CLARENDON COLLEGE

Roxas, Oriental Mindoro

Tel fax: (043)289-2538 / collegeclarendon@yahoo.com

HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT

Subject DISASTER READINESS AND RISK REDUCTION
Grade Level/Section/Class Grade 11 – FE DEL MUNDO / STEM
Lecturer JOHNKITHZ R. VILLARUEL
Earthquake
Module No. & Title
Fire Hazard
Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction, page 2 – 11, 16 –
Reference
20
Duration WEEK 4: September 13, 2021 – September 17, 2021
Lecture Materials Format Printed /PDF Lesson
Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the learner will be able to:
 Identify various potential earthquake hazards. DRR11/12-If-g-17
 Recognize the natural signs of an impending tsunami. DRR11/12-If-g-18
 Analyze the effects of the different earthquake hazards. DRR11/12-If-g-19
 Apply precautionary and safety measures before, during, and after an earthquake.
DRR11/12-If-g-21
 Analyze the different causes of fires. DRR11/12-IIe-f-38
 Observe precautionary measures and proper procedures in addressing a fire
incident. DRR11/12-IIe-f-39
 Apply basic response procedures during a fire incident. DRR11/12-IIe-f-40

Classification of Earthquakes

Earthquakes can be caused by natural forces or human activities. Natural earthquakes

are classified as tectonic earthquakes, plutonic earthquakes, or volcanic earthquakes. We are
going to discuss each one by one.

Tectonic earthquake. This is caused by abrupt movement of earth along faults. Most of
the powerful earthquakes that we experience fall in this category. This is also preceded by
foreshocks and followed by aftershocks. Although there are earthquake variations in intensity
and magnitude, tectonic earthquakes are the most dangerous and powerful kind of
earthquakes.

Plutonic earthquake. This classification of earthquake has a deep focus, with depth of
disturbance around 300 kilometers (km) to 800 km. The depth affects the amount of energy
that Will be released in the surface. Plutonic earthquakes are less destructive than shallow
ones. The earthquakes that occur between 0 to 70 km are considered shallow focus, while
those that occur between 70 to 300 km are called intermediate focus.

Volcanic earthquake. This earthquake happens because of a volcanic eruption. The

intensity and magnitude of the earthquake depends on the power of the volcanic emption.
The stronger the eruption, the greater earthquake it may induce. However, this kind of
earthquake can still be considered less severe than that of tectonic.

Earthquakes are also classified according to its effects in the environment. Often, it is
classified into magnitude and intensity.

In brief, intensity is used to describe the actual shaking and is determined by perception
of people, behavior of animals, state of buildings and structures, and changes to natural
environment. Meanwhile, magnitude is a measure of the actual size of the earthquake and is
computed mathematically. Simply, intensity measures qualitatively how had an earthquake
15 while magnitude measures quantitatively how big an earthquake.

Magnitude. This measures the energy released by an earthquake and is assessed

through seismograph. The figure shows a record of seismograph. The stronger the shaking, the
larger the waves. Magnitude is measured using the Richter Scale, named after Charles Richter
who developed it in 1935. The exact scale and equivalence 13 shown 1n the table below

Magnitude Earthquake Effects

2.5 or less Usually not felt, but can be recorded by seismograph.
2.5 to 5.4 Often felt, but only causes minor damage.
5.5 to 6.0 Slight damage to buildings and other structures
6.1 to 6.9 May cause a lot of damage in very populated areas
7.0 to 7.9 Major earthquake. Serious damage.
8.0 or greater Great earthquake Can totally destroy communities near the epicenter

Intensity. This refers to the actual effects and damages made by an earthquake. This
classification uses the 12-point Mercalli scale which is very important for engineers and city
planners. The table below shows the earthquake intensity scale developed by PHIVOLCS
based on the Rossi-Forel Scale.

Intensity Description
I Not felt except by a very few under especially favorable conditions.
II Felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors of buildings.
Felt quite noticeably by persons indoors, especially on upper floors of buildings.
III Many people do not recognize it as an earthquake. Standing motor cars may
rock slightly. Vibrations similar to the passing of a truck. Duration estimated.
Felt indoors by many, outdoors by few during the day. At night, some are
awakened. Dishes, windows, and doors are disturbed; walls make cracking
IV
sound. Sensation like a heavy truck striking a building. Standing motor cars are
rocked noticeably.
Felt by nearly everyone; many are awakened. Some dishes and windows are
V
broken. Unstable objects are overturned. Pendulum clocks may stop.
Felt by all, many are frightened. Some heavy are furniture moved; a few
VI
instances of fallen plaster. Damages are slight.
Damage negligible in buildings of good design and construction; slight to
VII moderate in well-built ordinary structures; considerable damage in poorly built
or badly designed structures; some chimneys are broken.
Damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable damage in
ordinary substantial buildings with partial collapse. Damage great in poorly
VIII
built structures. Falls of chimneys, factory stacks, columns, monuments, and
walls. Heavy furniture are overturned.
Damage considerable in specially designed structures; well-designed frame
IX structures thrown out of plumb. Damage great in substantial buildings, with
partial collapse. Buildings are shifted off foundations
Some well-built wooden structures are destroyed; most masonry and frame
X
structures are destroyed with foundations. Rails are bent.
Few if any (masonry) structures remain standing. Bridges are destroyed. Rails
XI
are bent greatly.
Damage total. Lines of sight and level are distorted. Objects thrown into the
XII
air.
Signs of an impending earthquake

Although scientists know that earthquakes will occur in the future, predicting exactly
when the next earthquake will occur seems to be impossible. They have tried several ways to
predict earthquakes but none have been successful. However, there are some signs that are
said to foreshadow an impending earthquake. Most of the signs are based on experiences
and observations of local communities. Scientists are still searching for answers to explain the
precursors of an impending earthquake. Here are some of the factors that can be
considered:

 Animal behavior. Animals often exhibit an abnormal behavior before an earthquake.

