metals
Article
Mechanism and Control Scheme of Central Defects in Cross
Wedge Rolling of Railway Vehicle Axles
Wenhui Sun 1 , Xuan Wu 1 and Cuiping Yang 1,2, *
Citation: Sun, W.; Wu, X.; Yang, C.
Mechanism and Control Scheme of
Central Defects in Cross Wedge
Rolling of Railway Vehicle Axles.
Metals 2023, 13, 1309. https://
doi.org/10.3390/met13071309
Academic Editor: José Valdemar
Fernandes
Received: 20 June 2023
Revised: 15 July 2023
Accepted: 16 July 2023
Published: 21 July 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Metals 2023, 13, 1309. https://doi.org/10.3390/met13071309
1 School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
2 Beijing Laboratory of Metallic Materials and Processing for Modern Transportation, Beijing 100083, China
* Correspondence: yangcp@me.ustb.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-10-62332331; Fax: +86-10-62332923
Abstract: Faced with a great demand for railway axles, the cross wedge rolling (CWR) process has
the advantages of high efficiency and material saving, and good forming quality of axles is significant
for railway transportation safety. The stress inside the railway axle of CWR was analyzed by the
finite element method. It was found that the center of the rolled piece is subjected to tensile stress
in transverse and axial directions and compressive stress in radial direction, making it more prone
to defects. By simulating the evolution of micro voids in the center of the CWR piece, it was found
that the presence of voids makes the strain around them significantly large and concentrated and the
material between the voids deforms intensely. When voids expand relative to the rolled piece and the
internal necking between voids is significant, void coalescence is easy to occur, and central defects
are formed. The influence of process parameters on void evolution was analyzed. The scheme of
detaching die was proposed to avoid central defects of the CWR piece and the optimal parameter
conditions of CWR of railway axles were determined, which proved that the quality of railway axles
formed with optimized parameters meets the technical requirements of railway vehicle axles.
Keywords: cross wedge rolling; railway vehicle axles; central defects; void evolution; finite
element method
1. Introduction
The railway axle is the key component for railway vehicles to transmit movement and
power, and it is also a large-scale product of mass production. For example, the annual
production of railway axles is more than 500 thousand in the world [1]. Currently, the
main techniques used to manufacture axles are open die forging and radial forging [2], and
the forming accuracy, production efficiency, and material utilization of railway axles are
expected to increase. CWR is an advanced forming process for shaft parts, it is particularly
suitable for mass production of rotating shaft parts, such as railway axles. Li et al. [3]
analyzed the metal flow and stress and strain distribution in the process of multi-wedge
cross wedge rolling (MCWR) of railway axles by using finite element software, verifying
the feasibility of MCWR of railway axles. Jiang et al. [4] simulated the stress, strain, and
temperature distribution in the process of CWR of thick-walled hollow axles by using
finite element software, indicating that it is feasible to form thick-walled hollow axles by
CWR. Based on the continuous damage theory, Huo et al. [5,6] established a constitutive
model coupling microstructure and ductile damage in the process of CWR of high-speed
railway axle and predicted the grain size and ductile damage of the material during CWR,
thereby optimizing the process parameters. Pater et al. [7,8] analyzed the distribution
of temperature, damage, effective strain, force, and torque during the CWR of railway
axles by finite element simulation, found that it is feasible to produce solid railway axles,
and proposed that the use of tools with a convex forming surface can effectively reduce
rolling force and energy consumption. Tomasz et al. [9] conducted numerical simulations
of railway axles in traditional CWR and MCWR, respectively, and found that the Cockcroft–
Latham ductile fracture criterion cannot accurately predict material fracture, while the
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/metals
Metals 2023, 13, 1309 2 of 21

fracture criterion proposed by Ayada et al. can better predict the fracture of railway axles in
the process of CWR. Jia et al. [10] established the ductile damage model for 40CrNiMo steel
and simulated the distribution characteristics of the ductile damage as well as the evolution
of the stress state and the Z parameter when 40CrNiMo steel was rolled into the high-speed
rail axle at high temperature. It was found that the damage could be decreased by reducing
the forming angle, increasing the stretching angle, maintaining the area reduction at 35%,
machining the hollow axle, and setting the rolling speed and temperature at 8 r/min and
1273~1323 K. Xu et al. [11] used a fast forging machine to forge the square billet into a round
shaft billet first, and then rolled the round billet into an axle by CWR. The microstructure
and mechanical properties of the axle met the standard requirements. Gao et al. [12] carried
out a dynamic simulation on the CWR process of LZ50 axle steel and analyzed the stress,
strain, and temperature fields of the axle steel during the forming process. The results
show that the plastic deformation of the metal becomes more and more obvious with the
increase in rolling depth. When the sizing zone is reached, the temperature distribution on
the surface and inside of the rolled piece is relatively uniform. Huo et al. [13] developed the
microstructure evolution model of 40CrNiMo steel, simulated the microstructure evolution
during the CWR process of high-speed railway axle, and analyzed the effects of rolling
temperature, rolling speed, and initial grain sizes on the microstructure distribution of
40CrNiMo steel after hot CWR.
The railway axle bears various complex loads during operation, so ensuring the
forming quality of the axle is the prerequisite for its safe use. For CWR process, avoiding
central defects in rolled parts has always been one of the major concerns. Therefore, it is
necessary to avoid the central defects of the axle strictly so as to apply the CWR technology
to the production of railway axles. Dong et al. [14] established a three-dimensional finite
element model of CWR. By analyzing the stress and strain characteristics of the workpiece,
it was found that internal damage occurs when the first principal stress in the center of the
workpiece exceeds the yield stress. Li et al. [15] determined and discussed the formation
and growth morphology of micro voids during CWR based on the experimental results and
defined a dimensionless deformation coefficient to predict the possibility of void formation.
Li and Lovell [16] found that effective plastic strain is the best criterion for predicting
internal damage based on numerical simulation results. Pater et al. [17] found that due to
the positive mean stress, the crack was most likely to occur in the center of the workpiece
through the numerical analysis of CWR of the ball pin. Wang et al. [18] studied the
stress and strain distribution and alternating frequency at the center of cross wedge rolled
parts under different stretching angles through finite element simulation and revealed the
influence of the stretching angle on central defects through experiments. Kache et al. [19]
applied CWR at warm temperatures and found that the process parameters were the main
factor of the central cavity rather than the value of temperature. Zhou et al. [20] studied
the variation of the maximum principal stress at the center point of the workpiece during
CWR and optimized the die parameters. The results showed that under the conditions of
the forming angle α = 30◦ , stretching zone β = 8◦ , area reduction Ψ1 = 48.6%, Ψ2 = 53.3%,
the workpiece with good central quality can be obtained. Wang et al. [21] studied the
effect of cooling conditions on central deformation of the workpiece and die wear. The
information on central deformation of the workpiece and die wear before and after cooling
were compared and analyzed. The results show that the quality of the workpiece and
the lifespan of the die life can be improved by cooling the workpiece with cooling water.
Huang et al. [22] studied the influence of wedge-tip fillets on the central defects in CWR
by finite element simulation. It was found that as the wedge-tip fillet increased, the
transverse and shear stresses in the center of the rolled part increased, and the possibility of
central defects increased. Based on Parity Wedge, Shu et al. [23] predicted the central defect
position of asymmetric axial parts during CWR and systematically studied the influence
of process parameters on workpiece quality. Yang et al. [24] observed the evolution of
micro voids during CWR by SEM and found that the alternating shear deformation and
relative tensile deformation were the main reasons for the central defects of the rolled part
 Metals 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of

