Chapter-2

ARTIFICAL CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

BRICK: Brick is a regular sized rectangular unit, used for most of the building works, such as construction of walls,
footing, compound walls, water tanks, footpaths, paving floors etc.

CONSTITUENTS OF GOOD BRICK EARTH:

Following are the constituents of good brick earth
1.Alumina
2.Silica
3.Lime
4.Oxide of iron
5.Magnesia
4. Oxide of iron

1. Alumina
A good brick earth should contain 20% to 30% of alumina. It is the basic constituent which readily absorbs
water and imparts plasticity to the earth so that it can be moulded. If alumina present in excess, the raw bricks shrink
and warp during drying and burning and becomes hard when burnt.
2. Silica
It exists in clay either as free or combined. A good brick earth should contain 50% to 60% of
silica. The presence of this constituent prevents cracking, shrinking and warping of raw bricks Silica enables the brick,
retain its shape and makes it durable. The excess of silica destroy the cohesion between particles and the bricks
become brittle.
3. Lime
A small quantity of lime not exceeding 5% is desirable in good brick earth. The lime prevents
shrinkage of raw brick. The sand alone is infusible. But slightly fuses at kiln temperature in presence
of lime The excess of lime causes the brick to melt and hence its shape is lost.
4. Oxide of iron
A small quantity of oxide of iron to an extent of about 5 to 6% is desirable in good brick earth.It helps as lime
to fuse sand. It also imparts red colour to the bricks. It improves impermeability and durability & gives strength and
hardness. The excess of oxide of iron makes the bricks dark blue or blackish.
5. Magnesia
A small quantity of magnesia in brick earth imparts yellow tint to the bricks and decreases
shrinkage. Excess of magnesia leads to the decay of bricks.

MODULAR BRICKS AND STANDARD BRICKS

Modular Bricks. Modular bricks conform to the size laid down by Bureau of Indian Standard Institution, India.
Any brick which is of the same uniform size as laid down by BIS (IS2691:1988) is known as the modular brick. The
modular size of the brick is 190mmx90mmx90mm
With mortar thickness, the dimension of the brick becomes 200 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm which is also known
as the nominal size of the modular brick.

Non modular bricks

➢ conventional size of brick specification
(Length × breadth × height), the length varies from 200 to 250 mm, width varies from 100 to 130 mm and
thickness varies from 50 mm to 75 mm.
The commonly adopted nominal size of traditional/conventional brick is 230 mm x 114 mm x 76 mm (9”x4 ½ “x3”)
approximately.

Standard bricks:The standard co-ordinating size for brickwork is 225 mm x 112.5 mm x 75 mm (length x depth x
height). This includes 10 mm mortar joints, and so the standard size for a brick itself is 215 mm x 102.5 mm x 65 mm
(length x depth x height).

SPECIAL BRICKS-FLY ASH BRICKS

Fly ash is made up of very fine glassy particles collected in the dust collector system from combustion of ground or
powdered lignite or coal in thermal power stations. It is cementitious in nature.

Fly ash brick is manufactured by mixing fly ash, lime and sand approximately in the ratio of 80:13:7 and a small quantity
of magnesium chloride as chemical accelerator. Hydraulic press is used for making these bricks.

The semi dried bricks are cured in a steam chamber at appropriate pressure and temperature.

Uses of Fly ash bricks

1.Multistorey structures
2. High rise Buildings
3. House construction
4. Factories
5. Warehouses
6. Power plants
Advantages
1.The appearance of fly ash bricks are very attractive & pleasing colour.
2. The Compressive strength is very high (9-10N/mm2)
3. The Thermal conductivity of fly ash bricks is 0.90-1.05N/mm2.They absorb less heat.
4. They are highly durable & less Permeable,this reduce the effect of effloresecence on bricks.
5. These are very good sound resistance.
6. They are highly fire resistance.
7. The cost is approximately 30% lower than Clay bricks.
8.Due to light weight,these are suitable for multi-storey structures.