They become disturbed and very sensitive before an earthquake hits. For instance,
domestic animals like dogs struggle against being restrained. Birds leave their trees
restlessly. Toads can predict subtle signs of an impending earthquake, a study says.
However, the connection between animal behavior and earthquakes have not been
fully explored and not yet definitively proven.
 Change in atmospheric conditions. Strange changes in color or glow of sky (white, blue,
and light orange) are said to show that an earthquake is about to hit. Based on several
accounts, on January 17, 1995, there were 23 sightings of a white, orange, or blue light
stretching approximately 200 meters in the air and spreading one to eight kilometers
across the ground in Kobe, Japan. After several hours, a 6.9 magnitude earthquake
claimed the lives of more than 5500 individuals. Sky-watchers have photographed
similar lights before earthquakes occurred elsewhere in Japan since the 19703 and in
Quebec, Canada in 1988. Meanwhile, according to the US Geological Survey, low
pressure fronts from major storms like hurricanes can be the cause of some earthquakes.
These observations have not been fully studied and explored as well.
 Electromagnetic disturbance. There are speculations that there is a relationship
between magnetic and electrical charges in rock material and earthquakes. Some
scientists have hypothesized that these electromagnetic fields change in a certain way
just before an earthquake. Seismologists are also studying gas leakage and the tilting of
the ground as warning signs of earthquakes.
 Boom sound. There are instances that a trembling sound occurs before and during
earthquakes. It could be the cause of minor earthquakes but are too shallow to be
detected by a seismograph.

Earthquake-related hazards

Earthquakes, widely-recognized as a threat to mankind, undoubtedly pose numerous

hazards. Earthquake hazards create other hazards in the built environment. For example,
buildings can collapse and infrastructure systems can malfunction. People can be injured or
killed as buildings fall or flooding occur in communities near rivers or dams. Earthquakes can
also cause fires, hence burning whole communities and livelihood areas to the ground.
Overall, earthquakes can lead to loss of human lives, injury, destruction of property, and
economic losses.

Here are some examples of earthquake-related hazards:

Ground shaking. It is one of the most common hazards of earthquakes. Shaking of the
ground causes the most damage during an earthquake. It varies depending on the
topography, geologic conditions, and bedrock type of an area. In general, loose sediment
has more tendency to intense quakes than solid bedrock Ground shaking can also vary
depending on the location of the fault and distance to the epicenter. Simply, the shaking of
the ground is more intense when the site is near the epicenter and the earthquake is strong.
Due to ground shaking, infrastructures such as buildings, roads, and bridges can be destroyed.
Indeed, ground shaking has multiple consequences including injuries and loss of lives due to
collapsed infrastructures, landslides, and avalanches.

Liquefaction. This is a process in which soft and sandy soils can behave like a fluid. It is a
direct effect of ground shaking which makes particles of soil less compact and makes it How.
Here is how liquefaction works: according to the Pacific Northwest Seismic Network, before an
earthquake, water pressure is low and the weight of the buried soil lies on the framework of
the grain contacts comprising it. But the earthquake can alter the structure. The soil particles
no longer support all the weight, and the groundwater pressure begins to rise
(http://pnsn.org/outreach/earthquakehazards/liquifaction). This separates the soil particles
from each other and become drained by water. Because of this, the soil starts to flow.
Liquefied soil will then open ground cracks in order to escape to the surface. The ejected
material leads to flooding and may leave cavities in soil, leaving large areas covered with
deep layer of mud. Because of this phenomenon, buildings and structures can sink or tilt over,
while underground pipes and tanks may rise up to surfaces.

Surface rupture. This is an offset of the ground surface when fault rupture extends to the
earth’s surface. Any structure built across is at risk of being taken apart because the two sides
of the fault slip past each other. Buildings and other structures should not be built in areas with
surface ruptures.

Tsunamis and seiches. Tsunami is a huge series of waves generated by an earthquake.

It can rise up to 10 feet and can cause severe damage to coastline communities. However,
the height of tsunamis differs depending on the sea floor’s depth and shape. One of the areas
susceptible to tsunamis is New Zealand, as well as other areas surrounding the coastline of the
Pacific Ring of Fire. Meanwhile, seiches are described as small tsunamis that often occur on
lakes.

Sinkholes. Natural shifts in the land can cause sinkholes. Sinkholes can be found on areas
where rocks below the land are composed mostly of limestone, carbonate rock, salt beds, or
rocks that can naturally be dissolved by ground water circulating through them. Spaces are
then developed as rocks dissolve. This causes the collapse of the surface of the ground, which
vary in size. Earthquakes trigger these kind of collapses.

Landslides and rock falls. Because of shaking of the ground, cliffs and steep sloping
areas tend to collapse, causing landslides. Fractured rocks when disturbed by large
earthquakes can damage and block major roads.

Subsidence and lateral spreading. Subsidence is the phenomenon in which the ground
surface is lowered. This is due to the downward vertical motion on one side of the fault.
Meanwhile, lateral spreading occurs when the sloping ground goes downhill, opening cracks
on the ground. This can be observed along hill crests and river banks.

Fire. Fires often follow after an earthquake because of knocked down power lines and
broken gas lines. This can be a major problem especially when water lines are also affected.