central defects increased. Based on Parity Wedge, Shu et al. [23] predicted the central d
fect position of asymmetric axial parts during CWR and systematically studied the influ
Metals 2023, 13, 1309 3 of 21
ence of process parameters on workpiece quality. Yang et al. [24] observed the evolutio
of micro voids during CWR by SEM and found that the alternating shear deformation an
relative tensile deformation were the main reasons for the central defects of the rolled pa
and studied theand studiedof
influence the influence
process of processon
parameters parameters
the centralondamage.
the central damage.
Zhou et al.Zhou[25] et al. [2
conducted a large conducted
number a large
of CWRnumber of CWR experiments
experiments using model using model materials,
materials, proposed proposed
that that th
the first principalfirststress
principal
andstress and the maximum
the maximum shearwere
shear stress stressthe
were the main
main factorsfactors affecting centr
affecting
central cracking, cracking, and established
and established the damagethe damage criterion.
criterion. ZhouShao
Zhou and and etShao et al.studied
al. [26] [26] studied an
and compared the compared
chemical thecompositions,
chemical compositions,
phases, grains,phases,
andgrains, and inclusions
inclusions of two kinds of twoof kinds
20NiCr3H billet. 20NiCr3H billet. that
It was found It was found
under thethat under the temperature
temperature of CWR, due of to
CWR, due to the differen
the different
thermal expansion thermal expansion
coefficients andcoefficients
elasticityand of elasticity of steel
steel matrix andmatrix and inclusions,
inclusions, micro voids micro voids o
cracks are generated around the inclusions, which is
or cracks are generated around the inclusions, which is the main reason for the central the main reason for the central crac
ing of rolled parts. Zhou et al. [27,28] used model material
cracking of rolled parts. Zhou et al. [27,28] used model material to simulate the material to simulate the material flo
and internal fracture behavior in the CWR workpiece,
flow and internal fracture behavior in the CWR workpiece, determined that the maximum determined that the maximu
shear stress is shear stress is the
the dominant dominant
factor of the factor of thedamage,
central central damage, and established
and established a damage a damage mod
considering the joint influence of the maximum shear
model considering the joint influence of the maximum shear stress and the first principal stress and the first principal stres
Shi et al. [29] found that the volume of central defects during CWR TC4 Aeroengine blade
stress. Shi et al. [29] found that the volume of central defects during CWR TC4 Aeroengine
is closely related to the initial rolling temperature of the billet. When the rolling temper
blades is closely related to the initial rolling temperature of the billet. When the rolling
ture of TC4 billet is higher than 850 °C, the target rolled parts without central defects ca
temperature of TC4 billet is higher than 850 ◦ C, the target rolled parts without central
be obtained.
defects can be obtained.
To study the mechanism of central defects of the railway axle formed by CWR an
To study the mechanism of central defects of the railway axle formed by CWR and
improve the quality of the rolled pieces, the stress variation of the rolled piece is analyze
improve the quality of the rolled
by combining finitepieces,
element the stress variation
simulation of the rolled
and experiments. By piece
prese isinganalyzed
micro voids in th
by combining finite element simulation and experiments. By presetting
CWR model, the deformation of internal voids during CWR and the influence micro voids in the of proce
CWR model, the deformation of internal voids during CWR and the influence
parameters on void deformation are analyzed. The scheme of using the after-rolling d of process
parameters on taching
void deformation
die is proposed are to
analyzed.
avoid central Thedefects,
schemeand of the
using the after-rolling
optimal parameters of CWR o
detaching die isthe axle were
proposed to determined.
avoid central defects, and the optimal parameters of CWR of
the axle were determined.
2. Research Method of Central Defects in CWR the Railway Axle
2. Research Method of Central Defects in CWR the Railway Axle
Figure 1 shows the railway axle formed by CWR. The area reduction of the axle bod
(diameter
Figure 1 shows D1 part)axle
the railway is about
formed30%.byDue
CWR.to the small
The areaarea reduction
reduction andaxle
of the longbody
axial size, if th
(diameter D1 part)compressed metal cannot achieve sufficient axial flow during CWR, the size,
is about 30%. Due to the small area reduction and long axial possibility
if of cen
the compressedtral damage
metal cannot is achieve
high. The area reduction
sufficient of the
axial flow axle neck
during CWR,(diameter D2 part)
the possibility of is 50~60%
central damagewhichis high.is easy to form
The area withoutofcentral
reduction damage.
the axle In general,D2
neck (diameter thepart)
diameter of the wheel se
is 50~60%,
which is easy to(D0)formis without
180~250 central
mm, and the reduction
damage. ratio of
In general, the1:5 CWR ofof
diameter the
theaxle bodyseat
wheel is adapted
studyand
(D0) is 180~250 mm, the the
central defectsratio
reduction of the
ofrailway
1:5 CWR axle
of formed
the axleby CWR
body and the optimal
is adapted to studyprocess p
rameters
the central defects of the of the dieaxle
railway at a formed
lower cost.
by CWR and the optimal process parameters
of the die at a lower cost.

Figure
Figure 1. Sketch map of 1.
theSketch mapaxle.
railway of the railway axle.

In a by
In a previous study previous
Sun et study byitSun
al. [30], wasetfound
al. [30],
that it there
was found that there are
are non-metallic non-metallic inclu
inclusions
sions exist in metal materials. The non-metallic inclusions
exist in metal materials. The non-metallic inclusions are broken or debonded from are broken or debonded
the fro
the matrix to form micro voids because of the different deformation
matrix to form micro voids because of the different deformation degrees of the inclusions degrees of the inclu
and steel matrix.sions and
These steelvoids
micro matrix. These the
become micro voids become
nucleation themicro
sites for nucleation sitesFigure
damage. for micro
2 damag
shows the micro voids and their evolution in the center of the rolled piece of 45 steelpiece of 4
Figure 2 shows the micro voids and their evolution in the center of the rolled
with non-metallic inclusions after CWR. When the process parameters are inappropriate,
micro voids will expand and coalesce under complex stress and eventually develop into
significant micro damage or even macro damage, as shown in Figure 2a–c. When the
process parameters are good, even if there are micro voids in the center of the rolled piece,
the number is very small. The distance between micro voids is far from coalescence and
there is no macroscopic damage, as shown in Figure 2d. The evolution trend of micro voids
in the center of rolled parts determines whether there will be macro damage. Therefore, it
 steel with non-metallic inclusions after CWR. When the process parameters are inappro-
priate, micro voids will expand and coalesce under complex stress and eventually develop
into significant micro damage or even macro damage, as shown in Figure 2a–c. When the
process parameters are good, even if there are micro voids in the center of the rolled piece,
Metals 2023, 13, 1309 4 of 21
the number is very small. The distance between micro voids is far from coalescence and
there is no macroscopic damage, as shown in Figure 2d. The evolution trend of micro
voids in the center of rolled parts determines whether there will be macro damage. There-
isfore, it is necessary
necessary to studytothe
study the evolution
evolution ofvoids
of micro microinvoids in the center
the center duringduring CWRoptimize
CWR and and
optimize process parameters to improve the quality of the
process parameters to improve the quality of the rolled piece. rolled piece.

Figure 2. Evolution of micro voids in the center of the 45 steel CWR piece: (a–c) when the process
Figure 2. Evolution of micro voids in the center of the 45 steel CWR piece: (a–c) when the process
parameters are inappropriate; (d) when the process parameters are good.
parameters are inappropriate; (d) when the process parameters are good.
3. FEM Analysis of CWR of the Railway Axle
3. FEM Analysis of CWR of the Railway Axle
3.1.Finite
3.1. FiniteElement
Element Model
Model
The finite element model of CWR of the railway axle is established by Deform V11.0
The finite element model of CWR of the railway axle is established by Deform V11.0
software (SFTC, Columbus, OH, USA), as shown in Figure 3. There are top and bo om
software (SFTC, Columbus, OH, USA), as shown in Figure 3. There are top and bottom dies,
dies, workpiece, and guide plates in this geometric model. The workpiece material is LZ50
workpiece, and guide plates in this geometric model. The workpiece material is LZ50 axle
axle steel. The workpiece formed by CWR has significant plastic deformation and negli-
steel. The workpiece formed by CWR has significant plastic deformation and negligible
gible elastic deformation and can be regarded as a plastic body. The dies and guide plates
elastic deformation and can be regarded as a plastic body. The dies and guide plates are
are defined as rigid bodies because of negligible elastic and plastic deformation. The fric-
defined as rigid bodies because of negligible elastic and plastic deformation. The friction
tion between the dies and workpiece is defined as the shear friction, which is suitable for
between the dies To
bulk formation. and workpiece
save is defined
the calculation timeas theincrease
and shear friction, which
the number is suitable
of grids, 1/2 offor
thebulk
formation. To save the calculation time and increase the number of grids,
model is used for simulation. Tetrahedron is used to mesh the workpiece. The minimum 1/2 of the model
iselement
used forsize
simulation. Tetrahedron is used to mesh the workpiece. The minimum
is 1.3 mm, and the size ratio is 2. Local mesh refinement is carried out on the element
workpiece,
size is 1.3 mm,andandthe
thestandard
size ratioofismesh redivision
2. Local is 0.5. Theissimulation
mesh refinement carried outparameters are
on the workpiece,
listed in Table 1.
and the standard of mesh redivision is 0.5. The simulation parameters are listed in Table 1.

Table 1. FE simulation parameters of CWR.

FE Parameter (Unit) Value

Speed of roller (rpm) 10
Initial temperature of workpiece (◦ C) 1100
Initial temperature of tool (◦ C) 20
Environment reference temperature (◦ C) 20
Heat convection coefficient with air (N/s/mm/◦ C) 0.02
Contact heat transfer coefficient (N/s/mm/◦ C) 11
Emissivity 0.8
Friction factor (workpiece and die) 1
Friction factor (workpiece and guide plate) 0.2
 Metals2023,
Metals 2023,13,
13,1309
x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 23 5 of 21

Figure
Figure3.3.(a)
(a)Finite
Finiteelement model
element of CWR;
model (b) (b)
of CWR; fla flattened
ened diagram of theofCWR
diagram tool. tool.
the CWR

Table 1. FE simulation
3.2. Analysis parameters
of Internal of CWR
Stress of CWR. Pieces
The central defectsFEofParameterCWR are (Unit)
closely related to the stress state inValue the workpiece. A
group of typical working conditions (forming angle = 15 ◦ , stretching angle β = 7.5◦ , area
Speed of roller (rpm) α 10
reduction ψ = 30%) is temperature
Initial selected for point tracking(°C)
of workpiece processing to analyze the 1100 stress state inside
the rolled piece. Initial temperature of tool (°C) 20
Figure 4Environment
shows the variation of stress in (°C)
reference temperature the three directions and20 mean stress of
characteristic points on the axial symmetry plane.
Heat convection coefficient with air (N/s/mm/°C) It can be seen from Figure 4a–c that in the
0.02
whole CWRContact process, thetransfer
heat central coefficient
point P1 is(N/s/mm/°C)
subjected to tensile stress in both11transverse and
axial directions, while compressive stress
Emissivity in the radial direction. With the 0.8 rolling progress,
the tensile stressFriction
value always maintains a
factor (workpiece and die)high level. The transverse stress,
1 radial stress,
and axial stress of P2 (near the surface) fluctuate
Friction factor (workpiece and guide plate) within a certain range and are mainly
0.2
compressive stress. Overall, the closer to the center, the greater the tensile stress and the
smaller
3.2. the ofcompressive
Analysis Internal Stress stress
of CWRon Pieces
the cross-section. It can be seen from Figure 4d that the
mean stress of P1 is always positive and steadily increases during CWR, which is in a state
The central defects of CWR are closely related to the stress state in the workpiece. A
of negative hydrostatic pressure. The mean stress of P2 fluctuates between positive and
group of typical working conditions (forming angle α = 15°, stretching angle β = 7.5°, area
negative,ψwhich
reduction = 30%) is is
in selected
a state of forpositive hydrostatic
point tracking pressure
processing dominated
to analyze by compressive
the stress state
stress. In addition,
inside the rolled piece. shear stress will be generated in the rolled piece during CWR, as shown
in Figure
Figure4e. The shear
4 shows stress ofofP1stress
the variation increases
in the suddenly in theand
three directions knifing
meanzone and
stress early stage
of char-
acteristic points on the axial symmetry plane. It can be seen from Figure 4a–c that inunder
of the stretching zone, mainly because the radial flow of the metal is blocked the the
pressure of dies in this stage, the transverse flow of some metal causes the ellipticity of the
cross-section, resulting in significant shear stress at the center. With the gradual roundness
in the later stage, the shear stress gradually decreases and stabilizes at around 5 MPa. The
shear stress of P2 fluctuates within a certain range.
 pressive stress. In addition, shear stress will be generated in the rolled piece during CWR,
as shown in Figure 4e. The shear stress of P1 increases suddenly in the knifing zone and
early stage of the stretching zone, mainly because the radial flow of the metal is blocked
under the pressure of dies in this stage, the transverse flow of some metal causes the el-
lipticity of the cross-section, resulting in significant shear stress at the center. With the
Metals 2023, 13, 1309 6 of 21
gradual roundness in the later stage, the shear stress gradually decreases and stabilizes at
around 5 MPa. The shear stress of P2 fluctuates within a certain range.

