OLUSEGUN AGAGU UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS

A TECHNICAL REPORT ON:

PRODUCTION AND TRANSMISSION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY: THE

CHALLENGES

OLANIYI OLUWASEGUN JOHN

MEE/19/058

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to extend my heartfelt appreciation to Prof. Bisi Akinola for his invaluable
contribution to this work. Prof. Akinola's expertise, guidance, and unwavering support have been
instrumental in shaping the direction and outcomes of this endeavor
I also express my appreciation to the readers of this report, whose interest in the topic of
renewable energy challenges encourages continued research and exploration in this critical field

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 ABSTRACT

Renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, hydro, biomass, and geothermal power, offer
many benefits for the environment and society, such as reducing greenhouse gas emissions,
enhancing energy security and diversity, creating jobs and economic opportunities, and
improving public health. However, renewable energy also faces many challenges that need to be
overcome to achieve its full potential and contribute to a sustainable future. One of the main
challenges is the production and transmission of renewable energy to the grid and the end
consumers. Renewable energy sources are often variable and intermittent, depending on weather
conditions and natural cycles. This makes it difficult to match the supply and demand of
electricity at all times. Therefore, renewable energy requires efficient, affordable, and reliable
energy storage systems that can store excess electricity when it is abundant and release it when it
is needed. Another challenge is the economic and financial issues involved in bringing renewable
technologies and renewable energy to the masses. Renewable energy technologies often require
high upfront costs for installation and maintenance, which can deter investors and consumers
from adopting them. A third challenge is the grid integration of renewable energy sources.
Renewable energy sources need to be integrated into the existing power grid, which was
designed for conventional power plants that operate at a constant output. However, renewable
energy sources can fluctuate in their output depending on weather conditions and natural cycles.
This can cause challenges for grid stability, reliability, and efficiency. Therefore, renewable
energy sources need to be coordinated with other power sources and demand-side management
strategies to ensure a balanced and secure power system.

This paper aims to provide an overview of the current state of renewable energy production and
transmission challenges, as well as the possible solutions and opportunities to address them. The
paper draws on various sources of information, such as the World Economic Forum², the
International Energy Agency³, and TRVST¹. The paper concludes that renewable energy
production and transmission challenges are not insurmountable, but require concerted efforts
from various stakeholders, such as governments, businesses, communities, and consumers. By
harnessing the power of nature, renewable energy can create a cleaner, safer, and more
sustainable future for all.

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Introduction
Renewable energy is a term that refers to energy sources that are derived from natural processes
that are replenished constantly, such as solar, wind, hydroelectric, biomass, and geothermal
power. Renewable energy sources have many advantages over fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and
gas, which are the main contributors to global warming and climate change. Renewable energy
sources produce little to no greenhouse gas emissions when generating electricity or heat, which
helps to reduce the impact of human activities on the environment. Renewable energy sources
also have other benefits, such as enhancing energy security and diversity, creating jobs and
economic opportunities, reducing air pollution and water consumption, improving public health,
and empowering communities.

Renewable energy development is the process of expanding the use of renewable energy sources
to meet the growing demand for electricity, heat, or fuel. Renewable energy development has
been growing rapidly in recent years, driven by various factors such as technological innovation,
policy support, cost reduction, and environmental awareness. According to the International
Energy Agency (IEA), renewable energy accounted for about 26% of global electricity
generation in 2018. However, this share needs to increase significantly to meet the goals of the
Paris Agreement, a global treaty that aims to limit global warming to well below 2 °C (3.6 °F),
preferably 1.5 °C (2.7 °F), above preindustrial levels by 2100. The IEA estimates that renewable
energy would need to supply at least 86% of global electricity by 2050 to achieve this target.

To reach this level of renewable energy deployment, the IEA projects that annual additions to
global renewable electricity capacity will average around 305 GW per year between 2021 and
2026 in its main case forecast. This implies an acceleration of almost 60% compared to
renewables’ expansion over the last five years. Solar PV and wind are expected to contribute
two-thirds of renewables growth, followed by hydropower and bioenergy. The IEA also expects
renewable electricity generation to expand by more than 8% in 2021 to reach 8 300 TWh, the
fastest year-on-year growth since the 1970s.