Most earthquake hazards translate to more complex hazards. People are put into harm's
way when buildings start to collapse; they can also drown because of flooding and broken
dams; and get caught in a landslide, among others. Although larger earthquakes can affect
people in serious ways, this does not mean that all people are likely to be affected. The
likelihood of a large earthquake occurring varies widely from place to place, as can the size
and severity of its impact to people.

Now that you are equipped with the various hazards attached to earthquakes, the next
thing you have to do is to prepare for the next earthquake. In the succeeding lessons, there
will be a list of actions that you need to do before, during, and after an earthquake. There will
also be discussions on how you can mitigate the risks posed by earthquakes in the long-term.

Earthquake readiness

Preparing for an earthquake is an on-going process that needs to be given clear

attention. Remember that experts cannot predict earthquakes, so you must ensure that you
are prepared for such an event.

Here are the important things that you should do to survive an earthquake:

Arrange a disaster or emergency supply kit which includes the following:

 Medications, a first-aid kit and doctors’ names and contact information;

 Sturdy shoes, clothes, and a blanket;
 Cash because ATMs will not work if power lines get affected;
 Flashlight, extra batteries, and light bulbs;
 Bottled water; and
 Snack foods high in water and calories like protein bar. Easy-to-open cans will also do.

Make an earthquake preparedness plan. This includes evacuations plans contact

details of relatives or friends who are far from your area, the location of your emergency
supplies, and other information needed. Pay special attention to the maintenance and sand?
of emergency equipment, including radio transmitters and medical equipment.

Discuss earthquake preparedness plan with your family. Everyone should be well-
informed on what to do in case family members are not together. This would include setting
up a place where to meet, or always having hand-held devices like smartphones for easy
communication. Discussing earthquakes ahead of time may help family members and loved
ones alleviate their anxiety and let everyone know how to respond. Keep in mind that a family
that prepares together can survive disasters together. Also, inform guests, house helpers, and
caregivers of your plan. It is just essentially based on the premise that everyone in your home
should know what to do if an earthquake occurs and make sure that they can respond
properly when an earthquake strikes.

Secure hazards. Accuracy of risks and hazards can be assessed by experts. You can hire
someone who is an expert in risk reduction during earthquakes and have him or her examine
your place. This kind of service, although can be costly, has proven to reduce risk of injury or
casualty during earthquakes.

Learn about earthquake risk in your area. Coordinate closely with the local authorities.
You may contact your local disaster management office for historical information and
earthquake preparedness for your area. Your area might be one of the most at risk when
earthquake strikes. If you find that it is so, it will be better if you just evacuate to a safer area.

Practice the drop, cover, and hold-on drill. By practicing frequently, the things that you
need to do when an earthquake hits will become a natural reflex to you. Drop under a sturdy
desk or table, hold on, and protect your eyes by pressing your face against your arm. Do not
go outside during and immediately after an earthquake because roofs, concrete, bricks, and
other materials could fall from buildings.

Protect your properties. Talk to your insurance agent and get covered with an insurance.
If your place is at-risk to earthquakes, then consider getting an insurance for your properties.
Here are some ways on how to protect your things at home:
  Electronics such as computers, televisions, and refrigerators should be secured with
nylon straps to avoid damages due to shaking of the ground.
 Install latches or bolts on cabinets. Cabinet contents can move during earthquakes.
Installing latches or bolts on cabinets will prevent cabinets from flying open and contents
from falling out.
 Chemical products such as insecticides and flammable products should be secured in
cabinets with latches. These items should be placed at the bottom shelves to avoid
hazardous situations.
 Remove hanging objects such as paintings, mirrors, and frames from the places near
the bed, couches, and anywhere people sit.
 Bolt down any gas appliances. Broken gas lines can cause fires Install pipe fittings to
avoid gas and water leaks because pipe fittings are less likely to break.
 Repair deep cracks in ceilings or foundations.
 Ask an expert if there are signs-of structural defects in your house.

What to do during earthquake?

Now that you have prepared the necessary things before an earthquake strikes, it is now time
to learn what to do during an earthquake.

Here are the things that you should do during earthquakes:

 Find a safe spot in your house and classroom. Also, look into safe places inside and
outside the establishment you spend most of the time. It is very important to know Where
to go and not panic.
 Drop, cover, and hold on. This is most applicable when you are indoors. Get under a
sturdy table or desk; hold on to one of your legs and cover your eyes. If there are no
tables, then sit down against an interior wall because it will less likely to collapse than an
outside wall. Stay away from windows, tall and heavy furniture like cabinets, and other
electronic appliances that might fall on you.
 If you are outdoors, then find a place away from buildings, power lines, and streetlights
as these might fall on you and cause injuries. A lot of injuries happen within 10 feet of
entrance to buildings or establishments. The roofing, windows, and other materials might
fall from buildings. It can cause injuries and deaths. When you already have a spot, drop
to the ground and wait until the earthquake stops.
 If you are in a vehicle, then pull over to a clear location, stop, and stay there with your
seatbelt fastened until the shaking stops. By doing this, you will reduce the risk of getting
trapped from falling debris. When the earthquake stops, you may now start your vehicle
and drive safely. Avoid bridges damaged by earthquakes.
 Do not leave your safe place while there is an earthquake. If the shaking already stops,
then be observant of your surroundings as there might be broken power lines and falling
debris. Check yourself if you have any injuries. Aftershocks might happen again so be
prepared to find another secured place.
 Use the stairs and not the elevator when leaving establishments. During earthquakes,
power lines get damaged and can cause fire. It is better to use the stairs than risk getting
trapped in an elevator.
 If you are in a coastal area, move to a higher ground because strong earthquakes could
trigger tsunamis.
 If you are in a mountainous area or near unstable slopes or cliffs, then stay vigilant for
rock falls and landslides. Earthquakes can loosen the soil and can cause landslides.