Figure
Figure 4. Stress 4. Stressofvariation
variation of characteristic
characteristic points onpoints on the
the axial axial symmetry
symmetry plane:
plane: (a) (a) Transverse
Transverse stress;stress;
(b) radial
(b) radial stress; stress;
(c) axial (c) axial
stress; stress;stress;
(d) mean (d) mean stress; stress.
(e) shear (e) shear stress.

In summary, the center on the cross-section of the rolled piece is subjected to tensile
stress in two directions and compressive stress in one direction, making it more prone to
defects. The position near the surface of the rolled piece is subjected to compressive stress
in three directions, which can inhibit the generation of defects and promote microcrack
welding. During the rolling process, the transverse tensile stress in the center of the rolled
piece is the largest. Large transverse tensile stress can easily make the micro voids in the
center expand into the macro voids, resulting in central defects. In addition, the mean stress
in the center is always positive, which reduces the material plasticity and makes it easier to
fracture. The shear stress of cross-section will cause shear deformation, which will cause
lattice distortion of the metal at the center of the rolled piece, resulting in central defects.
Through the above analysis, it was found that the main factors affecting the central de-
fects are transverse tensile stress, mean stress, and shear stress. The variation of three types
of stress of characteristic points on the longitudinal section is shown in Figure 5. Although
the transverse stress and mean stress at different axial positions of the rolled piece are
tensile stress, the farther away from the center, the smaller the transverse stress and mean
stress and the shorter the action time. In addition, the farther away from the center axially,
the smaller the shear stress and there is a delay in reaching the peak stress. Therefore, on
 defects.
Through the above analysis, it was found that the main factors affecting the centra
defects are transverse tensile stress, mean stress, and shear stress. The variation of thre
types of stress of characteristic points on the longitudinal section is shown in Figure 5
Although the transverse stress and mean stress at different axial positions of the rolled
Metals 2023, 13, 1309 7 of 21
piece are tensile stress, the farther away from the center, the smaller the transverse stres
and mean stress and the shorter the action time. In addition, the farther away from th
center axially, the smaller the shear stress and there is a delay in reaching the peak stress
the longitudinal Therefore,
section on
of the
thelongitudinal
rolled piece,section of the rolled
the farther awaypiece,
from the
thefarther
center,away
the from
morethe center
difficult it is to the more difficult
produce defects. it is to produce defects.

Figure 5. Stress variation of characteristic points on the longitudinal section: (a) Transverse stress;
(b) mean stress; (c) shear stress.
Figure 5. Stress variation of characteristic points on the longitudinal section: (a) Transverse stress
3.3. Analysis of (b) mean stress;
Evolution (c) shear
of Void stress.
Defects in the Center of CWR Piece
3.3.1. Void Deformation Behavior
3.3. Analysis of Evolution of Void Defects in the Center of CWR Piece
Five voids with a diameter of 0.6 mm are preset in the center of the axial symmetry
3.3.1. Void Deformation Behavior
plane of the rolled piece for finite element simulation to study the deformation behavior of
Five voids
voids in the CWR piece. with a diameter
The distribution of 0.6
of voids mm areinpreset
is shown Figurein 6a.
the One
center
of of
thethe axialissymmetry
voids
plane of the rolled piece for finite element simulation to study the deformation behavio
set in the center of the axial symmetry plane. The top and bottom voids are 0.75 mm away
from the center, and the left and right voids are 0.65 mm away from the center.
During CWR, the cross-section area of the workpiece gradually decreases under the
radial compression of the dies. Assuming uniform deformation of the workpiece, the
voids will become uniformly smaller with the radial compression of the workpiece. When
the area reduction of the rolled piece is ψ, the area of voids on the axial symmetry plane
decreases to 1 − ψ of the original area. When the relative area of the voids is larger than
1 − ψ, it indicates that the voids have relative expansion during CWR. Conversely, the
voids are relatively smaller. Therefore, the void deformation coefficient λ = S (1S−ψ) is used
0
to reflect the void deformation behavior, where S is the area of voids after CWR and S0
is the initial area of voids. When λ > 1, it indicates that the voids expand relative to the
workpiece. When λ < 1, the voids are smaller relative to the workpiece.
Besides void volume changes, the distance between voids will also change obviously
during CWR. The relative distance between voids ζ = √l is used to reflect the change
l0 1− ψ
in the distance between voids during CWR, where l is the distance between voids after
deformation and l0 is the initial distance between voids. When ζ > 1, the distance between
voids increases relative to the deformation of the workpiece, making it difficult to coalesce.
When ζ < 1, the distance between voids decreases, making it easy for voids to coalesce.
Metals 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 23

of voids in the CWR piece. The distribution of voids is shown in Figure 6a. One of the
Metals 2023, 13, 1309 voids is set in the center of the axial symmetry plane. The top and bo om voids are 0.75 8 of 21
mm away from the center, and the left and right voids are 0.65 mm away from the center.

Figure
Figure6.6.Schematic
Schematicdiagram
diagramofofvoid
voidarea
areaand
anddistance
distancemeasurement:
measurement:(a)
(a)Before
BeforeCWR;
CWR;(b)
(b)after
after CWR.
CWR.
By measuring the initial area of voids S0 and the initial distance between voids l0
During CWR, the cross-section area of the workpiece gradually decreases under the
before CWR (Figure 6a) and the area of voids S and the distance between voids l after CWR
radial compression of the dies. Assuming uniform deformation of the workpiece, the
(Figure 6b), the void deformation coefficient λ and relative distance between voids ζ can be
voids will become uniformly smaller with the radial compression of the workpiece. When
obtained through calculation.
the area reduction of the rolled piece is ψ, the area of voids on the axial symmetry plane
The deformation behavior of micro void inside the workpiece during CWR is shown
decreases to 1-ψ of the original area. When the relative area of the voids is larger than 1-
in Figure 7, where Figure 7a shows the variation of the void deformation coefficient λ and
ψ, it indicates that the voids have relative expansion during CWR. Conversely, the voids
the relative distance between voids ζ and Figure 7b shows the morphology of the voids
S
are
andrelatively smaller. Therefore,
the distribution the void strain
of the effective deformation
at thecoefficient
specific time.   In the knifing is used
zone, the
radial compression and axial flow of the metal do not match, some Smetal 0 1 flows
  transversely,
towhich
reflectcauses
the void thedeformation
ellipticity ofbehavior, where S isThe
the cross-section. thecenter
area ofofvoids after CWR
the rolled pieceand S0 is
is subjected to
the initial area
significant of voids. When
transverse tensileλstress
> 1, it and
indicates
shearthat the voids
stress, resultingexpand relativetensile
in relative to the work-
deformation
piece. When deformation.
and shear λ < 1, the voidsLarge
are smaller relative
effective to the
strain workpiece.
is concentrated around voids, where the
Besides void volume changes, the distance
material deforms sharply, and the voids are stretched between voids
intowill also change
ellipsoids, obviously
as shown in T1. The
void deformation coefficient is up to 1.15, indicating thatl the relative expansion of voids
during CWR. The relative distance between voids  
λ is used to reflect the
is significant. There is a slight reduction in the distance 1  voids.
l0 between
changeAt in the early stage
the distance of thevoids
between stretching
during zone,
CWR, thewhere axial
l is flow of the metal
the distance between increases,
voids the
transverse flow is improved, and the transverse tensile stress
after deformation and l0 is the initial distance between voids. When ζ > 1, the distance and shear stress at the center
between
decrease. voids
Theincreases relative tocoefficient
void deformation the deformation of the but
λ decreases workpiece, makingthan
is still greater it difficult
1, indicating
tothat
coalesce. When ζ <degree
the expansion 1, the distance
of the voidbetween voids The
decreases. decreases,
effective making
strainitineasy
the for
localvoids to
deformation
coalesce.
zone between voids is up to 0.78, and the deformation is severe, causing internal necking
By measuring
between voids. The the distance
initial area of voidsvoids
between S0 anddecreases
the initialsignificantly,
distance between voidsdeformation
the local l0 be-
fore
zoneCWR (Figureits
narrows, 6a)bearing
and thecapacity
area of voids S and the
decreases, and distance between appear
sharp corners voids l after
on the CWR voids, as
(Figure
shown6b), in the
T2. void
The deformation
sharp corners coefficient
are easy λ and relative
to crack, distance
leading to between voids ζ can In the
void coalescence.
belater
obtained
stagethrough calculation.
of the stretching zone because the deformation of the rolled piece with small
areaThe deformation
reduction behavior
is mainly of micro void
concentrated on inside the workpiece
the surface, the axialduringflow of CWRmetal is shown
in the center
inisFigure 7, where Figure 7a shows the variation of the void deformation
relatively difficult. Some metal remains in the rolled part of the rolled piece coefficient λ and and is
the
repeatedly kneaded by the top and bottom dies, resulting in significant tensile voids
relative distance between voids ζ and Figure 7b shows the morphology of the stress in the
and the of
center distribution of the The
the rolled piece. effective
strainstrain
around at the
voidsspecific time.increased,
is further In the knifingreachingzone, the
a maximum
of about 0.9. The void deformation coefficient λ increases, the expansion degree increases,
and the distance between voids is further reduced, as shown in T3. At the sizing zone, the
void deformation coefficient and the distance between voids gradually become stable.
 radial compression and axial flow of the metal do not match, some metal flows trans-
versely, which causes the ellipticity of the cross-section. The center of the rolled piece is
subjected to significant transverse tensile stress and shear stress, resulting in relative ten-
sile deformation and shear deformation. Large effective strain is concentrated around
voids, where the material deforms sharply, and the voids are stretched into ellipsoids, as
Metals 2023, 13, 1309 9 of 21
shown in T1. The void deformation coefficient λ is up to 1.15, indicating that the relative
expansion of voids is significant. There is a slight reduction in the distance between voids.

