Three large earthquakes measuring Mww 6.

3 each and their aftershocks affected Herat

Province in western Afghanistan in early October 2023. The first two earthquakes
occurred on 7 October at 11:11 AFT and 11:42 AFT near the city of Herat,[1][2]
followed by many aftershocks. On 11 October, another magnitude 6.3 earthquake
struck the same area.[3] Thrust faulting was associated with these earthquakes.
Between 1,000 and 1,294 people died, although the exact figure is unknown; 1,688
others were injured and 485 remain missing. A majority of the casualties occurred
during the first two large earthquakes of 7 October, while the 11 October
earthquake caused at least one death and 153 injuries.

The earthquake struck Afghanistan during an ongoing humanitarian crisis following

the Taliban takeover in 2021. However, existing aid groups were experiencing a lack
of funds prior to the disaster. Some aid agenies including UNICEF and the Red Cross
appealed for donations in response to the earthquakes.[4] Many international
organizations and countries participated in rescue and relief efforts. Hospitals
were overwhelmed by the number of injured and lack of proper equipment.[5]
Additional thousands were made homeless as the country enters the winter.
Tectonic setting

Afghanistan is situated within the broad and complex zone of collision between the
Arabian Plate, the Indian Plate, and the Eurasian Plate. The western part of the
country is subdivided into the North Afghan Platform to the north and a series of
accreted terranes to the south.[6] The North Afghan Platform has remained
relatively tectonically stable since the Variscan Orogeny during the Late
Palaeozoic, when it became part of Eurasia. To the south there is a collage of
continental fragments and magmatic arcs that have been progressively accreted,
particularly in the Mesozoic era. The boundary between these two crustal areas is
the major right-lateral strike-slip Harirud (or Herat) Fault, which is far less
seismically active than the Chaman Fault that runs through the east of the country.
To the north of the Harirud Fault, the near parallel Band-e Turkestan Fault does
show signs of recent activity, also in a right-lateral sense.[7]

The seismicity of Afghanistan is attributed to the complex and active tectonic

interactions between the Arabian, Eurasian, and Indian plates. Within 250 km (160
mi) of the 7 October earthquakes epicenters, there have been seven magnitude 6.0 or
greater earthquakes with epicenters in Iran. These include a Mw 7.3 earthquake in
May 1997 and a Mw 7.1 earthquake in 1979.[1] In June 2022, eastern Afghanistan was
affected by an earthquake that killed over 1,000 people.[8]
Earthquakes

The first event, with a magnitude of 6.3, struck at 11:11 AFT (06:41 UTC).[1] A
magnitude 5.5 aftershock occurred eight minutes later.[9] Another magnitude 6.3
event struck at 11:42 AFT (07:12 UTC),[2] followed by a magnitude 5.9 aftershock.
[10] Both events and the Mww 5.9 aftershock had a maximum Modified Mercalli
intensity of VIII (Severe).[1][2][10] On 11 October, the third Mww 6.3 earthquake
occurred within the same area. The United States Geological Survey said all three
earthquakes were the result of shallow thrust faulting. The fault plane solution
indicate a rupture source striking east–west with a north or south dip.[3]

According to seismologists, these earthquakes had epicenters between the

Siakhubulak Fault in the north and Herat Fault in the south. According to satellite
data from Sentinel-1A, an area measuring 30 km (19 mi) by 15 km (9.3 mi) and
extending east–west around the location of these earthquakes was uplifted.
Meanwhile the satellite detected subsidence in a small area east of the uplifted
zone. The seismologists added that the ground deformation was diffuse and inferred
the earthquakes were associated with a blind thrust fault. The fault responsible is
likely a structure located between the Herat and Siakhubulak faults.[11]

Italy's National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology released two possible

finite fault models for the second large earthquake. In both models, no slip
occurred at the top depth of the model. The first model is a north-dipping, east-
southeast–west-northwest striking thrust fault. The rupture mechanism was reverse-
faulting with a small right-lateral component, initiating at a depth of 5.0 km (3.1
mi). In this model, the maximum slip was 2.2 m (7 ft 3 in) at 4.8 km (3.0 mi) depth
and immediately east of the hypocenter. Slip of 1 m (3 ft 3 in) or greater was
observed east and west of the hypocenter although the largest slip (>2 m (6 ft 7
in)) was observed to the east.[12]

In the latter model, the fault dips to the south and strikes east–west. The focal
depth is inferred to be 5.8 km (3.6 mi); the zone of maximum slip is located east
of the hypocenter, where it peaked at 2.8 m (9 ft 2 in). Overall, to the immediate
east and west of the hypocenter, the slip was about 2 m (6 ft 7 in) although the
larger values were observed further away.[12]
Impact

The United Nations reported 1,294 deaths as of 10 October[13] while Taliban

officials said about 1,000 had died.[14] The Taliban revised the death toll on 11
October from the previous estimate of at least 2,700.[15] They added that confusion
arose as rescue groups had counted twice and there was coordination issues.[16] The
World Health Organization said 90 percent of the casualties were women and children
who died in their homes when they collapsed.[17] At the time of the earthquakes,
most men were outdoors, the organization added.[18] The Taliban also estimated
2,400 people were injured.[19] The United Nations recorded 1,688 wounded and 485
missing in villages across Zindajan District.[20]

The United Nations also estimated 11,585 individuals were affected by the
earthquakes.[21] Among the villages affected were Mahal Wadakah, where 20 people
died, Dasht Hows, Bahadorzai, and Zoryan.[22] Telephone communications were also
lost.[23] In addition to the destruction in Herat Province, collapsed houses and
injuries were also reported in the neighbouring provinces of Badghis and Farah.[24]
[25]

Over 1,714 houses were destroyed.[26] Homes constructed of mud constituted the
hardest-hit settlements; a resident of one of the affected areas said many homes
collapsed during the first earthquake.[27] An official representing the National
Disaster Management Authority said in several villages with populations of 1,000,
only 100 out of an estimated 300 hous