Disadvantages
1.Not all Fly ash bricks is suitable for construction.
2. If not made properly, it has no strength & not suitable for construction.
3. Bonding with concrete is lower due to the smooth finish.
4.Only Modular size bricks can be produced.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD BRICKS

The following are the requirements or characteristics of good bricks:
1. The colour of good brick should be uniform. It may be deep red, cherry or copper coloured,
2. Brick should not absorb water more than 20% of its dry weight when kept immersed in water
for 24 hours.
3. Brick should not have the crushing strength below 5.5N/mm
4. Bricks should be uniform in shape with all its edges sharp, straight and at right angles to each
other.
5.Size of the bricks should be standard as prescribed by Indian standards.
6. The bricks should have fine, dense, compact and uniform texture.
7.Two bricks should give clear ringing sound when struck against each other.
8. The bricks should be so hard that finger nail should not be able to make any impression on its
surface when scratched.
9.Bricks should be sound proof and also of low thermal conductivity.
10. Bricks should not break when dropped flat on hard ground from a height of about 1m.

FIELD TESTS ON BRICKS

Following tests are conducted on bricks:
1. Hardness
2. Shape and size
3. Soundness
4. Strength
5. Structure
6. Colour
1. Hardness
In this test, a scratch is made on brick surface with the help of a finger nail. If no impression
left on the surface, the brick is treated to be sufficiently hard.
2. Shape and size
The bricks are closely inspected for its standard size and shape. The bricks should be standard size (190 mmx
90 mmx 90 mm) and its shape should be truly rectangular. It should have sharp edges and the bearing faces should be
plane and parallel. For this inspection. 20 bricks should be selected at random and are staked length wise, along the
width and along the height.The following dimensions should be obtained of the bricks arranged as mentioned above,
for the brick to be of good quality.
Length: 3680 mm to 3920mm (standard 20x 190 3800mm)
Width: 1740 mm to 1860mm (standard 20x 90 1800mm)
Height: 1740 mm to 1860mm (standard 20x90 1800mm)
Thus, the maximum permissible tolerance in length is +6 mm and that is width and height as 3 mm

3. Soundness
In this test, the two bricks are taken and they are struck each other. The brick should not break and a clear
ringing sound should be produced.
4. Strength
If brick dropped from a height of 1 m, to fall flat on a hard ground, it should not break.

5.Structure
A brick is broken and its structure is examined. It should be homogeneous, compact and free
from any defects such as holes, lumps, etc.
6. Colour
The colour of brick should be uniform deep red, cherry or copper

MANUFACTURING PROCESS
The various operations necessary for the production of the bricks are as follows:
1. Preparation of clay
2. Moulding
3. Drying
4. Burning
1.PREPARATION OF CLAY
1.Unsoiling2.Digging3. Cleaning 4.Weathering5.Blending 6.Tempering
2.5.1 Preparation of clay
1.Unsoiling
To Remove impurities such as organic matter in top soil up to 200mm in depth.
2. Digging
The digging of earth is generally carried out by manual labour, but for major works mechanical excavators may also be
used.
3. Cleaning
All stone pebbles, gravel and roots of grass or plants, etc., are completely removed
4. Weathering
The clay is then exposed to atmosphere for softening. The period of exposure varies from few weeks to full season.
5.Blending
Mixing of Clay/sand/other material.
6.Tempering
Water is added to clay and it is kneaded to obtain homogeneous mass of clay of uniform character.
2. MOULDING
Moulding may be carried out either by hand or by the help of a machine.
Following are the two types of moulding
1. Hand moulding
2.Machine moulding
1. Hand moulding
Bricks are moulded by manually It is cheap and hand moulding is suitable for Small scale bricks
production.
The bricks are prepared by hand moulding are of two types:
a) Ground-moulded bricks
b) Table-Moulded bricks
2. Machine moulding
Machine moulding is adopted for large scale manufacturing. The types of machines used are a) Plastic clay
machines
b) Dry clay machines
3. DRYING
After the bricks are moulded, they are dried. If bricks are not properly dried before they are burnt, they may get
cracked and distorted during the burning process.
Following two methods of drying bricks:
Natural drying: In natural drying, also called hack drying the moulded bricks are kept in the sun for 3 to 10 days.
Artificial drying: In artificial drying, use of steam or hot air is used when bricks are required on a large scale and at a
rapid rate.
4.Burning: This is a very important operation where bricks get hardened and gains strength.
The bricks may be burnt in any one of the following:
a) Clamps
b) Intermittent kilns
c) Continuous kilns.
Clamps are temporary structures, and they are used to burn bricks on small Scale, but kilns are permanent
structures and are used to manufacture bricks on large scale basis
CLAMPS