Renewable energy development is not only a solution to global warming but also an opportunity
for economic growth and social development. By harnessing the power of nature, renewable

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energy can create jobs, enhance energy security and diversity, reduce air pollution and water
consumption, improve public health, and empower communities. Renewable energy
development is a key component of the global energy transition that aims to create a cleaner,
safer, and more sustainable future for all.

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Energy Generation and Transmission Challenges Of Some Renewable Energy
Sources
Solar Energy
The history of solar power is a testament to human innovation and our quest for sustainable
energy sources. From its humble beginnings as a curiosity in the 19th century to its pivotal role
in today's global energy landscape, solar power has come a long way. This article explores the
extensive history of solar power and examines its current state as a critical component of the
world's energy mix. The story of solar power begins with the discovery of the photovoltaic
effect, a phenomenon where certain materials produce an electric current when exposed to light.
This effect was first observed by Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel in 1839 when he discovered that
silver chloride produced a small electric current when exposed to sunlight. This discovery laid
the foundation for the development of solar cells. In 1876, William Grylls Adams and Richard
Evans Day expanded on Becquerel's work by using selenium to create the first true solar cell.
This early solar cell was highly inefficient, converting only a small percentage of sunlight into
electricity. However, it was a crucial step forward in harnessing the power of the sun.
In 1905, Albert Einstein's work on the photoelectric effect further advanced our understanding of
the interaction between light and materials, providing essential insights into solar energy
conversion. This work would eventually earn him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921. It wasn't
until the 1950s that practical solar cells were developed. Bell Labs, under the leadership of
scientists Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller, and Daryl Chapin, created the first solar cell capable of
powering electrical equipment. This breakthrough marked the beginning of the modern era of
solar power. The 1950s and 1960s saw increased interest in solar power due to the space race.
Solar panels were used to power satellites, including the Vanguard 1, which was the first satellite
to use solar cells. This application demonstrated the reliability and durability of solar technology
in harsh environments.

Fig 1 - the gradual adoption of solar power

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The 1970s brought a pivotal moment for solar power as the world grappled with the oil crisis.
Governments and researchers began to invest heavily in solar technology. In 1977, the United
States established the Solar Energy Research Institute (now the National Renewable Energy
Laboratory), further propelling the development of solar technology. Throughout the 20th
century, research into solar cells continued to improve efficiency and reduce costs. Silicon solar
cells became the dominant technology due to their reliability and scalability. By the 1980s, solar
power was becoming a viable option for remote and off-grid applications. The 21st century
witnessed a significant expansion of solar power, driven by government incentives,
environmental concerns, and technological advancements. Countries like Germany introduced
feed-in tariffs, encouraging widespread adoption of solar panels. China also played a pivotal role,
becoming a major manufacturer of solar panels.
Today, solar power is a major player in the global energy landscape. The technology has become
more efficient and cost-effective, with photovoltaic panels achieving higher conversion rates.
Solar farms can produce electricity at a scale that can power entire cities, and solar panels are a
common sight on rooftops around the world.
From its early discoveries to the modern solar panel, solar power has come a long way. As we
look to a future where renewable energy sources are paramount, solar power's journey serves as a
testament to human ingenuity and our commitment to a sustainable future.

Challenges in production of solar energy

Despite its growth, solar power faces challenges such as intermittency and energy storage.
However, advancements in battery technology and grid management are addressing these issues.
Solar power continues to grow as an essential part of the transition to cleaner and more
sustainable energy sources, reducing carbon emissions and combating climate change.
1. Intermittency and Variability: Solar energy production is highly dependent on weather
conditions and the time of day. Cloud cover, rain, and the daily cycle of sunlight can
cause significant fluctuations in energy output. This intermittency necessitates the
development of energy storage solutions and backup generation methods to ensure a
consistent power supply.

2. Energy Storage: As mentioned above, energy storage is crucial to overcome the

intermittent nature of solar energy. Current energy storage technologies, such as batteries,
have limitations in terms of capacity, cost, and environmental impact. Advancements in
energy storage are needed to make solar energy more reliable.

3. Efficiency and Cost: While the efficiency of solar panels has improved over the years, it
remains a challenge to maximize the conversion of sunlight into electricity at a low cost.