Figure Figure
7. Void 7.
deformation behavior:behavior:
Void deformation (a) Variation of the voidofdeformation
(a) Variation coefficient λcoefficient
the void deformation and relative
λ and relative
distance between voids ζ; (b) morphology of the voids and distribution of the effective strain at the
distance between voids ζ; (b) morphology of the voids and distribution of the effective strain at the
specific time.
specific time.

There is always a large strain concentrated around micro voids in the center of the
rolled piece, and the material around the voids deforms intensely during CWR. When the
void deformation coefficient λ is greater than 1, the voids expand relative to the rolled piece,
the distance between voids decreases, and internal necking occurs. The local deformation
zone between voids narrows, the concentrated deformation is significant, and the bearing
capacity of the material decreases, leading to void coalescence. Ultimately, it develops
into significant micro damage or even macro damage, resulting in central defects of the
rolled piece.
Metals 2023, 13, 1309 10 of 21

3.3.2. Influence of Process Parameters on Void Evolution

The forming angle and stretching angle are important process parameters of the CWR
die. To study the influence of process parameters of CWR on void evolution, simulations
of CWR of the rolled piece with voids under different process parameters are carried out.
Process parameters are shown in Table 2.

Table 2. FE simulation process parameters.

Case Number α (◦ ) β (◦ ) ψ (%)

1 6
2 15 7.5
3 9
4 6
5 25 7.5 30
6 9
7 6
8 45 7.5
9 9

(1) Influence of forming angle on void evolution

Taking β = 7.5◦ as an example, the morphology of voids in the center of the rolled
piece after CWR is shown in Figure 8a. The morphology of voids is similar under different
forming angles, but the larger the forming angle, the smaller the volume of the voids, and
the greater the distance between voids, making it difficult for void coalescence. When
α = 15◦ , the distance between voids is very small, and even void coalescence occurs. The
void deformation coefficient λ and relative distance between voids ζ under different
Metalsforming
2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
angles are shown in Figure 8b–c. When the forming angle increases from 1523◦ to
11 of
◦
45 , the void deformation coefficient decreases, and the distance between voids increases,
which indicates that the degree of expansion and coalescence of the void relative to the
void deformation coefficient decreases, and the distance between voids increases, which
rolled piece gradually decreases.
indicates When
that the degree α > 25◦ ,and
of expansion thecoalescence
void deformation coefficient
of the void relative is less
to the rolled
piece gradually decreases.
than 1, indicating that the void is smaller relative When α > 25°,
to the
thevoid deformation
rolled piece. coefficient is less between
The distance than 1,
indicating that the void is smaller relative to the rolled piece. The distance between voids
voids is also large, voids are not easy to coalesce, and the rolled piece is not prone to central
is also large, voids are not easy to coalesce, and the rolled piece is not prone to central
defects. Thus, increasing the forming
defects. Thus, angle
increasing the canangle
forming reduce central
can reduce defects
central defectsand
and improve
improve thethe
quality of rolled pieces. quality of rolled pieces.

Figure 8. Influence of forming angle on void evolution: (a) Morphology of voids in the center of the
Figure 8. Influence ofrolled
forming angle on void evolution: (a) Morphology of voids in the center of the
piece after CWR; (b) void deformation coefficient λ; (c) relative distance between voids ζ.
rolled piece after CWR; (b) void deformation coefficient λ; (c) relative distance between voids ζ.
(2) Influence of stretching angle on void evolution
Taking α = 25° as an example, the morphology of voids in the center of the rolled
piece after CWR is shown in Figure 9a. Under different stretching angles, the morphology
of voids and the distance between voids have li le change, indicating that the stretching
angle has li le impact on void evolution. When the stretching angle increases from 6° to
9°, the variation of the void deformation coefficient λ and the distance between voids ζ is
Metals 2023, 13, 1309 11 of 21

Figure 8. Influence of forming angle on void evolution: (a) Morphology of voids in the center of the
rolled piece after CWR; (b) void deformation coefficient λ; (c) relative distance between voids ζ.
(2) Influence of stretching angle on void evolution
(2) Influence of stretching angle on void evolution
Taking α = 25◦ as an example, the morphology of voids in the center of the rolled
Taking α = 25° as an example, the morphology of voids in the center of the rolled
piece after CWR is shown in Figure 9a. Under different stretching angles, the morphology
piece after CWR is shown in Figure 9a. Under different stretching angles, the morphology
of voids and the distance between voids have little change, indicating that the stretching
of voids and the distance between voids have li le change, indicating that the stretching
angle has little impact on void evolution. When the stretching angle increases from 6◦ to
angle has li le impact on void evolution. When the stretching angle increases from 6° to
9◦ , the variation of the void deformation coefficient λ and the distance between voids ζ
9°, the variation of the void deformation coefficient λ and the distance between voids ζ is
is very
verysmall, asas
small, shown
shownininFigure
Figure9b,c,
9b,c,so
sothe
theinfluence
influence of
of the
the stretching angle on
stretching angle on the
thevoid
void
evolution is very small.
evolution is very small.

Metals 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 1

Figure
Figure 9. Influence 9. Influence
of stretching of stretching
angle angle on (a)
on void evolution: void evolution: (a)
Morphology Morphology
of voids of voids
in the center of in the ce
the rolled
the rolled piece after CWR;piece afterdeformation
(b) void CWR; (b) void deformation
coefficient coefficient
λ; (c) relative λ; (c) relative
distance betweendistance
voids ζ.between v

4. Scheme and4. Process

Scheme Optimization
and Process for Avoiding Central
Optimization Defects
for Avoiding of CWR
Central Defects of CWR
4.1. Process Scheme
4.1. Process Scheme Design of the Detaching Die for Improving the of
Design of the Detaching Die for Improving the Central Defects CWR Defects of CW
Central
It is found that the axial flow of metal is difficult in the rolled piece with small area
It is found that the axial flow of metal is difficult in the rolled piece with sma
reduction. Some metal accumulates in the rolled part of the rolled piece and is repeatedly
reduction. Some metal accumulates in the rolled part of the rolled piece and is repe
kneaded by the dies, resulting in significant tensile stress in the center of the workpiece,
kneaded by the dies, resulting in significant tensile stress in the center of the work
which is easy to cause void expansion and coalescence. To solve this problem, the die can
which is easy to cause void expansion and coalescence. To solve this problem, the d
be stripped by reducing the height of the top surface of the die. The detaching depth of the
be stripped by reducing the height of the top surface of the die. The detaching de
die is 0.5 mm, as shown in Figure 10.
the die is 0.5 mm, as shown in Figure 10.
The central defects can be controlled by changing the process parameters of the die.
According to the above conclusions, when α > 25◦ , the voids will shrink relative to the
rolled part, and the distance between voids is large, making it difficult for void coalescence.
To suppress the void expansion, the forming angle of the die is selected at 25◦ ~45◦ .
 4.1. Process Scheme Design of the Detaching Die for Improving the Central Defects of CWR
It is found that the axial flow of metal is difficult in the rolled piece with small area
reduction. Some metal accumulates in the rolled part of the rolled piece and is repeatedly
kneaded by the dies, resulting in significant tensile stress in the center of the workpiece,
which is easy to cause void expansion and coalescence. To solve this problem, the die can
Metals 2023, 13, 1309 be stripped by reducing the height of the top surface of the die. The detaching12 of depth
21 of
the die is 0.5 mm, as shown in Figure 10.

Figure
Figure 10. 2D 10. drawings
and 3D 2D and 3Dof
drawings of the detaching
the detaching die:drawing
die: (a) 2D (a) 2D drawing of the detaching
of the detaching die;3D
die; (b) (b) 3D
drawing of the detaching die.
drawing of the detaching die.
The central
4.2. Analysis of CWR Processdefects can be controlled
with After-Rolling by changing
Detaching Die the process parameters of the die.
According to the above conclusions, when α > 25°, the voids will shrink relative to the
Taking the forming angle α = 35◦ and stretching angle β = 7.5◦ as an example, the finite
rolled part, and the distance between voids is large, making it difficult for void coales-
element simulations are conducted on two working conditions of the detaching die and
cence. To suppress the void expansion, the forming angle of the die is selected at 25°~45°.
Metals 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW non-detaching die. The diameter changes of the axial symmetry plane of the13rolled of 23 piece
under two working conditions are shown in Figure 11. When
4.2. Analysis of CWR Process with After-Rolling Detaching Die the rolling time is less than
1.2 s, the detaching part of the die has not yet contacted with the workpiece. The change
Taking the forming angle α = 35° and stretching angle β = 7.5° as an example, the finite
curvesofofthe
curves thediameter
diameter under
under both
both working
working conditions
conditions basically coincide, and the shape
element simulations are conducted on twobasically
workingcoincide,
conditions and ofthe
theshape
detaching die and
changes of the workpieces
changes of thenon-detaching
workpieces are are the
theThe
die. same.
same. When
When changes
diameter the rolling
the rolling time
timeaxial
of the is 1.2
is 1.2symmetry s, the detaching
s, the detaching
plane ofpart part piece
the rolled
of the die begins
of the die begins
under to
to two participate
participate in rolling,
workinginconditions
rolling, some some metal
metal flows
are shown flows
towards
in Figure towards the
the detaching
11. When detaching
the rollingpart, part,
time is less than
resulting
resultingininradial
radial
1.2 expansion
s, theexpansion in the
detaching in
part axle
the section
ofaxle
the of the
section
die has of rolled
not the piecepiece
rolled
yet contacted corresponding
with to the toThe
corresponding
the workpiece. thechange
detaching
detachingpart of of
part thethe
die. Finally,
die. thethe
Finally, diameter
diameterof the
of axial symmetry
the axial symmetryplaneplane
of the of
rolled
the rolled
piece
pieceobtained
obtainedby bythe
thedetaching
detachingdie dieisis34.65
34.65mm,
mm,which
whichisis0.820.82mmmmlarger
largerthan
thanthat
thatob-
obtained
tained
by theby the non-detaching
non-detaching die. die.