This consists of dried bricks and fuel placed in alternate layers. The operations involved in clamp burning are
as follows:
1. The floor is prepared with an upward slope of about 15°. Its shape in plan is trapezoidal.
2.The brick wall in mud is constructed on the short end and a layer of fuel (700mm to 800mm thick) is laid on the
prepared floor. The fuel consists of grass, cow dung, litter, husks of rice or ground nuts, etc.
3 A layer of 4 to 5 courses of raw bricks, is then laid over the layer of fuel.
4. A second layer of fuel is then placed over it, another layer of raw bricks is laid over the layer of fuel. In this way, fuel
and bricks is laid in alternate layers. The thickness of fuel decreases as the height of clamp increases.
5. The total height of clamp is 3m to 4m. When nearly one-third height is reached, the lower portion of the clamp is
ignited.
6. When clamp is completely constructed, it is plastered with mud on sides and top are filled with
earth to prevent the escape of heat.
7. The clamp is allowed to burn for a period of one to two months and then allowed to cool for same period.
8. The burnt bricks are then taken out from the clamp.

Advantages of clamp burning

1. It is economical.
2. This system is well understood by the uneducated brick burners.
3 The clamp bricks are tougher than kiln bricks due to gradual burning and cooling.
Disadvantages of clamp burning
1. Itis very slow method.
2. Regulation of fire is not possible.
3. Out turn of bricks is not quite uniform
4. Large portion of bricks distorted and cracked due to their settlement when the fuel at the
bottom is burnt to ashes,
KILNS
A kiln is a large oven which is used to burn bricks.
Hoffman's kiln
This kiln is constructed over ground and hence it is sometimes known as the flame kiln.
1.The shape is circular in plan and it is divided into a number of compartments or chambers.
2.Apermanent roof is provided, the kiln can even work during rainy season.
3.This consists of twelve compartments arranged in series in the form of a ring around
centrally placed chimney.
4.Each chamber is provided with a main door for loading and unloading, communicating door
&fuel holes with covers to drop fuel.
5.In this type of kiln, each chamber performs various functions in succession, namely loading
drying, burning, cooling and unloading
Chamber 1-Loading
Chamber 2 to 5-Drying and pre-heating
Chamber 6 and 7-Burning
Chamber8 to 11-Cooling
Chamber 12-Unloading
WORKING PROCESS

The cool air enters through chambers 1 and 12 as their main doors are open. After crossing thecooling
chambers 8 to 11, it enters the burning section in a heated condition. It then moves to
chambers 2 to 5 to dry and pre-heat the raw bricks. The damper of chamber 2 is in open condition
and hence it escapes into atmosphere through chimney.

Advantages of Hoffman's kiln

1. The pre-heating of unburnt bricks by the hot gases, sufficiently reduces the consumption offuel.
2. Drying space is saved because raw, moulded bricks can be loaded directly into the chambers.
3. As there is uniform burning of bricks, it yields greatest percentage of first class bricks.
4. Out put from the kiln is regular
5. As the process of burning can be controlled and regulated, bricks are not liable to distort or warp, during burning.
6. The height of each chamber is limited to 2.5 to 2.75 m. Hence there is no danger of raw bricksbeing crushed under
the weight of stack.
7. Kiln can be made to work during the entire year.
8. The combustion of fuel is perfect. Hence no smoke is produced. This reduces the pollutionproblems,
Disadvantages of Hoffman's kiln
1. Is initial cost of construction is very high.
2. It requires highly skilled labour for its operation and maintenance.

AERATED CONCRETE
Aerated concrete blocks are manufactured from sand, lime, pulverized fuel ash (PFA) and cement.

Aluminium powder is added to the mix, which reacts with cement to form bubbles of hydrogen gas, creating tiny air
pockets in block.

The ingredients used are

1.Fly ash-59%
2. Cement (usually OPC 53 grade)-33%
3.Lime-8%
4.Aluminium Powder-0.07%
 Aerated concrete is also referred to as gas concrete, foam concrete, cellular concrete. The below figure shows
aerated concrete.

Properties of Aerated concrete

• Light in weight
• High compressive strength
• Low thermal conductivity
• Low shrinkage
• Low absorption
• High heat resistant
• Possess sharp edges and corners.
• Earthquake resistant.
• Durable.

