises and the cool air takes its place.
We experience these convection currents as wind. Simply put, wind is produced by the
uneven heating of the Earth’s surface by the Sun.
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A lava lamp works on the principle of convection. The lava blob is made of a waxy
compound. As the blob is heated, the molecules move further apart and the density
decreases. The blob rises to the top of the lamp. As the blob moves further away from
the heat source, it becomes cooler and the molecules move closer together.
The result is a higher density and the blob sinks back to the bottom of the lamp where
the process starts all over again. The lava lamp creates a convection current whereby
the blob is constantly moving up and down. Now that is nifty technology!
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5.3.5 Radiation
The thermal energy of a fire or heater reaches an object by means of radiation. Thermal
radiation is the transfer of thermal energy between objects that are separated or far
from each other. Unlike convection and conduction, radiation does not require the
presence of matter. Thermal energy can even be transmitted through empty space
(vacuum). Let us look at electromagnetic radiation.
5.3.5.1 Electromagnetic radiation
Electromagnetic radiation is a form of energy that is propagated through space by

means of electromagnetic waves. In the process, energy is transferred from a source of
energy to another body. Any charged particle has an electric field around it. An electric
field is an area around an electrically charged particle in which another electrically
charged particle experiences a force. This force is a non-contact force.
The electric field lines represent the electric field around the positive charge in the
diagram below. A positive charge will experience a repulsive force in the electric field
while a negative charge will experience an attractive force in the electric field.
The source of an electromagnetic wave is a vibrating charge. When a charged particle

is heated, it accelerates up and down and creates oscillations in its electric field in one
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plane. The higher the temperature of the particles, the more vigorously the charged
particles vibrate.
The oscillating electric field produces a magnetic field that oscillates in a plane at right
angles to it. This is called the magnetic effect of a moving charge (electric current).
In return, the magnetic field produces an electric field at right angles to it. A changing
magnetic field induces an electric current or the movement of charges. The moving
charges induce a magnetic field again and so it goes on. The electric and magnetic
fields generate each other and travels through space at 3 x 108 m.s-1, which is the
speed of light. This is called an electromagnetic wave. An electromagnetic wave is a
transverse wave with a specific frequency and wavelength that relate to the energy of
the wave. Electromagnetic waves carry the energy away from the source of energy until
the waves hit an object.
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5.3.5.3 Thermal energy radiation
The Sun radiates many types of electromagnetic waves. Some of the harmful ultraviolet
(UV) radiation that reaches the Earth’s atmosphere is absorbed by the ozone layer. The
gases used in aerosols have been destroying the ozone layer and people are more and
more exposed to UV rays. The sunlight that we see with our eyes is the visible light of
the electromagnetic spectrum. The warmth of the Sun that we experience is infrared
radiation from the Sun.
The Sun is not the only object that radiates infrared rays. The primary source of infrared
radiation is thermal energy. Therefore, any object radiates thermal energy in the infrared
frequency range, based on its temperature.
Remember that the temperature of an object is a measure of the amount of energy that
it has.
The hotter an object, the more thermal energy it radiates. The amount of thermal energy
an object has affects the wavelength and frequency of the radiated infrared waves. As
the temperature of an object increases, the charged particles vibrate more vigorously,
the wavelength of the infrared waves decrease and the frequency increases. As a
result, more energy is transferred. We cannot see infrared rays with the naked eye.
However, some objects become so hot that they emit radiation in the visible light
spectrum.
Examples include the white light of incandescent light bulbs and the red colour of
glowing coals.
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We might think that certain objects are too cold to emit infrared rays, such as ice cubes,
but even ice cubes emit infrared rays. Also, the bodies of humans and animals radiate
thermal energy in the form of infrared waves. Although people cannot see infrared light,
snakes in the pit viper family, rattlesnakes, for example, have sensory “pits”, which are
used to image infrared rays. This allows the snake to detect warmblooded animals in
dark holes.
Special equipment, such as infrared cameras and night vision goggles, use imaging
technology to capture the infrared light being emitted as thermal energy by objects,
humans and animals. As a result, using such equipment allows you to see objects in the
dark based on the amount of thermal energy they radiate.
Rescue workers use infrared cameras to find people who are trapped and scientists use
infrared equipment to predict the weather.People have learned to manipulate thermal
energy by using shiny or dark surfaces.
In summer, white clothing is the best option when you are outdoors because the white
clothes reflect the sunlight and keep you cool. In the solar heating system, below the
solar thermal panel, there are black pipes through which cold water is pumped. The
pipes absorb energy from the Sun and become hot. As a result, the water in the pipes is
heated as well.
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Outdoor lovers have probably heard of the thermal blanket. Some claim that it has
saved their life! It is actually a plastic sheet, one side of which is shiny/silver, while the
other is a dark colour (usually blue). So, when people face extreme weather conditions
(trapped in a desert or on a snow-covered mountain), they can wrap themselves in the
blanket and be protected to some extent from too hot or too cold conditions.
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When thermal energy is conducted or radiated, the process cannot be reversed and
energy is dissipated. This means that the energy is no longer useful. Insulating
materials are used to prevent thermal energy loss. An insulating material is not a good
conductor of heat. Such materials slow down the heat transfer that takes place through
conduction, convection and radiation. Insulators are used for making cooler boxes,
ceilings of buildings and clothes and blankets.
In South Africa, the weather conditions are generally favourable. As a result, most of our
houses are not designed to manage the transfer of energy properly. (Proper design
would mean that our homes would be warm in winter with minimal loss of thermal
energy and cool in summer with little gain of thermal energy.) People use insulating
materials to help minimise heat loss in winter or heat gain in summer.
Indigenous traditional homes are usually designed for our climate. Consider the general
loss of thermal energy from houses.
Many homes are made of corrugated iron. Iron is a metal and a very good conductor of
heat. As a result, thermal energy is lost through conduction in winter and it is cold inside
the corrugated iron house. In summer, thermal energy from the Sun is conducted by the
iron and heats up the house.
If we conserve thermal energy in our homes and buildings by using insulation and
energy saving materials, we are able to use our energy resources more efficiently. In
winter, when a house is well insulated, there is little need for a heater that uses
electrical energy. In summer, a well-ventilated house will need no air-conditioning,
which also uses electrical energy.
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iii Electricity
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM Ammeters
 Voltmeters
 Galvanometers
 Electroscope
 Van de Graaff generator
 Magnets
 Power source/batteries (cells) Connecting wire
 Light bulbs
MATTER AND MATERIALS Various metals
CHEMISTRY
Chemicals such as bases, alkalis, salts, alkali metals, halides, etc.
ALTERNATIVE EQUIPMENT
What to do if you are teaching at a school where there are no laboratories or