What to do after an earthquake?

You just survived the mainshocks of an earthquake. Naturally, you also helped keep your
loved ones safe. However, there are still hazards that could happen after an earthquake. Here
are the things that you should keep in mind after the big quake:
  Check for injuries and if there are, then call for an immediate medical assistance. Check
for hazards such as fires, leaks, chemical spills, and structures damaged by earthquakes.
 Be cautious of damaged buildings. Assess the conditions outside before exiting a
building. Stay away from downed power lines.
 Seek the help of authorities and volunteer working groups if you will leave your premises
to ensure your safety.
 Help injured persons in your area. Call an ambulance if necessary and do not try to
move seriously injured people unless they are in immediate danger of further injury.
 Eliminate fire hazards by using a fire extinguisher or water. When there are fires, even
small, immediately put them out to prevent spreading.
 Check the gas if there are leaks as it may cause explosions. Turn it off using the outside
main valve.
 Clear up spilled flammable fluids like insecticide and gasoline to avoid hazards of
chemical emergency.
 Check if there are damages in your electricity system. It would be better if you turn off
the electricity in the main fuse box and call an electrician for inspection.
 When opening huge cabinet doors, do it cautiously. The contents might move and
cause injuries if they fall on you.
 Expect aftershocks and leave the house if it is unsafe. Aftershocks can cause further
damage to properties, if your house is being damaged, evacuate immediately. If
aftershocks occur, then drop, cover, and hold on a safe place.
 Take pictures of the damaged areas of your house, car/s and other properties that can
be used for insurance claims.
 Tune in to the current news by listening to radio or TV. Information are often disseminated
in these media and further instructions are given. Make sure to coordinate with local
authorities to stay safe.

Whether earthquakes become severe or not, learning from experiences is still a key in
staying safe in future earthquake events. Review your disaster and emergency plan and assess
the things that worked and did not work. Use the opportunity to build more earthquake
resistant houses and buildings, improve emergency supply kit if something is lacking; and select
items that can help make all of your family members safe.

The safety measures mentioned above are more on medium and short-term only How
can we mainstream the mitigation of hazards and risks posed by earthquakes? Earthquakes
are naturally occurring phenomenon and can happen any time. We should create a culture
of being earthquake-ready in the long term so that we can adapt and reduce its impacts.

Disaster prevention and hazard mitigation

Developing resistant structures. Although preparedness can help save us from injuries
and reduce damages to properties during an earthquake, mitigation of hazards can save
more lives. An example is by strengthening buildings and making them earthquake-proof. This
can be done not only 1n commercial buildings but also in government buildings, houses, and
other infrastructures.

Much work has been done to explain the nature of earthquakes and its effect to
structures. Although death tolls and damages are also caused by landslides and tsunamis,
among others, the collapse of man-made structures because of earthquakes is one type of
disaster that claims millions of lives. Moreover, most earthquake-related injuries result from
collapsing walls, flying glass parts, and falling objects as a result of the ground shaking.
Undoubtedly, one of the most effective ways to mitigate the damage of earthquakes is to
design and build structures capable of withstanding earthquakes.

Creating seismic hazard maps. Hazard maps are being used to plan accordingly
Intensity of ground shaking are anticipated based on these maps. Creating earthquake
hazard maps consider the size and frequency of earthquakes, the history of seismicity, and
previous records of intensity. Moreover, the map should be simple so it can be understood by
the public.

Mainstreaming disaster mitigation culture to communities and reinforcing national and

local legislation. In creating a culture of earthquake-resilient communities, you can organize
or support community programs and efforts to prepare for earthquakes. These include
participating in disaster committees and supporting the enforcement of local building codes
which minimize earthquake hazards in new construction.

Let us now look at two earthquake events in the Philippines that caused severe death
toll and economic losses: the 1990 Baguio earthquake and the 2013 Bohol earthquake.

1990 Baguio earthquake

Baguio City is nestled on four major fault lines: Mirador, San Vicente, Loakan and
Burnham. Four other earthquake generator faults surround the city: San Manuel, Tuba, Tebbo,
and Digdig, which caused the 1990 earthquake.

According to the Department of Environment and Natural Resources of Cordillera

Administrative Region (CAR), Baguio City is 90% vulnerable to natural hazards because of its
topography. Due to its porous and soft ground, it becomes very sensitive to seismic activities.

On July 16, 1990, a killer earthquake with a magnitude of 7.9 and lasting for 45 seconds
intensely ravaged Baguio City. It killed an estimated 1621 people and caused a total of 1P15
billion worth of damages. It was considered as the most powerful earthquake in the recorded
history of Cordillera Administrative Region.

The epicenter was recorded in Nueva Ecija, and the hardest hit areas other than Baguio
and Nueva Ecija is Pangasinan.

Aftershock of 5.3 magnitude occurred two days 1ater.Many buildings, hotels, and
residences were heavily damaged. These include the five-star Hyatt Terraces Plaza, Baguio
Park Hotel, and Nevada Hotel, among others. The three main access roads to Baguio were
blocked due to landslides.

Baguio City has passed an ordinance in 1995 that creates the City Disaster Operations
Center. There were earthquake drills conducted among barangay officials. Seminars and
training courses were also conducted in high-risk areas. However, no comprehensive disaster
management plan was carefully formulated. The structure of the organization and the roles
of each actor were not clear.

The earthquake undoubtedly left a large number of death toll and economic losses.
However, some lessons were gained in this disaster event that paved the way to the
development of more comprehensive disaster management plans in the city.

When the 1990 Baguio earthquake struck, attention to disasters was not yet fully
employed. The incident taught the local governments and the communities to be equipped
with the right knowledge about earthquakes and other disasters, so they can respond
properly.