Figure
Figure11.
11.Diameter
Diameterchange in axial
change symmetry
in axial plane
symmetry of the
plane ofCWR piece.piece.
the CWR

Diameters
Diameters at at
different
differentaxial positions
axial of CWR
positions of CWRpieces under
pieces two working
under conditions
two working conditions
are
areshown
shown in in
Figure
Figure12. 12.
TheThe
diameter of each
diameter of axial
each position of the rolled
axial position of thepiece obtained
rolled by
piece obtained
the
by non-detaching
the non-detaching die is die
similar, while the
is similar, diameter
while of the rolled
the diameter piece
of the obtained
rolled piece by the
obtained by
detaching die shows
the detaching obvious
die shows axial non-uniformity.
obvious The diameter
axial non-uniformity. of the rolled
The diameter piece
of the cor- piece
rolled
responding
correspondingto thetoafter-rolling detaching
the after-rolling part of
detaching theof
part die
theincreases significantly,
die increases and the
significantly, and the
farther
fartheraway
away from
from thethe
axial symmetry
axial symmetry plane, the smaller
plane, the diameter.
the smaller Both experimental
the diameter. Both experimental
and simulation results indicate that compared to the condition with non-detaching die,
the rolled piece formed by the detaching die will appear radial expansion in the detaching
part. Spiral indentations will be formed on the surface of the rolled piece along the de-
taching line, resulting in a decrease in the accuracy of the surface.
 Figure 11. Diameter change in axial symmetry plane of the CWR piece.

Diameters at different axial positions of CWR pieces under two working conditions
are shown in Figure 12. The diameter of each axial position of the rolled piece obtained by
the non-detaching die is similar, while the diameter of the rolled piece obtained by the
Metals 2023, 13, 1309 13 of 21
detaching die shows obvious axial non-uniformity. The diameter of the rolled piece cor-
responding to the after-rolling detaching part of the die increases significantly, and the
farther away from the axial symmetry plane, the smaller the diameter. Both experimental
and
andsimulation
simulation results indicate
results thatthat
indicate compared
comparedto the
to condition with with
the condition non-detaching die, die, the
non-detaching
the rolled piece formed by the detaching die will appear radial expansion in the detaching
rolled piece formed by the detaching die will appear radial expansion in the detaching part.
part. Spiral indentations will be formed on the surface of the rolled piece along the de-
Spiral indentations will be formed on the surface of the rolled piece along the detaching
taching line, resulting in a decrease in the accuracy of the surface.
line, resulting in a decrease in the accuracy of the surface.

Metals 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 23

Figure
Figure12.12.
Diameters at different
Diameters axialaxial
at different positions of CWR
positions ofpieces.
CWR pieces.

4.3. Analysis of Stress and Strain of the CWR Piece Formed by the After-Rolling Detaching Die
4.3. Analysis of Stress and Strain of the CWR Piece Formed by the After-Rolling Detaching Die
4.3.1. Analysis of Stress
4.3.1. Analysis of Stress
Figure 13 shows the13changes
Figure shows thein transverse
changes stressstress
in transverse σx , mean
σx, meanstress
stressσσm , shear stress τ ,
m, shear stress τxy, xy

and effective
and effective stress σe at thestress σe at point
center the center point
of the of thepiece
rolled rolledunder
piece under the conditions
the conditions of of
thetheafter-
after-rolling detaching die (condition 1) and non-detaching die
rolling detaching die (condition 1) and non-detaching die (condition 2). When the rolling (condition 2). When the
rolling time is less than 1.2 s, because the detaching part of the die has not yet contacted
time is less than 1.2 s, because the detaching part of the die has not yet contacted with the
with the workpiece, the level of various stress at the center point under the two working
workpiece, theconditions
level of various
is similar.stress at s,the
After 1.2 thecenter pointdetaching
after-rolling under the parttwo
of theworking
die beginsconditions
to par-
is similar. After 1.2 s,
ticipate in the after-rolling
rolling, and the σx and detaching part point
σm at the center of thesuddenly
die begins to participate
and rapidly decrease, in
rolling, and thewhile thoseσof
σx and m condition 2 still point
at the center maintain a high level,
suddenly and as rapidly
shown in decrease,
Figure 13a,b. According
while those of
condition 2 stillto maintain
Figure 13c,d, τxy and
a high σe at the
level, center point
as shown under condition
in Figure 1 will decrease
13a,b. According to varying
to Figure 13c,d,
degrees after 1.2 s.
τxy and σe at the center point under condition 1 will decrease to varying degrees after 1.2 s.

Figure 13. StressFigure

at the13.center
Stress at the center
point under point
twounder two working
working conditions:
conditions: (a)(a) Transverse stress
Transverse stressσxσ; (b) mean
x ; (b) mean
stress σm; (c) shear stress τxy; (d) effective stress σe.
stress σm ; (c) shear stress τxy ; (d) effective stress σe .
4.3.2. Analysis of Strain
According to Figure 14, at the beginning of CWR, the surface deformation of the
rolled piece is very small and cannot diffuse to the center, so the effective strain at the
center point is almost 0. With the increase in the wedging degree, the deformation spreads
to the center, and the effective strain at the center point increases gradually. At 1.2 s, the
detaching part begins to participate in rolling, and the effective strain at the center point
Metals 2023, 13, 1309 14 of 21

4.3.2. Analysis of Strain

According to Figure 14, at the beginning of CWR, the surface deformation of the rolled
piece is very small and cannot diffuse to the center, so the effective strain at the center
point is almost 0. With the increase in the wedging degree, the deformation spreads to the
center, and the effective strain at the center point increases gradually. At 1.2 s, the detaching
part begins to participate in rolling, and the effective strain at the center point is smaller
than that under the condition of the non-detaching die. After the axial symmetry plane is
formed, the effective strain at the center point remains basically unchanged when the die
Metals 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW detaches. When the die is not detaching, the axial symmetry plane of the rolled piece is
15 of 23
still slightly deformed due to the action of the top surface of the die wedge, so the effective
strain at the center point continues to increase.

Figure
Figure14.
14.Effective strain
Effective at the
strain center
at the point
center under
point two two
under working conditions.
working conditions.

Therefore,
Therefore, the use
the of of
use after-rolling detaching
after-rolling die can
detaching die reduce the stress
can reduce and strain
the stress at the at the
and strain
center of the rolled piece, thereby suppressing the propagation of microcracks, improving
center of the rolled piece, thereby suppressing the propagation of microcracks, improving
the plasticity of the material, and improving the forming quality of the rolled piece.
the plasticity of the material, and improving the forming quality of the rolled piece.

4.4.
4.4.Optimization
Optimizationof of
Process Parameters
Process After-Rolling
Parameters Detaching
After-Rolling Die Die
Detaching
The
Theradial
radial expansion
expansion occurs
occursin the after-rolling
in the after-rollingdetaching section
detaching of the of
section rolled piece, piece,
the rolled
and
andspiral
spiralindentations
indentations areare
formed
formed on the surface
on the of the
surface ofrolled piecepiece
the rolled alongalong
the after-rolling
the after-rolling
detaching
detachingline,line,resulting
resulting in poor
in poorsurface accuracy.
surface It is necessary
accuracy. to determine
It is necessary appropriate
to determine appropriate
process
processparameters
parameters to to
ensure
ensure that there
that is no
there is trapped
no trappedmetal in theinrolled
metal part ofpart
the rolled the of
rolled
the rolled
piece
piecetotoachieve
achieve accurate
accurate forming
forming of the rolled
of the piece.
rolled The contact
piece. area between
The contact the diethe
area between anddie and
the
theworkpiece
workpiece is is
mainly
mainly composed
composed of the sizing
of the surface
sizing between
surface the top
between theoftop
theofdiethe
and
diethe
and the
workpiece
workpieceand and the forming
the forming surface
surfacebetween
between the die
the inclined wedge
die inclined and the
wedge andworkpiece,
the workpiece,
which
which affects the metal flow of the workpiece. The sizing surface provides the force,
affects the metal flow of the workpiece. The sizing surface provides the radial radial force,
which
whichfacilitates
facilitates thetherounding
rounding of the formed
of the formed area.area.
The The
forming surface
forming provides
surface the radial
provides the radial
and
andaxial
axialforce.
force.The The axial force
axial facilitates
force metal
facilitates axialaxial
metal flow.flow.
BasedBased
on theonanalysis of the of the
the analysis
contact
contactarea
areabetween
betweenthe thedie
dieandandthetheworkpiece,
workpiece, thetheinfluence
influence of of
process
process parameters
parameters on on the
the
spiral indentation of the workpiece surface under the condition of detaching die is is
spiral indentation of the workpiece surface under the condition of detaching die studied
studied
and theand rangethe range of process
of process parameters
parameters is further
is further reduced.
reduced. Different
Different process
process param-
parameters are
eters are selected for finite element simulation and experiment of CWR with detaching
selected for finite element simulation and experiment of CWR with detaching die. The
die. The specific process parameters are shown in Table 3.
specific process parameters are shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Simulation and experimental parameters.