equipment?
You have just been faced with one of the biggest challenges in teaching.
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What are you going to do to solve this problem? (IMPORTANT: Not to do

practicals may not be one of your considerations.
You will be surprised at the number of scientific principles you can explain using cheap
alternatives.
There are also various institutions, such as universities, engineering companies,

SASOL, etc whom you could ask for help. If you can specify what you need and give
reasons for your request, you will find help somewhere.
In the meantime I suggest that you collect your own alternative equipment to do
practicals. John Scott wrote an excellent book, Everyday science: real-life activities, in
which he describes numerous alternative experiments which should fascinate you
and your learners.
Let us look at examples of alternative equipment:
Newton s First Law: Use a cigarette box and two marbles. Pull the box with the marbles
across a table and stop the box suddenly. The marbles keep on moving.
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Newton s Second Law: Place a marble and a soccer ball on a table. Fillip each away
with your finger. The smaller mass of the marble causes it to move much faster than the
soccer ball.
Newton s Third Law: Make your own private jet! Inflate a balloon and drop it. The air
escaping from the balloon (action) makes the balloon propel in the opposite direction
(reaction).
Acceleration: Build different inclines with a piece of wood and bricks. Let a toy car go
down them. The steeper the incline, the greater the final velocity. Using the same
incline, a heavier toy car will not go down as fast as a light one.
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Air pressure: Fill a glass with water and put a piece of paper on top of the glass. Turn
over the glass - the water does not flow out!
Adhesive and cohesive forces: Particles of chalk stick together because of cohesive
forces. When writing on the board, the adhesive forces between the board and the chalk
are stronger than the cohesive forces; therefore the chalk sticks to the board.
Surface tension: Carefully fill a glass with water. The water rises above the rim of
the glass - a beautiful example of surface tension.
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Electroscope: Build an electroscope using a glass bottle with a cardboard stopper. Push
a
long nail through it. Attach a metal hook to the end of the nail and hang a double
aluminium strip from it.
Galvanometer: Build a galvanometer with a cardboard cylinder (a roll of toilet paper).