The people are not also aware of the hazards present in their areas. After the
earthquake, transportation [and communication lines were greatly affected. Due to this
situation, the people failed to get information about the state of their city after the quake
while the local government failed to help and respond to the needs of the people
immediately.
 Building codes and land use plans should be implemented properly. Several buildi1lgs
have collapsed, but there are others that remain resilient. After the earthquake, Baguio
learned that they must invest on disaster-resilient infrastructures to mitigate hazards and save
more lives.

Lastly, responders and rescue teams should be well-trained and equipped with the right
knowledge to lessen the number of casualties.

2013 Bohol Earthquake

Bohol is a first income class province located in Central Visayas region. It is the 10th
largest island in the Philippines. Adjacent to Bohol are Cebu and Leyte. Bohol is in fact a
popular tourist spot known for its beaches, resorts, chocolate hills, and tarsiers.

Bohol is one of the seismically active places in the Philippines. There is a fault that runs
through the island called as the East Bohol Fault and there are also smaller faults within.
Earthquakes also occur offshore or undersea because of local offshore faults near the trenches
within the region. On February 8,1990, Bohol was hit by 6. 8 magnitude earthquake. The
earthquake has also triggered a tsunami.

Hazards associated and major impacts

On October 15, 2013, a 7.2 magnitude earthquake struck Bohol, leaving an estimated
222 number of casualties and over 340 000 displaced. The earthquake happened on a
national holiday. Officials said that more people can be affected if the quake happened on
a regular weekday.

The National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (NDRRMC) estimated
that apart from the death toll, there are more than 2 billion pesos worth of damages in
infrastructure. Heavy damage to roads, bridges, and historic churches built in the 1500s was
reported in Cebu and Bohol. This earthquake is said to be the strongest earthquake to hit Bohol
in nearly 25 years.

The earthquake has brought large impacts to the communities of Bohol. Other families
who are affected lived outside their collapsed homes in open spaces or collectively in public
spaces close to their homes. Some families built makeshift shelters from damaged materials.
They were provided with food, drinking water, tents, hygiene kits, sanitation facilities, sleeping
materials, fuel, medicines and medical equipment, and psychosocial support, by the
government, civil society, and humanitarian organizations.

The airports and seaports resumed operations quickly, and by October 21, access to
most municipalities was restored. Telecommunications have also resumed normal service.
Classes have been suspended up to two weeks after the earthquake and education relied
on temporary rooms and learning spaces.

According to PHIVOLCS, the tremor recorded level VII out of X, a very high 1ntensity
earthquake, on the Philippine earthquake intensity scale recorded at the epicenter in
Sagbayan municipality.

The earthquake caused liquefaction, landslides, ground shaking, and surface rupture.
There are also sinkholes that appeared during the earthquake. No tsunami was generated
since the destructive earthquake occurred in land.

If there is one big lesson that the Bohol earthquake has taught us, that is the fact that
preparedness is not enough. This puts great importance on more long-term strategies in hazard
mitigation, which include the enforcement of building codes and making government
structures like schools more resilient to earthquake hazards.

Fire
Types of fires

Fires can originate from human accidents or intentional fire setting. On the other hand,
other natural disasters such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions also result in fire as
collapsing buildings disrupt gas vents and cause explosions, while electric equipment spark
incendiary materials that lead to big fires. Efforts to raise awareness on the threat posed by
uncontrolled fire are spearheaded by International Non-Government Organizations (INGOs)
such as the Km Rescue Development Program (FRDP), recognized by the United Nations and
has consultative status to the United Nations Economic and Social Council. Locally, the Bureau
of Fire Protection (BFP) answers the call to disseminate the safety information to the public and
prevents and suppresses destructive and uncontrolled fires in the Philippines by virtue of
Republic Act 6975 enacted in 1990.
Uncontrolled fires can take place in forested areas or in urban metropolitan areas
Whether we live in rural or urban areas, the threat of fire disasters is very real and harmful.

Forest fire

In August 2014, the province of Albay in the Bicol region experienced a forest fire
affecting 5000 residents in the area. According to authorities, the fire originated from slash-
and-burn or kaingin practices of the farmers, fanned by very strong winds. Kaingin farming
involves the burning of forests and vegetation to make room for agricultural crops. It is a
common source of forest fires especially in tropical countries around the world. Forest fires are
wildfires that are also called bush fires, or grass fire, depending on the vegetation, in the
countryside or wilderness. Wildfires are uncontrolled fires in the rural areas or countryside, that
are fueled by combustible vegetation such as dried bushes, grass, brushes, forests, veld (grass
or low scrub area particularly found in Southern Africa), and peat. Wildfires are usually 12ng
and can change direction quickly at any given moment. Wildfires tend to be unpredictable,
however, fire modeling or using software to calculate the size and direction of the fire, with
inputs of wind data and vegetation in the area, among others, is also being done by institutions
responsible for the prevention and suppression of fire, so as to be prepared on the most
probable path or direction of uncontrolled fires.

As this book is going to press, more than 200 hectares of forest have been burned and
waged in an ongoing forest fire in Mt. Apo, the highest peak in the Philippines, beginning
March 26, 2016. Mt. Apo is situated in the tri-boundaries of Davao, North Cotabato, and
SOCCSKSARGEN, and an inter-regional task, force has been formed to have a strategic
approach to putting out the fire. Community volunteers placed boulders on a specific
perimeter around the fire to prevent it from spreading, as well as cut and cleared dried
vegetation to lessen the fuel load in the surrounding areas. Firefighters also dug 7-feet deep
trenches around the fire to slow down and control the blaze.