Case Number α (°) β (°) ψ (%)

1 35
2 40 7.5
3 45
30
4 6
5 35 9
6 7.5

4.4.1. Influence of Forming Angle on the Formation of the Rolled Piece

Metals 2023, 13, 1309 15 of 21

Table 3. Simulation and experimental parameters.

Case Number α (◦ ) β (◦ ) ψ (%)

1 35
2 40 7.5
3 45
30
4 6
5 35 9
6 7.5

Metals 2023, 13,4.4.1.

x FOR Influence
PEER REVIEW
of Forming Angle on the Formation of the Rolled Piece 16 of

Figure 15 shows the influence of forming angle on the forming quality of the rolled
part. With the increase in the forming angle, the metal trapped in the after-rolling detaching
part of the rolledinpiece
Figure is 15a), the axial
reduced, the flow ofindentations
spiral the metal is improved, the axial (as
become shallow distribution
shown in of the diam
Figure 15a), the axial flow of the metal is improved, the axial distribution of the diameter When α
eter is more uniform (as shown in Figure 15b), and the forming effect is be er.
is more uniform 45°, there is in
(as shown noFigure
trapped metal
15b), in the
and the middle
formingpart of the
effect rolled piece,
is better. Whenand α = the
45◦diameter
,
there is no trapped metal in the middle part of the rolled piece, and the diameter of non-detachin
the rolled piece in the after-rolling detaching part is similar to that in the the
part.
rolled piece in the after-rolling detaching part is similar to that in the non-detaching part.

Figure 15. InfluenceFigure 15. Influence

of forming angle of
onforming angle onofthe
the formation theformation of the(a)
rolled piece: rolled piece:
Partial (a) of
view Partial view of roll
rolled
pieces; (b) axial distribution of the rolled
pieces; (b) axial distribution of the rolled piece diameter. piece diameter.

Figure 16 shows theFigure 16 shows

variation the contact
of the variation of the
area contactthe
between area between
main the mainsection
deformation deformation se
tion
of the rolled piece of the
and the die
rolled
withpiece
theand the die
forming withunder
angle the forming angle under
the condition the condition of afte
of after-rolling
detaching die. As rolling detaching
the forming die. increases,
angle As the forming angle projection
the radial increases, the
arearadial projection
of the formingarea of th
forming surface BCM decreases (as shown in Figure 16a),
surface BCM decreases (as shown in Figure 16a), and the axial and radial projection and the axial and radial proje
area
ratio increases (as shown in Figure 16b), which indicates that the axial force on the rolled force o
tion area ratio increases (as shown in Figure 16b), which indicates that the axial
the rolledwhich
piece increases relatively, piece increases
is conduciverelatively, which issufficient
to achieving conducive to achieving
axial sufficient
flow of the radial axial flo
of the radial compressed metal. Therefore, the larger the forming angle, the be er the axi
compressed metal. Therefore, the larger the forming angle, the better the axial flow of the
flow of the metal, the less metal trapped in the after-rolling detaching part, and the radi
metal, the less metal trapped in the after-rolling detaching part, and the radial expansion of
expansion of the rolled piece is improved, which is beneficial for reducing the kneadin
the rolled piece is improved, which is beneficial for reducing the kneading of the metal by
of the metal by the die and improving the central quality of the rolled piece.
the die and improving the central quality of the rolled piece.
 forming surface BCM decreases (as shown in Figure 16a), and the axial and radial proje
tion area ratio increases (as shown in Figure 16b), which indicates that the axial force o
the rolled piece increases relatively, which is conducive to achieving sufficient axial flo
of the radial compressed metal. Therefore, the larger the forming angle, the be er the axi
Metals 2023, 13, 1309 flow of the metal, the less metal trapped in the after-rolling detaching part, and
16 of 21 the radi
expansion of the rolled piece is improved, which is beneficial for reducing the kneadin
of the metal by the die and improving the central quality of the rolled piece.

Metals
Metals2023,
2023,13,
13, xx FOR
FOR PEER REVIEW
PEER REVIEW 1
17 of 23

Figure 16. Variation of the contact area between the main deformation section of the rolled piece
and
Figure 16. Variation the
Figure die:
of the (a) Contact
16.contact areaofsurface
Variation between shape; (b) axial
the main
the contact area and radial
deformation
between projection
the section
main area
of the ratiosection
rolled
deformation of theand
piece forming sur-
of the rolled
face.
the die: (a) Contact
andsurface
the die:shape; (b) axial
(a) Contact and radial
surface shape;projection
(b) axial area ratio ofprojection
and radial the forming
areasurface.
ratio of the formi
face.
4.4.2. Influence4.4.2. Influence of
of Stretching Stretching
Angle on theAngle on the of
Formation Formation
the Rolled of the Rolled Piece
Piece
Figure 17 4.4.2.
showsFigure
the17 shows
influence
Influence the
of influence of on
the stretching
of Stretching Angle theangle
stretching
the on the
Formationangle
ofonthethe
forming forming
quality
Rolled ofquality
Piece the of the
rolled piece. rolled
As the piece. As
17 the
stretching
Figure stretching
angle
shows angle increases,
theincreases,
influence the
of themetalthetrapped
metal angle
stretching trappedonin
in the theforming
after-rolling
after-rolling
the de-
quality
detaching parttaching
of the part
rolledof the
piece rolled piece
increases, increases,
the spiral the spiral indentations
indentations deepen, deepen,
the
rolled piece. As the stretching angle increases, the metal trapped in the after-rolli the
axial axial
flow flow of
of the metal isthe metal
worse (as isshown
worse in (asFigure
shown17a),
in Figure
the 17a),distribution
axial the axial distribution
of the of the diameter
diameter
taching part of the rolled piece increases, the spiral indentations deepen, the axial fl is not is not
uniform
uniform (as shown (as shown
in Figure 17b)inand
Figurethe17b) and the
forming forming
effect effectHowever,
is worse. is worse. However,
the length the length of
the metal is worse (as shown in Figure 17a), the axial distribution of theofdiameter
the increases
the roller surface roller surface increases significantly
significantly when theangle
when the stretching stretching angle decreases.
decreases.
uniform (as shown in Figure 17b) and the forming effect is worse. However, the len
the roller surface increases significantly when the stretching angle decreases.

Figure
Figure 17. Influence of17. Influenceangle
stretching of stretching angle on the
on the formation of formation
the rolled of the rolled
piece: piece:view
(a) Partial (a) Partial view of rolled
of rolled
pieces; (b) axial distribution of the rolled
pieces; (b) axial distribution of the rolled piece diameter. piece diameter.

When
Figure the forming
17. Influence angle andangle
of stretching areaon
reduction are constant,
the formation axial,piece:
of the rolled and radial projection
(a) Partial view o
area ratio of the forming surface BCM is also constant,
pieces; (b) axial distribution of the rolled piece diameter. so the stretching angle mainly af-
fects the area of the sizing surface ABMN. Figure 18 shows the variation of the contact
surface shapethe
When and the radial
forming projection
angle and areaof the sizing surface
reduction in the main
are constant, axial,deformation
and radial prosec-
tion with the stretching angle under the condition of after-rolling detaching
area ratio of the forming surface BCM is also constant, so the stretching angle mai die. As the
Metals 2023, 13, 1309 17 of 21

When the forming angle and area reduction are constant, axial, and radial projection
area ratio of the forming surface BCM is also constant, so the stretching angle mainly affects
thePEER
Metals 2023, 13, x FOR areaREVIEW
of the sizing surface ABMN. Figure 18 shows the variation of the contact surface 18 of 23
shape and the radial projection of the sizing surface in the main deformation section with
the stretching angle under the condition of after-rolling detaching die. As the stretching
angle increases, the area of the sizing surface ABMN increases, and the metal flowing
stretching angle increases, the area of the sizing surface ABMN increases, and the metal
radially increases, which does not match the axial extension and makes it difficult for the
flowing radially increases, which does not match the axial extension and makes it difficult
metal to flow axially. Therefore, the larger the stretching angle, the worse the axial flow of
for the metal to flow axially. Therefore, the larger the stretching angle, the worse the axial
the metal, the flow
moreofmetal is squeezed
the metal, the moreinto theisafter-rolling
metal squeezed intodetaching part, and
the after-rolling the radial
detaching part, and the
expansion of theradial expansion of the rolled piece is more obvious. The metal is morerepeated
rolled piece is more obvious. The metal is more susceptible to susceptible to re-
kneading by the die, kneading
peated reducing bythethe
central quality. the central quality.
die, reducing

Figure
Figure 18. Variation of18.
theVariation of the
contact area contactthe
between area between
main the mainsection
deformation deformation sectionpiece
of the rolled of the rolled piece
and
and the die: (a) Contact surface shape; (b) radial projection of
the die: (a) Contact surface shape; (b) radial projection of the sizing surface. the sizing surface.

Based on the Based

aboveon the above
analysis, analysis,
to obtain to obtain
rolled rolled
pieces withpieces
goodwith goodand
surface surface and central
central
quality while quality while minimizing
minimizing the die as
the die diameter diameter
much asas much as possible,
possible, it is advisable
it is advisable to useto use the
after-rolling
the after-rolling detachingdetaching
die withdie with a forming
a forming angle ofangle of 45°
45◦ and and a stretching
a stretching angle angle
of 7.5of
◦ 7.5° for

for CWR. CWR.