Uses of Aerated concrete

1.Components can be used for walls, floors, and roofs.
2. Can be used in residential homes, commercial and industrial buildings, schools, hospitals, hotels

ADVANTAGES OF AERATED CONCRETE

• Improved thermal efficiency reduces the heating and cooling load in buildings.
• Porous structure gives superior fire resistance.
• Workability allows accurate cutting, which minimizes the generation of solid waste during use..
• Lightweight saves cost and energy in transportation, labour expenses.
• Larger size blocks leads to faster masonry work.
• Reduces project cost for large constructions.
• Environmentally friendly: It produces at least 30% less solid waste than traditional concrete. There is a decrease
of 50% of greenhouse gas emissions.
• Due to less weight the blocks can be handled easily
• Fire resistant: As with regular concrete, AAC is fire resistant.
• Long lasting: The life of this material is extended because it is not affected by harsh climates or extreme weather
changes. It will not degrade under normal climate changes.
FLOORING AND WALL TILE
Types
1. Clay tiles
2. Ceramic tiles
3. Porcelain tiles
4. Vitrified tiles
5. Onyx tiles
6. Vinyl tiles
7. Stone composite polymer tiles
8. Mosaic tiles
9. Terrazzo tiles
10. Glass tiles
11. Marble tiles
12. Granite tiles
13. Quarry tiles

Clay tiles are tough materials. They are made from naturally occurring materials that are baked into the tiles. They
usually come in their natural earthy colour, thus earning them the nickname “terracotta tiles” although they can also
be glazed in a colour of your choosing before being baked into shape.
The Benefits of Terracotta Floor Tiles/Clay tiles
▪ They are durable, hard wearing and easy to clean.
▪ The richness of the colour of the tiles can give warmth to the look and feel of a room.
▪ They easily co-ordinate with cream, beige and brown colours, whether it is paint on the walls, kitchen
wall tiles or the colour of your kitchen cupboards.
▪ Terracotta designs are available as both ceramic tiles and porcelain tiles which means they are maintenance
free unlike actual terracotta tiles.

VITRIFIED TILE

Vitrified tile is a ceramic tile with very low porosity. It is an alternative to marble and Granite flooring. Vitrified tiles
are often used outdoors due to their water and frost resistance. Vitrified tile is made by hydraulic pressing a mixture
of clay, quartz, feldspar and silica, which make vitreous surface. Thus creating a single mass making them hard with
low porosity.

Advantages of Vitrified Tiles

➢ Vitrified tiles hold a smooth finishing, and scrape resistant.

➢ Highly resistant to water, dirt and stain, vitrified tiles are super easy to maintain.
➢ A brilliant alternative to natural stone floorings such as marble and granite.
➢ They are more durable and scratch resistant.
➢ Vitrified tiles are consistent in sizes, shades and thickness.
➢ Vitrified tiles are easier to install and need practically no setting time or polishing after laying.
➢ Vitrified tiles have very less water absorption and are stain resistant.
➢ Due to moisture resistant, vitrified tiles prevent bacteria and fungi from growing.
➢ It is easy to clean as it has shiny surface.
➢ These tiles will best option the flooring in wet areas as they are moisture resistant.
➢ The effect of sunlight neither alters the colour of the tiles nor causes them to fade.
 Disadvantages of vitrified tiles

➢ Tiles need to be installed by an expert tile layer to ensure thin, even and neat joints between the tiles.
➢ The major disadvantage of vitrified tiles is that they are more expensive.
➢ The tile with the defect must be cut away along the grout lines and surrounding material could be
damaged in the process.
➢ It is quite unlikely that you will find the same tile after some years and hence when you buy tiles, always
buy few extra pieces and serve it for public future use.
➢ In order to ensure the stability, high quality adhesives are used.
➢ Every year or after two year, the grout must be resealed or it will begin to look dirty.
➢ The sealant will create a hazy finish on the tiles if allowed to dry.
➢ It is difficult to install.

Glazed tiles

Glazed tile is a type of ceramic tile to which a glaze has been applied. After the glaze is painted or sprayed on, the tile
is fired at high temperatures, causing a chemical reaction which makes the glaze vitrify, essentially turning into glass.