Wildfires commonly occur in areas with both wet and dry climates, which provide the
environment enough moisture for vegetation to grow. Wildfires also occur in areas with hot
and dry spells. Examples of these places are forests and bushlands of Australia and Southeast
Asia. Wildfires are destructive because aside from destroying the homes of people who reside
within or near forests, it can decimate forest ecosystems and reduce trees which provide
oxygen. Uncontrolled forest fires also lessen the biodiversity of a forested area as it destroys the
natural habitat of all types of birds, mammals, and reptiles, among others, especially the
endemic species, found in the specific area. In the March-April 2016 Mt. Apo forest fire, the lite
disaster is considered a threat to the Philippine eagle, an endangered species endemic to the
Philippines, and whose habitat and home is the forests of Mt. Apo.
 In forest the disasters, we need to understand the regime of a forest area. A fire regime
gives us a clear picture of the likelihood of fire in a forested area, how fire occurs in the ma,
and its impact to the environment. A fire regime characterizes the fuel load of a forested area.
Fuel load, measured in tons per hectare (t/ha), is acquired from the type and amount of wood
and other forest materials that can fuel a lite. Fuel load is based on the kind of vegetation of
the forested area; if it is a tropical forest or an Australian bushland or an African grassland.
Determining the fuel load of a forest or bushland helps us handle wildfires more effectively It
allows us to know the burning capacity of the forest if the forest is thick or thin; or if the forest
contains easy to burn or hard to burn trees. It also allows us to calculate the speed at which
the forest will burn. A lire regime also takes into consideration the fire ecology of the forested
area. Fire ecology refers to the effect of the occurrence of fire on the ecosystem. A fire regime
also includes the average open wind speed in a forested area. While fuel load can determine
the intensity of a wildfire, the average open wind speed and its usual direction shows the likely
pattern that wildfires will occur and the frequency a forest fire or bush fire will occur.

In fire regime literature, there is a classification of fire within a forest, such as ground Ere,
surface fire, understory or sub-canopy fire, crown fire, and stand-replacement tire, among
Others. For example, ground fire pertains to fire that burns the roots of trees, while surface fire
burns low vegetation and shrubs. Understory fire burns the tall shrubs and understory of tall
Wes. Crown fires are those that burn the tops of trees in the forest. The most severe is the stand-
replacement fire, which destroys most of the above-ground vegetation and therefore alters
the vegetation structure as new plants and trees will grow and replace the old forest
vegetation.

Climate change has a large effect on fire regimes, because it alters the vegetation and
fire patterns in forested areas. Varying weather conditions affect the growth of vegetation
and changes the fuel load of the forest, which influences the size, severity, and frequency of
5m. In the United States, the National Fire Danger Rating System was created to show the level
of intensity of a fire, taking into consideration how large the fire could become. In Australia,
the Forest Fire Danger Index (FFDI) and Keetch-Bryan Drought Index were constructed to alert
communities to the probability of fire. Due to climate change, these indices have been
changing, making the probability of fire during periods of drought higher than the previous
years. In the Philippines, we have 13 Fire Alarm Levels to indicate the number of fire trucks and
responders that should respond to a fire. With these information, the general public can have
an idea on the size of the fire.

Alarm Level Responder

First and Second Alarm
Third Alarm
Fourth and Fifth Alarm
Senior Fire Officer/ Shift-in-charge/ Team Leader
City or Municipal Fire Marshal
Provincial or District Operations Chief
Task Force Alpha
Provincial or District Fire Marshal
Task Force Bravo
Chief, Operation, Intelligence and Investigation Branch
Provincial or District Fire Marshal
and all City/ Municipal Fire Marshals of the provincial district
concerned Task Forcer Charlie
Deputy Regional Director
Task Force Delta, Echo, Hotel, India, and General Alarm
Regional Director

In response, people should implement fire adaptation techniques and take the
necessary precautions and fire prevention initiatives. There may need to be lifestyle changes,
such as no open fires in fire-prone areas during El Niño droughts and having stricter rules on
Cigarette smoking and disposal of cigarette butts as it can cause fire. In Victoria, Australia,
they allow landowners to clear native vegetation on their land and reduce tree cover, without
obtaining a permit.
 As an example of how climate change has affected fire regimes, the Black Saturday
bushfires of 2009 in Southeastern Australia killed 173 people including two Filipinos, and
destroyed thousands of homes. It is considered as the worst natural disaster in Australian this
case, bush fires were caused by climate variability. In three consecutive days, an intense
drought with an average daily temperature of above 43 degrees Celsius Hit Southeastern
Australia. The extremely hot conditions were accompanied by strong winds, which cut down
power lines that lit up dry vegetation and helped spread the fire to other dry vegetation,
leading to the deadliest bushfire in Australia in recent times. Once a bushfire has started, it is
very difficult to stop it due to the speed at which the tire travels.

The International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) has forest and grassland fire risk
maps for the Philippines, including a forest and grassland fire database. The Forest
Management Bureau (FMB) of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR)
also keeps a database of Philippine forest fire statistics. According to the FMB, forest fires in the
Philippines are mostly man-made, such as accidental fires set by forest workers or land-
clearing activities (slash-and-burn agriculture). Drought or the El Niño phenomenon also
causes many fires in forests and bushlands because the vegetation is very dry and easily
catches fires.

Urban fire

On March 18, 1996, the Philippines witnessed its worst urban fire disaster as fire broke out
in the Ozone Disco Club, killing at least 162 people, most of which were college students
celebrating their graduation. This tragedy was also caused by many fixe hazards, such as the
fire-prone soundproofing material installed by the disco.