5. Experiment5.Validation
Experiment Validation
5.1.Arrangement
5.1. Experimental Experimental Arrangement
The forming The forming of
experiment experiment of railway
railway vehicle axles vehicle axles is conducted
is conducted on the H1400 on theCWRH1400 CWR
mill, as shown in Figure 19a. The die used in the experiment is shown in Figure 19b. The 19b. The
mill, as shown in Figure 19a. The die used in the experiment is shown in Figure
middle wedgemiddle
is used wedge is used
to form to form
the axle bodythewith
axle small
body witharea small area reduction,
reduction, and the forming
and the forming
angle and stretching angle are α1 and β1 , respectively. The wedges on both sides are sides
angle and stretching angle are α 1 and β 1, respectively. The wedges on both used are used
to form the axle neck of the railway vehicle axle, and the forming angle and stretchingstretching
to form the axle neck of the railway vehicle axle, and the forming angle and
angle
angle are α2 and β2 , are α2 and β2, Due
respectively. respectively. Dueexperimental
to the large to the large experimental
equipment and equipment
the complexand the com-
plex operation of replacing the die, the optimal scheme
◦ of
operation of replacing the die, the optimal scheme of α1 = 45 , β1 = 7.5 is used in this α1 = 45°,
◦ β 1 = 7.5° is used in this

experiment.
experiment. The The area
area reduction reduction
of the of the
axle neck axle neck
is about 50%,iswhich
about belongs
50%, which belongs
to the rangetoofthe range
of easy forming in the CWR process, so α 2 = 35° and β 2 = 9° are
easy forming in the CWR process, so α2 = 35◦ and β2 = 9◦ are selected. The billet material selected. The billet material
is LZ50 axle steel. The specific experimental process is as follows: (1) According to the
is LZ50 axle steel. The specific experimental process is as follows: (1) According to the
principle of constant volume, the volume of the billet is calculated according to the size of
principle of constant volume, the volume of the billet is calculated according to the size
the target part and the size of the material head. In this experiment, the round billet with
a diameter of 150 mm and a length of 715 mm was used, (2) before rolling, the billet is
heated to 1100 °C and kept warm, (3) adjust the top and bo om dies and guide plates of
Metals 2023, 13, 1309 18 of 21

Metals
Metals 2023, 13, 2023,
x FOR 13, xREVIEW
PEER FOR PEER REVIEW
of the target part and the size of the material head. In this experiment, the round 19 of 23
19 of 23billet
with a diameter of 150 mm and a length of 715 mm was used, (2) before rolling, the billet is
heated to 1100 ◦ C and kept warm, (3) adjust the top and bottom dies and guide plates of
the rollingthe
the rolling millrolling
mill to mill to appropriate
toappropriate
appropriate positions
positions positions
andand and
adjust
adjust adjust
thethe the parameters
parameters
parameters of the
of rolling
of the the rolling rolling
mill.mill. mill. The
The The
heated heated billet is quickly transferred to the corresponding position
heated billet is quickly transferred to the corresponding position of the mill to complete the
billet is quickly transferred to the corresponding position of the of
mill the
to mill
completeto complete
rolling, (4)the
the rolling, it(4)isrolling, (4) it to
itnecessary
is necessary is cool
necessary
to cool
thetheto coolparts
rolled
rolled the rolled
parts parts
CWRafter
afterCWR
after CWR is completed.
isiscompleted.
completed. Because
BecauseofofBecause
the of
the large
large the
sizesize
of the large
of the size of
rolled
rolled the
parts,
parts, rolled
thethe parts, the
air-cooling
air-cooling air-cooling method
methodisisused.
method used. is used.

Figure 19.
Figure Figure
19. (a)
(a) 19.CWR
H1400
H1400 (a) H1400
CWR mill; CWR
mill;(b)
(b)diemill;
die (b)drawing.
design
design die design drawing.
drawing.

5.2. 5.2.
5.2. Analysis
Analysis ofAnalysis
of of Experimental
Experimental
Experimental Results Results
Results
Figure
Figure 20 Figure some
20 shows
shows 20 shows
some some
railway
railway railway
axles
axles axlesby
obtained
obtained obtained
by CWR by CWR experiment.
CWR experiment.
experiment. After measure-
After measurement,
After measure-
the ment,
diameter the diameter
distribution of distribution
the rolled of
piecethe
isrolled
uniformpiece is
alonguniform
the along
axial the axial
direction
ment, the diameter distribution of the rolled piece is uniform along the axial direction with direction
with little with
li le difference, and the radial size error is basically
li le difference, and the radial size error is basically within 1 mm.
difference, and the radial size error is basically within 1 mm. within 1 mm.

Figure 20. Figure 20. Some railway axles obtained by CWR experiment.
20. Some
Figure Some railway
railwayaxles
axlesobtained
obtainedbyby
CWR experiment.
CWR experiment.

Samples are
Samples Samples
are taken are
takenfrom taken
from each
eachfrom
part
parteach
of part
thethe
of axle of the
body,
axle axle body,
wheel
body, wheel
seat,seat,
wheel andandseat,
axle andneck
neck
axle axle
of neck
theof theof the
railway
railway axle. axle. A macrostructure test is conducted to inspect the central porosity of the rail-
railway axle.AA macrostructure
macrostructure testtest
is conducted
is conductedto inspect the central
to inspect porosityporosity
the central of the rail-
of the
way
way axleaxle
of CWR.axle of CWR.
TableTablesTable
4 and Table 4 and Table 5 show the macrostructure test results of conventional
railway of CWR. 4 and55showshowthe macrostructure
the macrostructure testtest
results of conventional
results of conventional
and deep and deep
etching, etching, respectively.
respectively. The results The
showresults
that show
there thatno
are there are no
visible visible
defects defects
such as suchsuch as
and deep etching, respectively. The results show that there are no visible defects
 MetalsMetals
2023,Metals
13, x FOR
2023, 13, x PEER
2023,FOR REVIEW
13, xPEER
FORREVIEW
PEER REVIEW 20 of2023of 23
20 of

Metals 2023, 13, 1309 19 of 21

Metals
Metals 2023,2023, 13, x FOR
13, x2023,
Metals FOR 13, x PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW
FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of2023of2023of
shrinkage void,void,
shrinkage delamination,
shrinkage delamination,
void, or cracks
delamination, on
or cracks theon test
or cracks theonsample.
test testThe
thesample. general
The
sample. Theporosity
general and
porosity
general cen-cen-
and
porosity and ce
tral porositytralgrades
tral porosity
porosityof grades
grades conventional
of conventional etching
of conventional are
etching both 0.5
are both
etching areand
0.5
boththe
and0.5general
the
and theporosity
general and
porosity
general cen-cen-
and
porosity and ce
as shrinkage void,tral porositytralgrades
tral porosity
delamination,
porosityofor
grades deep
of
cracks
grades etching
deep on are
etching
of deep the below
are
testbelow
etching 1.5.below
sample.
are Therefore,
1.5. Therefore,
The all parts
general of
allthe
all parts
1.5. Therefore, of railway
porosity theaxle
theofrailway
parts and axle ax
railway
shrinkage
shrinkage void,void,
the shrinkage delamination,
delamination,
void, delamination, orofcracks
orofcracks onvehicle
oroncracks
the the
test test sample.
sample.
onvehicle
theaxle. The The
testaxle.
sample. general
general
The porosity
porosity
general and and
porosity cen- ce
cen-and
central porositymeet
tral
meet
grades technical
the
meet
of
porosity
the requirements
technical
conventional
tral porosity grades
grades
tral porosity
requirements
technical etching
of conventional
ofgrades
conventional
the
requirements
of conventional
railway
the
are ofrailway
both
etching
etching
the 0.5
are
railway
and
are both
both
etching
vehicle
theand
0.5
0.5 both
are and the
axle. porosity and
general
the general
0.5 general
and porosity
the porosity
general and and
porosity cen-ce
cen-and
central porosity tral
grades
tral of deep
porosity
porosity
tral grades
porosityetching
grades of
ofgrades
deep are
deep below
etching
etching
of deep are 1.5.below
are
below
etching Therefore,
are1.5. 1.5.
Therefore,
below 1.5. all
Therefore,parts
all parts
Therefore, ofofthe
all parts
all of railway
the
parts the
of railway
railwaythe axle axle ax
railway
TableTable
4. Macrostructure
Table test
4. Macrostructure results
test
4. Macrostructure of
results
test conventional
of conventional
results etching.
of conventionaletching.etching.
axle meet the technical
meetmeettherequirements
the technical
technical
meet of requirements
requirements
the technical the railway
requirements of the vehicle
of railway
the
of railway axle.
the vehiclevehicle
railway axle. axle.axle.
vehicle
Sample Position
Sample Position
Sample Position AxleAxle
Body Body
Axle Body Wheel Wheel Seat Seat Seat
Wheel AxleAxleNeck Neck
Axle Neck
Table
Table
Table 4. Macrostructure 4.results
4.test Macrostructure
Macrostructure
Table test results
test results
4. Macrostructure
of conventional of conventional
ofresults
test conventional etching.
etching.
of conventional
etching. etching.