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 Reducing the cost of photovoltaic cells and increasing their efficiency are ongoing
research priorities.

4. Land Use: Large-scale solar farms require significant land resources. Balancing the need
for clean energy with land conservation and ecosystem preservation can be a challenge.
Innovative solutions, such as floating solar farms on reservoirs or repurposing brownfield
sites, are being explored to minimize land use conflicts.

5. Materials and Resource Availability: The production of solar panels relies on materials
like rare earth elements and metals. Ensuring a stable supply chain and environmentally
responsible sourcing of these materials can be challenging. Recycling and reducing the
use of rare materials in solar panels are areas of ongoing research

6. Environmental Impact: The manufacturing and disposal of solar panels can have
environmental impacts, including energy-intensive production processes and the potential
for hazardous waste. Developing more sustainable manufacturing processes and recycling
methods is essential

Challenges in the transmission of solar energy

The transmission of solar energy is a critical component of harnessing the power of the sun for
various applications, including electricity generation, heating, and lighting. While solar energy
has numerous advantages, such as being a clean and renewable source of power, there are several
challenges associated with its transmission. These challenges encompass technical, economic,
and environmental aspects, and addressing them is crucial for the widespread adoption of solar
energy. Here, we will explore these challenges in detail:

1. Intermittency and Variability: Solar energy generation is highly dependent on weather

conditions and the time of day. Cloud cover, rain, and the daily cycle of sunlight can
cause significant fluctuations in energy output. To address this challenge, energy storage
solutions, such as batteries, are often required to store excess energy for use during
cloudy days or nighttime.
2. Transmission Losses: The efficiency of transmitting solar energy over long distances can
be a significant challenge. As energy travels from solar farms in remote locations to

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 urban centers, losses occur due to resistance in power lines. This requires the
development of efficient transmission technologies and the construction of extensive
power infrastructure.
3. Infrastructure Investment: Building the necessary infrastructure to transmit solar energy
from remote locations to areas of high demand requires substantial investment. The cost
of installing transmission lines, substations, and other infrastructure can be a barrier to
the expansion of solar energy transmission.

4. Grid Integration: Integrating solar energy into existing electrical grids can be complex.
Grids are traditionally designed for centralized power generation from fossil fuels, and
incorporating distributed solar generation can lead to voltage and frequency instability
issues. Smart grid technologies and grid upgrades are necessary to address these
challenges.

5. Land Use and Environmental Impact: Large-scale solar farms require vast amounts of
land, which can have environmental consequences, including habitat disruption and land-
use conflicts. Additionally, the construction of transmission lines can have environmental
impacts, such as deforestation and disruption of ecosystems.

6. Energy Storage: As mentioned earlier, energy storage is crucial to mitigate the

intermittency of solar energy. However, cost-effective and environmentally friendly
energy storage solutions, such as advanced batteries, need further development and
deployment to support widespread solar energy transmission.

7. Technological Advancements: Continuous research and development are needed to

improve the efficiency and reliability of solar energy transmission technologies. This
includes advancements in photovoltaic (PV) cell efficiency, transmission line materials,
and energy conversion technologies.

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Hydropower

Hydropower, also known as hydroelectric power, has a rich and extensive history dating back
thousands of years. Here is a brief overview of the key milestones in the history of hydropower:
The use of water to perform mechanical work can be traced back to ancient civilizations. In
Greece and Rome, water wheels were used for grinding grain and pumping water. Water wheels
were simple devices that harnessed the energy of flowing or falling water to turn a wheel, which
could then be used to perform various tasks. In the middle Ages, hydropower became more
widespread in Europe. Water wheels were used for milling grain, processing textiles, and other
industrial purposes. These water wheels were often part of elaborate mill complexes. The
Industrial Revolution in the 18th century marked a significant advancement in the use of
hydropower. Water wheels were incorporated into early factories and played a crucial role in
powering the machinery of the burgeoning textile, iron, and paper industries.