Wind 200 to 300 coils of isolated copper wire around the cylinder. Leave about 5
cm of wire free at each end. Attach a crocodile clamp to each free end (remember to
remove the isolation of the wire before making the connection). Place a compass in the
centre of the one open end of the cylinder. Keep the coils in position with sellotape.
You can now register electric current with the aid of the galvanometer.
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References:
O’Dononghue, R., Shava, S. and Zazu, C. 2013. African heritage knowledge in the
context
of social innovation. Yokohama: United Nation University – Institute of Advanced
Studies (UNU-IAS). http://www.ias.unu.edu/resource_centre/UNU_Booklet_MB2013_
FINAL_Links_v12.pdf
Rosenberg, E., O’Donoghue, R. and Olvitt, L. 2008. Methods and Processes to Support
Change-Oriented Learning. C.A.P.E. CEP, Rhodes University, Grahamstown.
Distributed
through Share-Net, Howick.
Shava, S. 2013. The representation of indigenous knowledges. In Stevenson, R.B.,

Brody,
M., Dillon, J. & Wals, A. (Eds.). International Handbook of Research on Environmental
Education. New York: Routledge.
LYELL, Charles: Principles of Geology, or the modern changes of the Earth and its
inhabitants considered as ilustrative of Geology London, 1830.
(2) PORTER, Roy: "Charles Lyell and the Principles of the History of Geology", the
British Journal for the History of Science, Vol. IX, Part 2, No. 32, July 1976, pp. 91 -1
03.
(3) PORTER, Roy: op. cit. in previous Note; p 97.
97
(4) GRAHAM, Loren; LEPENIES, Wolf; and WEINGART, Peter, (Eds.): Functions and
Uses of Disciplinary Histones, Durdrecht -Boston- Lancaster, D Reidel Publishing Co.,
1983; 308 pp.
(5) GENTER, Ulfried: "The uses of history for the shaping of a field: observations on
German psychology", in GRAHAM, LEPENIES and WEINGART (Eds.), op. cit. (Note 4),
p. 192.
(6) See, for example, CAPEL, H.: Geografíá yMatemábcas, op. cit. in Note 66, Chap. Xl.
98

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Tutorial Letter 501/0/2021

Science for classroom 2

Department of Science and Technology Education

This tutorial letter contains important information

UNIT 1: Science in the context of Society and the Environment

I: Scientists past and present

An appreciation of the distortions that are found in the historical conceptions of

There are, therefore, histories of the disciplines aimed at different audiences:

It is thus that the history of a discipline serves, as an author has written in

ii. Indigenous knowledge

What is indigenous knowledge?

The knowledges of indigenous people have been variably termed Indigenous

Indigenous knowledge can best be described in terms of the following: people,

Such knowledge is useful for survival and livelihood sustenance.

Why is indigenous knowledge important?

How do these units support teaching and learning about indigenous

In an attempt to reframe and contextualise formal education processes,

Teaching Indigenous Knowledge and Technology 5

Indigenous Knowledge in the CAPS

The intermediate phase Indigenous Knowledge units

The three units are:

1. Ecosystems and Structures (including indigenous knowledge of habitats of

2. Energy and Systems and Control (including traditional energy sources;

3. Processing (including traditional processing of raw materials; metal processing;

In these three units, we support you as a teacher and facilitator or interested

 Strengthen your subject content knowledge;

Indigenous knowledge in the CAPS

The intention of these units is to draw attention to indigenous knowledge aspects

6 Teaching Indigenous Knowledge and Technology

Table 1: Outline of Indigenous Knowledge units

3 Processing Traditional Traditional y

processed materials for

- clay pots and bricks

-baskets, hats, mats,

thatched roofs made

from plant fibre such as

grasses and reeds

- metals are used to

things such as coins,

and bridges, motor cars,

kitchen utensils, roofs

- most natural foods

a mixture of more than

have added salt, sugar,

from all four nutrient

as well as water and

- some diseases can be

- there are many

and salting to make a

Traditional energy sources

South African traditional musical instruments include uhadi or ugubhu (a single

What materials are they made from?

Design a simple traditional musical instrument of your choice.

II Particle model of matter, phases of matter

“All matter in the Universe is made of very small particles.”

“Objects can affect other objects at a distance”

“The total amount of energy in the Universe is always the same,

Protons and electrons attract each other at a distance, keeping these

THE ATOMIC MODELS

From this evidence, Thomson made the following conclusions:

• The cathode ray is composed of negatively charged particles.

“The knowledge produced by science is used in engineering and tech-

How does a plasma TV work?–Explain that Stuff

How do LCDs (liquid crystal displays) work?–Explain that Stuff