Sample
Sample Position
Position
Sample Position AxleAxle
BodyBody
Axle Body Wheel
Wheel SeatSeat
Seat
Wheel AxleAxle
NeckNeck
Axle Neck
Sample Position Axle Body Wheel Seat Axle Neck

Macrostructure
Macrostructure
Macrostructure

Macrostructure
Macrostructure
Macrostructure
Macrostructure

General porosity
General porosity
General porosity 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Central porosity
Central porosity 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Central
General porosity
porosity 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
General
General porosity
porosity
General
Centralporosity
porosity 0.5 0.5 0.5
0.5 0.5 0.5
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
0.5
TableTable
5. Macrostructure
Table test results
5. Macrostructure
5. Macrostructure of deep
test results
test etching.
of deep
results ofetching.
deep etching.
Central
Central porosity
porosity
Central porosity 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Table 5. Macrostructure test results of deep etching.
Sample Position
Sample Position
Sample Position 5.Axle
Table
Table Body
5.Axle
5. Body
Axle Body
Macrostructure
Macrostructure
Table test results
test results
Macrostructure Wheel
of deep
ofresults
test deep Seat
Wheel Seat Seat
Wheel
etching.
etching.
of deep etching. AxleAxle
NeckNeck
Axle Neck
Sample Position Axle Body Wheel Seat Axle Neck
Sample
Sample Position
Position
Sample Position AxleAxle
BodyBody
Axle Body Wheel
Wheel SeatSeat
Seat
Wheel AxleAxle
NeckNeck
Axle Neck

Macrostructure
Macrostructure
Macrostructure
Macrostructure

Macrostructure
Macrostructure
Macrostructure

General porosity 1.0 1.0 1.5

General Central
porosity
General porosity
porosity 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.5
1.0 1.0 1.0
1.5 1.5
General porosity 1.0 1.0 1.5

General
General Radial and axial ultrasonic
porosity
porosity
General porosity 1.0 testing
1.0 0.5 1.0 is conducted1.0
on1.0
the1.0
railway axle formed
1.5 by
1.5 CWR
1.5
Central porosity
Central porosity
Central porosity 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0
according to GB/T1618, and no defects are found.

6. porosity
Central Conclusions
Central porosity
Central porosity Radial 0.5
and
Radial 0.5
axial0.5
and
Radial ultrasonic
axial
and testing
ultrasonic testing
axial ultrasonic
0.5 0.5 0.5on the
is testing
conducted
is conducted on railwaytheaxle
theonrailway
is conducted
1.0 by
1.0 formed
formed
axle
railway axle1.0CWR
by CWR
formed by CW
according to
accordingGB/T1618,
to
The simulation andaccording
experiment and
GB/T1618, no
and defects
no
are combined
to GB/T1618, are
defects found.
are found.
to study
and no defects are the mechanism and improve-
found.
ment method of central defects
Radial and inand CWR
axial of
ultrasonicrailway
testing vehicle
is conducted axles. onThe the stress
onrailway variation
axle formed in by CWR
6.Radial
6. Conclusions and
Radial
Conclusions axial
6. Conclusions
ultrasonic
axial testing
ultrasonic istesting
conducted on the
is conducted railway the axle
railway formed
axle by CWR
formed by CW
the CWR piece with a
according 30%
according area
to reduction
GB/T1618,
to GB/T1618,
according and is
no
and no defects
to GB/T1618, analyzed.
defects
and noare are
found.
defects At
found. the
are found. same time, the evolution
The The
simulation
simulation and and
The simulation experiment
experiment are combined
and experiment are combined to study
are combined to studythe mechanism
the mechanism
to study and and
the mechanism improve-
improve-
and improv
of the void defects in the center of the CWR piece is studied, and the process scheme to
mentment
methodmethod
ment of
6. Conclusions central
of
method defects
central
of central in
defects CWRin
defectsCWR ofinrailway
of
CWR railway
ofvehicle axles.
vehicle
railway The
axles.
vehicle stress
The
axles. variation
stress
The in
variation
stress the
in thein t
variation
avoid the central 6. defects
Conclusions
6. Conclusions
of the rolled piece. The research results optimize the process
CWR CWRpiece
CWR withpiece
piece a 30%
with area
awith
30% reduction
aarea
30% reduction is analyzed.
area reduction is analyzed. At the
is analyzed. At same
theAtsame time, the evolution
time,
the same the evolution
time, of the
the evolutionof theof t
parameters of CWR of
voidvoid The
Therailway
defects simulation
simulation
The
in
defects the and
invehicle
simulation
center
the and
of experiment
experiment
axles,
and
the whichare
experiment
of CWR are
combined
piece is combined
of
isaregreat to study
combined
studied, to
and study
the
significance
to
the the
study mechanism
mechanism
processtotheimprove
the and
mechanism
scheme and theimprove-
improve-
and
toscheme
avoid improv
void defects incenter
the centerthe ofCWR
the piece
CWR is
piece studied,
is and
studied, the
andprocess scheme
process to avoidto avo
central defects of ment ment
method
therailway
central method
ment of
axles,
defects of
central
method central
of
ofimprove
the defects
defects
central
of rolled in CWRin
defects
the
piece. CWR
qualityof
in CWR
Thepiece. of
railwayrailway
of
ofresearch
research CWR vehicle
railwayvehicle
axles.
axles,
results axles.
vehicle The
ensure
optimize The
stress
axles.
the stress
The
the variation
variation
stress
thesafety
process in
variation
of in
the the
in th
the central
the defects
central defectstheofrolled
the piece.
rolled The The results
research optimize
results optimize theparame-
process parame-
process param
CWR CWRpiece
CWR piece
with with
piecea 30% a
with30%
area
a area
30% reduction
reduction
area is is analyzed.
analyzed.
reduction is At
analyzed. At
the the
sameAt same
time,
the time,
same the the evolution
evolution
time, the of of
the
evolution the
of th
railway transportation,
ters ters
of CWR and
oftersofofguide
CWR railway
of railway
CWR the
of CWR
vehicle
vehicle
railway forming
axles, which
axles,
vehicle which
axles,isprocess
of isgreat
which isof
of great ofrailway
significance
significance
great axles.
to improve The
tothe
to improve
significance CWRcentral
the central
improve the cent
void
voiddefects
defects of defects
defects
void in
railway
of inaxles,
the
defects
railway the
center center
inaxles,
the
improve of CWR
ofcenter
the
improvetheof CWR
the thepiece
quality
the CWRpiece
is
qualityof is
studied,
piece
CWR of studied, and
isaxles,
CWR studied,and
the and
ensure
axles, thethe
process
ensure processscheme
thesafety scheme
process
the of
safety to
scheme
railway
of to
avoid avoid
to avo
railway
experiment of the railway defects
vehicle of railway
axle isaxles, improve and
conducted, the quality
the results of CWR axles,
conclusions aretheensure
asprocess the safety of railw
follows:
the central
the central
thedefects defects
central of of rolled
the
defects the
of rolled
thepiece. piece.
rolled The The research
research
piece. The research results optimize
optimize
results optimize the process
the parame-
processparame-
param
1. On the cross-section
ters ters of CWR
of CWR
ters of
of CWR
of the
railway rolled
of railway
of vehicle
railway piece,
vehicle
axles,
vehicle the
axles,
which center
which
axles, iswhich is
ofisgreat subjected
ofisgreat
significance
of great to
significance tensile
significance stress
to improve
to improve in central
the
the central
to improve the centr
transverse and axial
defectsdirections
defects
of railway
defects of and
of railway axles,
railway compressive
axles, improve
improve
axles, stress
the
the quality
improve quality
the of inCWR the
qualityof CWR radial
axles,
of CWRaxles,direction,
ensure ensure
axles, the themaking
safety
ensure safety ofitrailway
theofsafety
railway of railwa
more prone to defects. On the longitudinal section of the rolled piece, the farther away
from the center, the smaller the tensile stress the material is subjected to and the less likely
it is to produce defects. Therefore, the center on the axial symmetry plane of the rolled
piece is more prone to defects.
2. The main factors affecting the central defects of the CWR piece are transverse tensile
stress, mean stress, and shear stress of cross-section. Large transverse tensile stress can
easily cause micro voids in the center to expand into macro voids, resulting in central
Metals 2023, 13, 1309 20 of 21

defects. The positive mean stress at the center of the rolled piece will reduce the plasticity
of the material and make fracture prone. The shear stress of cross-section can cause shear
deformation, which will cause lattice distortion of metal at the center of the rolled piece,
resulting in central defects.
3. During CWR, there is a large strain concentration around the voids. When the void
deformation coefficient is greater than 1, it indicates that the voids expand relative to the
rolled piece, the distance between the voids decreases, the local deformation zone between
the voids narrows, and more intense deformation is concentrated. The bearing capacity
decreases, and internal necking occurs, leading to void coalescence. Ultimately, it develops
into significant micro damage or even macro damage, resulting in central defects in the
rolled piece.
4. As the forming angle increases, the void deformation coefficient decreases, and the
distance between voids increases. That is, the degree of expansion and coalescence of voids
relative to the rolled piece decreases. Therefore, increasing the forming angle can reduce
central defects and improve the quality of the rolled piece. The influence of the stretching
angle on the void deformation is very small.
5. The use of after-rolling detaching die can reduce the stress and strain levels at the
center of the rolled part, thereby suppressing the propagation of micro cracks, improving
the plasticity of the material, and improving the forming quality of the rolled part. During
CWR with after-rolling detaching die if the axial flow of the metal is sufficient, the radial
expansion in the axle section of the rolled piece corresponding to the after-rolling detaching
part of the die will occur, resulting in an uneven axial distribution of the diameter of the
rolled piece. As the forming angle increases and the stretching angle decreases, the axial
flow of the metal is improved, the axial distribution of the diameter is more uniform, and
the forming effect of the rolled piece is better.
6. To obtain rolled parts with good surface and central quality while minimizing the
die diameter as much as possible, it is advisable to use the after-rolling detaching die with
a forming angle of 45◦ and a stretching angle of 7.5◦ for rolling forming.
7. The experiment of CWR of railway vehicle axles is conducted. It is found that the
general porosity and central porosity grades are below 1.5 through macrostructure test.
There are no internal defects in the ultrasonic test. The railway vehicle axle formed by CWR
meets the technical requirements of railway vehicle axles.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, W.S., X.W. and C.Y.; data curation, W.S. and X.W.; funding
acquisition, C.Y.; methodology, W.S., X.W. and C.Y.; resources, C.Y.; supervision, C.Y.; writing—
original draft, W.S. and X.W.; writing—review and editing, W.S., X.W. and C.Y. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work is supported by National Key R&D Program of China (Grant No. 2018YFB1307900),
and Engineering Research Center of Part Near-Net-Shape Forming, Ministry of Education.
Data Availability Statement: The datasets and material generated and/or analyzed during the
current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors have no conflict of interest/competing interest to declare that are
relevant to the content of this article.

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