The late 19th century saw the development of hydroelectric power plants. The first hydroelectric
power station in the United States, built by Thomas Edison in 1882 in Appleton, Wisconsin, used
a water turbine to generate electricity. In 1895, the famous Niagara Falls Power Plant began
operation, harnessing the immense power of the falls to generate electricity on a large scale. This
project demonstrated the potential for hydropower to provide a significant source of electricity.
The early 20th century witnessed the construction of large-scale hydroelectric dams, such as the
Hoover Dam in the United States (completed in 1936) and the Three Gorges Dam in China
(completed in 2006). These projects not only generated electricity but also provided flood control
and irrigation benefits. Hydropower played a crucial role in post-World War II industrialization
and electrification efforts worldwide. Many countries, including the United States and Canada,
expanded their hydropower capacity during this period.

In the latter half of the 20th century, concerns about the environmental impact of large dams and
reservoirs began to emerge. Issues such as habitat disruption, altered river ecosystems, and
displacement of communities led to increased scrutiny of hydropower projects. In recent
decades, there has been a shift toward smaller-scale and more environmentally friendly
hydropower projects. Run-of-river systems, which do not require large reservoirs, and low-
impact hydropower technologies have gained prominence.

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Hydropower has continued to expand globally, particularly in countries like China, Brazil, and
Canada. It remains a significant source of renewable energy, contributing to electricity
generation and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Hydropower is now a critical component of
the renewable energy landscape, accounting for a substantial portion of global electricity
generation. Modern hydropower technologies focus on maximizing efficiency, minimizing
environmental impact, and integrating with other renewable energy sources and energy storage
systems.

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Challenges in the Production of Hydro-Power
Hydropower, is a renewable and clean energy source. However, it comes with its own set of
challenges in the production process. Here are some of the key challenges:

1. Environmental Impact: Hydropower projects, particularly large dams, can have

significant environmental impacts. They can disrupt aquatic ecosystems, alter river flow
patterns, and displace local communities. Balancing the need for clean energy with the
preservation of ecosystems and communities is a constant challenge.
2. Siltation: Over time, reservoirs behind dams can accumulate silt and sediment, reducing
their storage capacity and energy production efficiency. Managing siltation requires
regular maintenance and can be costly.
3. Weather Dependency: Hydropower production is highly dependent on weather patterns.
Droughts can reduce water availability, leading to decreased energy output. Conversely,
excessive rainfall can lead to flooding and damage to infrastructure.
4. Regulatory Challenges: The development and operation of hydropower facilities often
require extensive regulatory approvals and compliance with environmental regulations.
This can lead to delays and increased costs.
5. High Initial Costs: Building a hydropower plant, especially a large dam, involves
significant upfront costs. Financing and securing investments for such projects can be
challenging.
6. Geographical Limitations: Hydropower is location-dependent. It requires a suitable river
or water source with sufficient flow and elevation drop. This limits where hydropower
plants can be built.
7. Climate Change: Changing weather patterns, including increased variability in rainfall
and snowmelt, can affect the reliability of hydropower as a renewable energy source.
8. Aging Infrastructure: Many existing hydropower facilities are aging and in need of
upgrades or rehabilitation. Maintaining and modernizing this infrastructure can be costly.
9. Fish Migration: Dams and hydropower facilities can block fish migration routes,
affecting fish populations. Fish-friendly technologies and fish ladders are often needed to
mitigate this issue.

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10. Competing Water Uses: In regions with water scarcity, there can be conflicts between
using water for hydropower generation and other critical uses like agriculture, industry,
and drinking water supply.
11. Public Perception: Some people have concerns about the environmental and social
impacts of hydropower projects, leading to public opposition and protests.
12. Energy Storage: Hydropower can serve as a form of energy storage through pumped
storage facilities. However, the construction of such facilities can be expensive and
limited by geography.

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Transmission Challenges of Hydro-power
Hydropower is a renewable energy source that generates electricity by harnessing the energy of
flowing water. While it has several advantages, such as being a clean and reliable energy source,
there are also transmission challenges associated with hydropower:

1. Geographical Distribution: Many regions with significant hydropower potential are

located in remote or mountainous areas, far from population centers. Transmitting
electricity from these remote locations to urban areas can be challenging due to the need
for long transmission lines.
2. Transmission Losses: Electrical energy can be lost as heat during transmission over long
distances. This loss, known as transmission losses, increases with the length of the
transmission line. Therefore, transmitting hydropower over long distances can result in
significant energy losses.
3. Infrastructure Development: Building the necessary transmission infrastructure, including
high-voltage transmission lines and substations, to transport hydropower from remote
areas to where it's needed can be costly and time-consuming.
4. Environmental Impact: The construction of transmission lines through environmentally
sensitive areas can have negative ecological impacts. Mitigating these impacts and
obtaining necessary permits can be challenging.
5. Intermittency: While hydropower is generally considered a reliable source of electricity,
it can still be subject to seasonal variations in water flow. Droughts or unusually dry
periods can reduce the availability of water, leading to fluctuations in hydropower
generation. This intermittency can be challenging for grid operators who need to ensure a
consistent and reliable power supply.
6. Regulatory and Political Challenges: Hydropower projects often require complex
regulatory approvals and may face opposition from environmental groups and local
communities concerned about the environmental and social impacts of dam construction.
7. Maintenance and Reliability: The transmission infrastructure used to transport
hydropower must be well-maintained to ensure reliability. Harsh weather conditions,
such as heavy snowfall or flooding, can damage transmission lines and substations,
leading to interruptions in power supply.

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 8. Voltage Compatibility: In some cases, the voltage generated by hydropower facilities
may not be compatible with the voltage used in the areas where the electricity is needed.
This requires the use of transformers and other equipment to adjust the voltage before it
can be transmitted efficiently.

Wind Energy

Wind energy has a long and storied history, dating back thousands of years. Wind energy's
history can be traced back to ancient civilizations, where wind was harnessed for various
purposes, including sailing ships and grinding grains with windmills. The earliest recorded use of
wind power comes from Persia (modern-day Iran), where windmills were used to pump water
and grind grain. Windmills became a common sight in Europe during the Middle Ages. They
were used for a variety of tasks, including milling grain, pumping water, and sawing wood.
These early windmills had a vertical-axis design and were often made of wood.

Wind energy continued to evolve, with innovations such as the creation of more efficient, metal-
bladed windmills. These machines were commonly used on farms and in rural areas to pump
water and generate electricity for homes that were not connected to the grid. In the 1930s -
1940s, wind turbines started to be used for electricity generation on a larger scale. The Smith-
Putnam wind turbine, built in 1941 in Vermont, was one of the first utility-scale wind turbines in
the United States. However, these early turbines were relatively small and inefficient compared
to modern wind turbines. Interest in wind energy increased during the energy crisis of the 1970s.
Research and development efforts led to the construction of larger and more efficient wind
turbines. The United States, Denmark, and other countries began to establish wind farms for
electricity generation.

Technological advancements, including the use of composite materials, improved rotor designs,
and better control systems, significantly increased the efficiency and reliability of wind turbines.
Wind energy grew rapidly as a renewable energy source, with wind farms appearing in many
countries around the world. Wind energy continued to expand, driven by concerns about climate
change and the need for cleaner energy sources. Offshore wind farms became more common,
taking advantage of stronger and more consistent winds over the ocean.

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In the 2020s, wind energy continued to grow, with larger and more powerful turbines being
developed. Advances in energy storage and grid integration also improved the reliability and
usefulness of wind power. Today, wind energy is a significant and rapidly growing source of
electricity in many parts of the world. It plays a crucial role in efforts to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions and combat climate change. The history of wind energy is a testament to human
ingenuity and our ability to harness the power of nature for our benefit.

Wind energy is a renewable and sustainable source of electricity, but it does come with its own
set of production and transmission challenges. These challenges can affect the reliability and
efficiency of wind energy systems. Here are some key production and transmission challenges
associated with wind energy:

Production Challenges:

1. Intermittency: Wind is an intermittent energy source. Wind speeds can vary significantly
from day to day and even hour to hour. This intermittency can make it difficult to predict
and rely on wind energy as a consistent power source.

2. Location Dependency: Wind turbines are most effective when placed in locations with
consistent and strong wind patterns. This often requires them to be located in remote or
offshore areas, which can increase the cost of installation and maintenance.

3. Weather Sensitivity: Wind turbines are sensitive to weather conditions. High winds can
damage the turbines, while low or turbulent winds can reduce energy production. This
sensitivity requires careful monitoring and maintenance.