In recent times, urban conflagrations, or very widespread and extensive fires are rare.
One example is the Great Fire of London in 1666, which raised more than 80 000 homes to the
ground, burning at temperatures as high as 1700 degrees Celsius. In this century, major
conflagrations are caused by earthquakes, incendiary devices, such as bombs, explosions of
nuclear power plants, explosions of large gas tanks, petroleum industry installations, and plane
crashes.

Fire Hazards
In our daily life, we encounter activities, circumstances, and objects, which may be the
trigger of fire events. To stay safe, it is important for us to be aware of what fire hazards are,
and how these fire hazards become the causes of fire.

Fire hazards are the objects or types of environment that increase the likelihood of fire
occurrence, or serve as obstacles to escape in the event of a fire. Whether in forest or urban
areas, these fire hazards need to be identified and eliminated to achieve fixe safety.

Causes of Fire

The common fire hazards or causes of fire are:

Appliances and equipment

The short-circuiting of electrical appliances at home, or leaving them on when no one

is around, can cause small electrical explosions, which can lead to uncontrolled fire. It is
important to turn off all electrical equipment when leaving the house and unplug appliances
and electronic gadgets from electrical sockets to avoid electrical wires from short-circuiting.

Arson or Incendiarism/ Juvenile fuel setting

Arson or incendiarism is the criminal act of setting fire to buildings, properties and forests,
with the intent to cause damage. Meanwhile, juvenile fire setting is the act of burning property
committed by minors or individuals below the age of 18, whether accidental or intentional.
Candles

If left unattended, candles can catch on curtains, pieces of paper, and any other
flammable materials. In the Philippines, power outages or brownout and the high price of
electric power encourages the use of candles in households for lighting purposes. It is
important to be careful and vigilant when using candles, taking care to place them in areas
where it cannot burn or cause damage should it fall over or the wind blow the flame in a
certain direction.

Chemicals and gases

Cooking gas or Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) is mostly used in kitchens, and leaving it
open can lead to the danger of explosion, when a fire is lit. Even if there is no fire, people can
suffocate and suffer from poisoning as a result of inhaling this flammable gas.

Moreover, people should avoid smoking within 200 meters from the gasoline station. The car
engine should also be turned off when loading gasoline.

Electric wiring

Faulty electric wiring causes fires. Thus, the skills of a professional electrician are needed
when installing electric wires and cables inside your house, to lessen the risk of fire. The quality
of electric wires must be checked before installation and regular maintenance must be
observed to know if the electric wires are still safe. Faulty electric wiring must be changed as
soon as possible to avoid fire accidents.

Fireworks

During the New Year celebrations, firecrackers, fountains, and colorful fireworks in the
sky produce sparks and fire which can ignite flammable material near it, such as wooden
boards, clothing, and paper, among others. Sometimes, people examine malfunctioning
fireworks and point them at houses, where the fireworks suddenly give a burst of fire and set
the house or portions of it aflame. Fireworks can also cause grave injury as it can cause
blindness, severe burns, loss of fingers and limbs, and lead to death. Refraining from directly
handling fireworks, especially if one is not a professional fireworks operator, can reduce the
risk of fireworks explosions causing uncontrolled fires.

Holiday decorations

Christmas lights on the Christmas tree, placed on plants, and hung high upon walls can
be a danger especially if left on at night. The heat of the Christmas lights can burn curtains or
other flammable materials touching the hot light bulbs.

Household products and appliances

Household products such as cleaning liquids placed 1n spray cans, aerosol containers,
and hairsprays can be fire hazards, because they are prone to exploding when heated up to
a certain temperature. Thus, when there is a fire, these items can act as accelerants or
substances that speed up the spread or development of a fire.

Meanwhile, any household appliance can also start a fire because of improper usage.
Gas stoves that are mishandled and Used without the necessary precautions are common
household fixtures that cause uncontrolled fire. If left open, gas stoves and LPG tanks can leak
highly flammable gas. Thus, always make sure that you close your gas stove when not in use.
Maintain and repair your gas stove regularly, especially if it is old and malfunctions regularly.
Lighting fires and lightning strikes

Although lightning is not the common cause of forest or urban fires in the Philippines, it
can be a major source of uncontrolled fire in other parts of the world. According to the
National Fire Protection Association in the US, lightning causes an average of 24 600 forest,
grass, and house tires each year, amounting to USDSS 407 million in damages. In Canada, 45%
of all fires are forest fires caused by lightning, burning an average of 2.5 million hectares each
year and causing USD$500 million to USD$1 billion lightning-related damages and disruptions.
As lightning strikes are unpredictable, we should be prepared. Communities should have
enhanced fire detection and response mechanisms in place to put out forest fires in the
soonest possible time to avoid widespread damage.

Smoking materials

Lighted cigarettes, tobacco, and other smoking materials carelessly thrown into
flammable material such as dry vegetation or pieces of paper in the trash bin can easily cause
uncontrolled fires. Lighters and matches can also be accelerants in the case of a fire. To be
safe, it is better to avoid smoking altogether so that smoking material will not be present in your
house. If smoking cannot be avoided, then keep it out of reach of children to prevent any
accidental fires from occurring. Make sure that you have a fire extinguisher within the vicinity
and know how to operate it, should your cigarette set something on fire. In the absence of a
fire extinguisher, keep calm as you put out the fire, if it is small. Lastly, always keep the phone
0! contact number of the nearest fire department near your community, so you can call them
instantly once an uncontrollable fire breaks out.

Preparation to avoid fire

Pre-disaster mitigation and preparation includes both long-term and short-term

planning and action. Mitigation refers to measures taken to avoid fire disaster or minimize the
damage it will cause, while preparedness involves knowing and readying the items needed
should a fire disaster strike.

