Chapter 2 –

Discrete-time System and Z-Transform

2.2. Discrete-time Systems

- The analog controller output is given by (PI controller):

where e(t) is the controller input signal, m(t) is the controller

output signal, and KP and KI are constant gains determined
by the design process.
- For the rectangular rule, the area under the curve in Fig. 2-
1(b) is approximated by the sum of the rectangular areas
shown. Thus, letting x(t) be the numerical integral of e(t), we
can write
- The general form of a first-order linear time-invariant
difference equation is (with the T omitted for convenience)

- Digital controller output:

2.3. Transform methods

- Example 2.2:
Given that e(k) = 1 for all k, find E(z). By definition E(z) is

The closed form of E(z) is obtained:

Matlab command:
2.4. Properties of the z-Transform
2.5. Finding z-Transform

- Example 2.9:
 Matlab command:

- Homework: 2.5-3(a,b) (p92)

2.7. The inverse z-Transform

* Power series method (khai triển chuỗi lũy thừa)
- Example 2.12:
Find the values of e(k) for E(z) given by the expression
- In this particular case, the general expression for e(k) as a
function of k [i.e., e(k) = 2k - 1] can be recognized. In
general, this cannot be done using the power series method.

* Partial-Fraction expansion method (khai triển phân

thức sơ cấp)
- Example 2.13
* Inversion-Formula method (phương pháp thặng dư)

- Example 2.15

- Homework 2.7-4(a,b) (p94)

2.8. Simulation Diagrams and Flow graphs

Fig 2.2. Ideal time-delay element

- Simulation diagram for

- Transfer function

- Signal flow graph (sơ đồ dòng tín hiệu)

- Read Fig 2.6 p62 for an nth-order difference equation.

2.9. State variables
- State-variable modeling:

where u(k) is the input vector, y(k) is the output vector, and
x(k) is the state vector:

- Given the transfer function

where E(z) is the auxiliary variable. We now let:

- We define the state variables:

- We obtain the state equations:

which is written in matrix form:

- Example 2.19:
2.10. Other state-variable formulations
- Given the the system described by the difference equation

- Transfer function:

* Solution 1:
- Let:

- The state equations:

* Solution 2:
- The transfer function can be expressed as

- Simulation diagram is given in Fig. 2-14(a):

- The state equations:

* Solution 3:
- The transfer function can be expressed as

- Simulation diagram is given in Fig. 2-14(b):

- The state equations:

2.11. Transfer function
- State-variable modeling:

- Transfer function:

2.12. Solutions of the state equations

- Read text book

- Homework:
2.5-3, 2.7-3, 2.9-1, 2.10-1, 2.11-1