The resulting tile is resistant to water and stains because of the glaze, and it has an attractive look, as a wide variety
of colors and designs can be created with glaze, with finishes ranging from extremely glossy to matte.
CEMENT

The artificial cement is obtained by burning at a very high temperature a mixture of calcareous and argillaceous
materials. The mixture of ingredients should be mixed in correct proportion. The calcined product is known as the
clinker. A small quantity of gypsum is added to the clinker and it is then pulverised into very fine powder which is
known as Cement

Manufacturing process of cement by DRY PROCESS

Procedure:
1.The raw materials are first reduced in size of about 25mm in crushers.
2.A current of dry air is then passed over these dried materials.
3.Then these dried materials are pulverised into fine powder in ball mills and tube mills.
4.All these operations are done separately and they are stored in separate hoppers or storage tanks
5.Then these materials are feed into the rotary kiln
6.Then fuel is supplied for burning(Such as coal,oil or natural gas)
7.Clinkers are formed
8.Next clinkers are crushed along with 2 to 3% gypsum in the ball mill
9.Cement is stored in silos and are further send into the packing plant
BURNING
• The burning is carried out in rotary kiln.
• It is made of steel tubes of diameter varying from 2.5m to 3m and length 90m to 120m.
• It is laid at a gradient of about 1 in 25 to 1 in 30.
• The kiln is heated with the help of powdered coal or oil or hot gases from the lower end of the kiln.
• It is made to rotate at about 1 to 3 revolutions per minute about its longitudinal axis.
• At temperatures 1500- 17000C lime and clay reacts to yield calcium aluminates and calcium silicates, which
fuse to form small and hard stones known as clinkers.
• The clinkers of size 3- 20mm coming out of kiln will be very hot, they are cooled and stored.

TYPES OF CEMENT
Cement is mainly classified into two categories depending on the hardening and setting mechanism. These are-
1. Hydraulic Cement
2. Non-hydraulic Cement

Along with these main types, depending on the composition and characteristics there are many types of
cement. Followings are the other cement types:
1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
2. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
3. Rapid Hardening Cement
4. Quick Setting Cement
5. Low Heat Cement
6. Sulphate Resisting Cement
7. Blast Furnace Cement
8. High Alumina Cement
9. White Cement
10. Colored Cement
11. Air Entraining Cement
12. Expansive Cement
13. Hydrophobic Cement

DIFFERENT TYPES OF CEMENT AND THEIR USES IN CONSTRUCTION WORK AS FOLLOWS:-

1. Rapid hardening cement

• When formwork is to be removed early for reuse.

• when sufficient strength for further construction is wanted .
• emergency repair work.
• in cold regions (Resistant to frost damage).
2. Portland pozzolana cement

• It can be used in mass construction work.

• It can be used for low cost housing project.
• For construction of water tanks & water retaining structures.
• It can be used in hot weather regions.

3. Portland blast furnace slag cement

• It can be used in mass construction work.

• It is used for construction of marine structures.
• It is used for areas with high sulphate content in ground water.
• For manufacturing of sewage pipes

4. Sulphate resisting cement

• It is used for construction work near seashore or where sulphate content is higher in ground water
• For construction of marine structures.

5. Low heat cement

• It is used in hot weather regions.

• For mass concreting works such as gravity dam and thick retaining wall.

6. White cement

• For joining marbles and ceramic tiles .

• For preparing joints of sanitary wares .
• It is also used for architectural works.
• It is used in manufacturing of mosaic tiles.

7. Expansive cement

• It can be used for repairing grouting cracks.

• Grouting of anchor bolts and machine foundations.
• It is used for sealing of water tight or airtight joints.

8. Ordinary Portland Cement

It is used for all general purposes and widely used for all ordinary concrete work, mortar, plaster etc.

9. Hydrophobic cement
It is used where prolonged storage is required for cement such as

1. At dam site.
2. Near military establishments.
3. At major airports and sea ports.

10. Antibacterial cement

It is used in places like Floors of food processing plants, swimming pool, pharmaceutical industries, hospitals, bakeries,
public baths and similar places where bacteria and fungi develope.
 HOLLOW CONCRETE BLOCKS:
 Hollow concrete blocks are substitutes for conventional bricks and stones
 They are lighter than bricks and easier to place and they offer uniform quality, lower labour involvement and,
longer durability.
 Ingredients: 1.OPC or PPC
2.Fine sand
3. Crushed coarse aggregates & water
 In the manufacture of hollow concrete blocks, 25 to 30 % cement is replaced by industrial wastes such as fly
ash

Use of Hollow Concrete Blocks:

Concrete blocks are used in all types of masonry constructions, confirming to IS: 2572.
Few examples are:
• Exterior load-bearing walls (both below and above grade)
• Interior load-bearing walls
• Fire walls and curtain walls
• Partitions and panel walks
• Backing for brick, stone, and other facings;
• Fireproofing over structural members
• Fire safe walls around stairwells,
• elevators, and enclosures
• Piers and columns; Retaining walls
Advantages of Hollow concrete Blocks
 Durable
 Low maintenance
 Load bearing
 Fire resistant
 Provide thermal and sound insulation
 Plastering cost may be saved
 Environment friendly
 One block can replace 8 bricks

Solid Concrete Block

Solid concrete blocks are made of a mixture of Portland cement, water, sand and gravel. These are manufactured to be
strong, heavy with a great dense aggregate. These solid concrete blocks are strong enough which can be used for large
masonry units that are load bearing in nature. They are similar to bricks but they are heavier and can exposure to more
forces.

Uses of Solid Concrete Block

• Solid concrete blocks are used for load-bearing as well as non-load bearing walls.
• It is also used for constructing retaining walls, garden walls, chimney and fireplaces.
• It is also used as a lintel.

Properties of Solid Concrete Block

• The design of solid concrete blocks is flexible and easy to construct.

• Solid concrete blocks are ideal for foundation and basement wall.
• Solid concrete blocks are unaffected by termites.
• Solid concrete blocks provide insulation against cold and hot weather.
• The solid concrete blocks wall is long lasting, durable and requires less maintenance.
• The Solid concrete blocks are highly resistant to extreme weather conditions such as storms, floods and high winds.
• The Solid concrete blocks are highly resistant to cracking and crumbling in extreme temperatures.
• The Solid concrete blocks are virtually soundproof.
• It is environment-friendly and also saves water. Hence it is popularly used as a green product

PAVEMENT BLOCKS

Paver block or Paving block is one of the most popular flexible surface treatment options for exterior pavement
applications. These blocks are aesthetically pleasing, comfortable to walk on, extremely durable, and easy to maintain.

Uses of Pavement blocks

➢ 1.It issuitable for heavy-duty applications, able to support substantial loads and resist shearing and
braking forces.
➢ 2.These blocks are used for laying of pavements, driveways, etc.
➢ 3.These blocks are mostly used in foothpath, Malls, small market roads, Bus terminals, City streets,
Railway platforms, Airport pavement, Factory floors and pavements,.
➢ 4.These blocks can be used at residential as well as commercial premises.

Properties of Paver Blocks

➢ 1.They do not need special maintenance as compared to concrete or asphalt surfaces. A simple water
washing can help keep the blocks clean and bright.
➢ 2.Paver blocks are very durable, and if they are adequately interlocked, they can easily last for about 20
years.
➢ 3.Paver blocks can withstand heavy vehicular load as well.
➢ 4.Paver blocks are available in different shapes and colors, making it very versatile.
➢ 5.Paver blocks are slip-resistant and skid resistant.
➢ 6.Paver blocks can be used in any weather conditions.
➢ 7.These paver blocks are very easy to install and do not need any special equipment for its installation.
➢ 8.They do not require curing.
➢ 9.Low maintenance cost
➢ 10. The paver blocks can be easily replaced.
INDUSTRIAL TIMBER
The timber which is prepared scientifically in a factory is termed as the industrial timber and such timber possesses
desired shape, appearance, strength etc.
Following are the varieties of industrial timber
1.Veeners
2.Plywood
3.Particle Board

1. VEENERS
These are thin sheets or slices of wood of superior quality. The thickness of veneers varies from 0.40 mm to 6
mm or more. They are obtained by rotating a log of wood against a sharp knife of rotary cutter or saw. The veneers
after being removed are dried in kilns to remove moisture.
Following facts should be noted:
(1) The edges of veneers are joined and sheets of decorative designs are prepared.
(2) The Indian timbers which are suitable for veneers are mahogany, oak, rosewood, teak.
(3) The process of preparing a sheet of veneers is known as the veneering.
(4) The veneers are used to produce plywood, battenboards and laminated boards.
(5) The veneers may be fixed on corners or bent portions. It creates an impression that the whole piece is made of
expensive timber.
(6) The veneers may be glued with suitable adhesives on the surface of inferior wood. The appearance of inferior wood
is then considerably improved.
2. Plywood:
The meaning of term ply is a thin layer. The plywood are boards which are prepared from thin layers of wood or
veneers. The three or more veneers in odd numbers are placed one above the other with the direction of grains of
successive layers at right angles to each other.
• The plywood is used for various purposes such as ceilings, doors, furniture, partitions, panelling walls, packing
cases, railway coaches, formwork for concrete, etc.
• The use of plywood and its products has become so common at present that it has totally changed the design
and complex of various structures such as buildings, offices, theatres, restaurants, churches, temples,
hospitals, etc.
• The plywood is available in different commercial forms such as battenboard, laminboard, metal faced
plywood, multi-ply, three-ply, veneered plywood, etc.