 Good environmental design can improve resilience to fire disasters by intervening in all
stages of an emergency situation. It can support mitigation efforts and increase disaster
preparedness.

 Fire escalates through convection, conduction, and thermal radiation. To prevent fire
from propagating through these means, the design of a city or municipality’s
infrastructure should have some distance between structures or buildings, or have fire’s
resistance structures constructed between them to prevent the quick spread of
uncontrolled fire.

 In terms of urban design or even in rural areas, planning offices spatial plans and
strategic management should include the improvement of the roads used by people
and vehicles to travel so it will be easier to evacuate by foot or by vehicle in the case
of uncontrolled fires. Road construction must be planned and monitored in such a way
that roads are physically able to accommodate the width, length, and maneuverability
of the fire-fighting vehicles of each municipality or city.

 All buildings are mandated to have a Fire Safety Plan, and it is also helpful to have one
for your home. This plan shows where the fire extinguishers and fire exits are, so that in
the case of uncontrolled fire, people can escape to safety. Building administrators
should be clearly designate escape routes and this information should be properly and
effectively disseminated to the occupants of a building, or the residents of dense urban
localities. Meanwhile, we should look for the nearest fire exits when we enter a building,
mall, cinema, or any public place, so we know where to go in case of a fire.
  Fire hydrant posts must be strategically placed in vulnerable areas reachable for fire
engines during a fire anywhere within a city or municipality. Water must always be
available for firefighters, so they can immediately douse large fires and stop fires from
spreading to neighboring structures.

 Fire hydrant posts must be strategically placed in vulnerable areas reachable for fire
engines during a fire anywhere within a city or municipality. Water must always be
available for firefighters, so they can immediately douse large fires and stop tires from
spreading to neighboring structures.

 For buildings, fire sprinklers and fire alarms are part of the building code. Fire sprinklers
are activated when it detects a certain high level of temperature, such as when heat
from cigarette smoke reaches its sensors. F1re alarms are situated on the floor of every
building so that the rest of the building will be notified immediately of a fire when the fire
alarm is sounded.

 Fire drills must always be part of building residents’ fire safety program, so that people
will become familiar with the building’s routes to the fire exits. Employees should attend
lire safety seminars to learn what to do when an uncontrolled fire starts. There should
also be trainings on how to use the fire extinguisher properly.

What to do during a fire?

 If you discover a fire and the building fire alarm is not sounding, then manually activate
the nearest fire alarm, which is often situated near the fire exit, so you can activate it on
your way out. Doing this can save the lives of other people in the building because they
will inform that there is a fire and evacuate immediately.

 Smoke is blinding because it hurts our eyes, and it can lead to zero visibility along
corridors and within rooms. Thus, it is important to be aware of one’s surroundings, and
know how to get around your immediate environment. Know the location of the two
nearest exits of a building. Stay low and crawl in the direction of the fire exit to avoid
smoke, which tends to have an upward movement and will rise to the ceiling.

 Always use the stairs, not the elevators when there is a fire. The elevators may be broken
and lead you to further harm, or if it is working, it may break down while you are using it,
leaving you trapped inside.

 Shut doors behind you as you exit to isolate the area where the fire started, and make
the Spread of the fire slower.

 If you are at work in an industrial plant or in a laboratory, then make sure to shut down
the equipment you are using before leaving, if possible, and without putting yourself at
risk. This will prevent more damage from occurring should your equipment explode or
become an accelerant to the uncontrolled fire.

 Never attempt to re-enter a burning building, unless cleared to do so by a member of

your fire department.

 Never attempt to put out a large fire on your own because it may cost your life,
especially if you do not have the proper fire-retardant outfit and equipment to use. If
the fire is small and you are trained to do so, only then can you try to put the fire out on
your own. Assign a person or “champion” to account for the occupants of the building
after it has been evacuated. During a fire, do a headcount immediately to find out if
somebody was left in the building. There can also be a “buddy system,” with each
person having a buddy that they would account for after evacuation. Thus, when a fire
occurs, this can lead to a faster check if all building occupants are present in the
evacuation area.
  Assist the disabled or people with special needs in exiting the building.

 When your clothing is on fire, stop, drop, and roll. When your shirt catches fire, stop
running to avoid farming the flames. Lie flat on the floor then roll over to stop the flames.

Reminder:

Output to be submitted Activity Work Sheet for DRRR: Week 4

Deadline September 20, 2021

Mode of Submission Submit at Clarendon College

Prepared by: Approved by:

JOHNKITHZ R. VILLARUEL HAZEL P. PALAPUS, MEng.

Subject Teacher Principal
 Activity Work Sheet for DRRR: Week 4

Name: __________________________________ Grade/Section: _________________

Output 1: Essay (Written Works)

Directions: Explain the following in four or more sentences. 8 points each.

Earthquake
1. How can schools and private companies help ensure the safety of students and
employees, respectively, when earthquake occurs?
2. Is the disaster preparedness and mitigation measures of government sufficient enough to
protect the people from dangers posed by earthquakes? Explain your answer.

Fires
1. Why do uncontrolled fire a dangerous hazard to families and communities?
2. What can you do in your home to prevent accidental fires from occurring?
3. Let’s say you are in a mall or in a concert and the fire alarm suddenly sounds, what will you
do?
4. What do you think is the importance of holding fire drills in schools and I communities?

Output 2: VIDEO PRESENTATION (Performance Task)

Directions: Create a video role play presentation that exhibits the precautionary measures
before, during, and after an earthquake. The video must show at least 3 precautionary
measures each. Submit your output on 1st of February, 2021. (60 points)

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Excellent (15) Satisfactory Fair (6) Improvement
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(12) (3)
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