4. Limited Energy Capture: Wind turbines can only capture a portion of the kinetic energy
in the wind, known as the Betz limit. This means that even in ideal conditions, they
cannot capture 100% of the available energy.

5. Resource Variability: The wind resource itself can vary significantly from one location
to another. Some regions have strong, consistent winds, while others do not. This
variability can impact the feasibility of wind energy projects.

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Transmission Challenges:

1. Grid Integration: Wind farms are often located in remote areas, far from population
centers where the electricity is needed. Transmitting electricity from these remote
locations to urban areas requires a robust and efficient grid infrastructure.
2. Grid Balancing: The variability of wind energy production can create challenges for grid
operators. They must balance the supply and demand of electricity in real-time, which
can be more complex with intermittent energy sources like wind.
3. Voltage and Frequency Control: Wind energy can affect the stability of the electrical
grid by introducing fluctuations in voltage and frequency. Grid operators need to
implement measures to ensure grid stability when integrating wind power.
4. Energy Losses: Transmitting electricity over long distances can result in energy losses
due to resistance in power lines. This means that a portion of the electricity generated by
wind turbines may be lost before it reaches consumers.
5. Investment in Transmission Infrastructure: Building the necessary transmission
infrastructure to connect wind farms to the grid can be expensive and time-consuming.
This can be a barrier to expanding wind energy capacity.
6. Environmental Concerns: The construction of new transmission lines may face
opposition from environmental groups or local communities due to concerns about
habitat disruption and visual impact.

To address these challenges, ongoing research and development are focused on improving wind
turbine technology, grid integration strategies, and energy storage solutions. Additionally, a
diversified energy portfolio that includes a mix of renewable and conventional energy sources
can help mitigate some of the challenges associated with wind energy production and
transmission.

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General Challenges of Renewable Energy Sources

Renewable energy is a form of energy that comes from natural sources that can be replenished,
such as solar, wind, hydro, biomass, and geothermal power. Renewable energy has many
benefits for the environment and society, such as reducing greenhouse gas emissions,
enhancing energy security and diversity, creating jobs and economic opportunities, and
improving public health. However, renewable energy also faces many challenges that need to
be overcome to achieve its full potential and contribute to a sustainable future.
Some of the main challenges of renewable energy are:
Energy storage: Renewable energy sources are often variable and intermittent, meaning that
they depend on weather conditions and natural cycles. For example, solar power is only
available during the day and wind power is only available when the wind blows. This makes it
difficult to match the supply and demand of electricity at all times. Therefore, renewable
energy needs efficient, affordable, and reliable energy storage systems that can store excess
electricity when it is abundant and release it when it is needed1.
Economic and financial issues: Renewable energy technologies often require high upfront costs
for installation and maintenance, which can deter investors and consumers from adopting
them. Moreover, renewable energy projects may face competition from fossil fuels, which are
still cheaper and more widely available in some regions. Furthermore, renewable energy
development may depend on government policies and incentives, such as subsidies, tariffs,
quotas, or auctions, which can vary across countries and change over time2.
Grid integration: Renewable energy sources need to be integrated into the existing power grid,
which was designed for conventional power plants that operate at a constant output. However,
renewable energy sources can fluctuate in their output depending on weather conditions and
natural cycles. This can cause challenges for grid stability, reliability, and efficiency. Therefore,
renewable energy sources need to be coordinated with other power sources and demand-side
management strategies to ensure a balanced and secure power system2.
Environmental and social impacts: Renewable energy sources are generally considered to be
cleaner and greener than fossil fuels, but they are not without environmental and social
impacts. For example, hydropower dams can alter river flows and ecosystems, biomass
combustion can emit air pollutants and greenhouse gases, geothermal plants can cause land
subsidence and seismic activity, and wind turbines can affect wildlife and landscapes.
Moreover, renewable energy projects may face opposition from local communities who may
have concerns about land use, resource rights, cultural heritage, or visual impacts

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 Conclusion

In conclusion, while renewable energy offers immense potential as a clean source, its
transmission presents several challenges. These challenges encompass technical, economic, and
environmental aspects. Addressing these challenges will require a concerted effort involving
technological innovation, policy support, and investment in infrastructure. As the world
transitions to more sustainable energy sources, overcoming these obstacles is essential to
realizing the full potential of renewable energy.

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References

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