Advantages of plywood:
(1)As plies are placed at right angles to each other, the expansion and shrinkage are comparatively very low
(2) They are available in a variety of decorative appearance
(3) They are available in large sizes. The commercial sizes widths up to 1.50 m and lengths up to 3 m.
 (4) They are elastic and hence they are not liable to split crack due to changes in atmosphere.
(5) They are light in weight.
(6)They are stronger than solid boards.
(7) They do not split in an axial direction.
(8) They do not split when nailed near edges because of their cross grained structure.
(9) They are not easily affected by moisture.
(10) They make use of rare and valuable timbers in a quite economical way

PARTICLE BOARD
Particle board is a product made up of wooden particle waste from sawmill shavings and wood hips heat
pressed with resin together. Various waxes, dyes, water-resistant agents, insect-proof agents and fire-proof agents
are used in the final end product, which is made into a long board.

Uses
1.These are heavier than solid wood plywood. They can be sawn like wood and are mainly used for furniture work.
2.They are used for interior cupboards.
3.It is also used for wall and floor panels.
4.It is also used in false ceiling.

LAMINATED BOARD
Laminates are most commonly used surface finish for furniture elements, as they provide decorative look in
comparatively less price. They also enhance the durability of the furniture as they are scratch resistant and easy to
clean. Due to availability of various types of laminates, commercial and corporate offices, industries, restaurants,
hotels, showrooms, etc. are also now decorated by using laminates.
Laminate is made by pressing together a blend of paper and plastic. Brown paper and decorative paper soaked
in phenolic and melamine resins are hard pressed together to form a stiff laminate sheet.
The various types of laminates with their uses:

Types of Laminate Preferred areas

Matt Finish Corporate and Business offices, Living Room , Bedroom etc. for subtle and stylish
Laminate look

Clubs, event Industry, Showrooms, Kitchen etc.

It gives glossy effect to furniture and it’s also very easy to clean.
Glossy Finish
Laminate

Metallic Finish
Laminate Commercials and showrooms

Textured Finish Living Room , Decorative Units, Corporate , Business offices etc. for subtle and
Laminate classy look

Solid Color
Laminate Kitchen Counter taps, Bathroom Areas, Bedroom etc.

Kitchen , Bedroom, Commercials and water prone areas etc. as it has a single
Unicore Laminate core they are good water restive.

GLASS
Glass, an inorganic solid material that is usually transparent or translucent as well as hard, brittle,
and impervious to the natural elements.

Glasses are made from three main materials—sand (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), limestone (calcium carbonate, or
CaCO3), and sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)

Types of glass based upon its composition

1. Soda Lime Glass
2. Lead Glass
3. Borosilicate Glass
1.Soda lime/soda ash Glass: It is obtained from the fusion of a mixture of silica, lime, soda and alumina. Powdered
glass too may be added. Tempering makes the glass safer when it breaks as it shatters in to small blunt fragments.
Untempered glass will break into dangerous sharp shards.
These are used in
1.Drinking glasses
2. Car windscreens
3.Vases
4.Jars
5.Bottles
6.Laboratory apparatus
7.Window glass sheet.
2.LeadGlass: It is obtained from the fusion of a mixture of silica, lead and potash. Powdered glass is added. It has
shining appearance and takes good polish. It is not affected by temperature.
1.It is used for cut glass work, electric bulbs.
2.It is used in laser optics for printing and photocopying technologies
3.Digital projectors
4.Ornaments
5.In the medical and research field
6.High refractive index of lead glass is useful for the production of lenses
7.Popularly used as glassware.
3.Boro-silicate glass: It is obtained from the fusion of a mixture of silica, borax, lime, etc. Powdered glass too may be
added. It can with stand high temperature and heat.
1.It is used for manufacturing of laboratory equipment.
2.Cooking utensils
3.Coffee glass4.Scientific lenses and hot mirrors
4.Bakeware and cookware
5.Thermal insulation
6.High intensity lighting products
7.Aircraft exterior lenses
8. Aquarium heaters