Private Institute Incorporated to Official Education (A-706)

2nd. Year - 2nd. Term - Academic Year 2022

Distance mode

MIDTERM EXAMS

Subject: WORKING ENVIRONMENTS III - VENTILATION

Instructions

Read carefully each of the problems presented, then elaborate carefully and
step by step the answer/s indicating in writing all the reasoning,
calculations and auxiliary calculations, then proceed to review the answer/s,
in case you have to make corrections, do them. Read once again the issued
answers and if you do not find, in your opinion, more errors, then send your
answers to the problems. Remember that the partial exam is an INDIVIDUAL
exam.

Problem

1. 2.132 x106 molecules/m3 of toluene (C7H8) have been detected to be

uniformly present throughout the earth's air layer. How many milliliters of
toluene have evaporated to give rise to this contamination? - Earth
diameter = 13,000 km. - Total air layer thickness = 10 Km.

DATA:

2.132 X 106 MOLECULES/M3 OF TOLUENE

13,000 KM TERRESTRIAL DIAMETER
10 KM AIR LAYER THICKNESS
The volume of air surrounding the earth is equal to the volume of a sphere that
has the radius of the earth plus the thickness of the air layer and to that volume
you subtract the volume of the earth, you are left with the volume of air in the
atmosphere.

3 3
V= 4/3 π 13000 + 1000 _ - 13000 +1000 - 5,317 x1018 m3

2 2

Then the total number of molecules is the number of molecules per cubic meter
multiplied by the volume of air in the atmosphere.

N t = n x V = 2132 x106 x 5,317 x1018 m3= 1,133 X 1025 molecules

The mass of toluene is number of molecules per molecular weight over

Avogadro's number.

Considering that the density of toluene (C7H9), at 20º C temperature, is equal

to 0.867 g/cm3

2000 cm3or milliliters of toluene have evaporated to give rise to this

contamination.

2. Explain the characteristics of contaminants by the way they present

themselves.

Classification of contaminants by form of presentation

Aerosol: an aerosol is a dispersion of solid or liquid particles, from an

Size less than 100 μ (microns) in a gaseous medium. Within the complexity of
aerosols there are a variety of physical states whose definitions follow:
Dust: suspension in the air of small solid particles, resulting from various
physical processes of disintegration. The size range of dust particles is wide,
but the most frequent ones range from 0.1 to 25 μ (microns). It is very rare for
powders to flocculate (settle) since the electrostatic charges of each particle are
equal in sign, this occurs when subjected to electrostatic forces of different
signs, depending on their size, density and dynamic behavior, they may not
diffuse in the air and settle by the action of gravity.

Smoke: suspension in the air of solid particles originating from incomplete

combustion processes. Its size is generally less than 0.1μ (microns).30

Metallic smoke (Fume): suspension in the air of solid metallic particles

originated in processes of condensation of the gaseous state, sublimation or
volatilization of a metal; it is very often accompanied by a chemical reaction,
generally of oxidation. The size of its particles is similar to those of the smoke,
contrary to the physical phenomenon of the powders, the particles of the
metallic smoke flocculate (union to form another of greater size and sediment).

Fog: suspensions in the air of small liquid droplets visible to the naked eye,
whose origin is due to condensation of the gaseous state. The size range of
these droplets is between 2 and 60μ (microns) and is usually confused with the
concept of fog.

Mist: are suspensions in the air of small liquid droplets, whose

Origin is due to the condensation of the gaseous state or by disintegration
From a liquid state by atomization, boiling, spraying, etc... The size range of the
droplets is wide, but the most frequent ones oscillate between 0.01 and 10 μ
(microns) and some of them can even be seen with the naked eye.

Fibers: The ASTM (American Society for Testing Materials) defines fiber as
any particle whose cross-section is less than 0.05 mm2 , whose diameter is less
than 0.25 mm and whose length/diameter ratio is greater than 10

Gas: refers to the normal physical state of a substance at a temperature of

25°C and 760 mm Hg. (mercury) pressure. They are amorphous fluids that
occupy the place that contains them and that can only change their physical
state by a combination of pressure and temperature values.
Its particles are of molecular size and, therefore, can move either by mass
transfer, by diffusion or by the influence of gravitational force between
molecules.

Vapor: refers to the gaseous phase of a substance that is in a liquid or solid

state at a temperature of 25°C and 760 mm Hg. (mercury) pressure. Unlike gas,
vapor can change to the solid or liquid state.
Acting only on one of the variables, i.e. varying the pressure or varying the
temperature individually and indistinctly. The particle size is also molecular, so
the same applies to gases.
Dew point: The condensation process usually takes place when a vapor is
cooled to its Dew Point, however this point can also be reached by varying the
pressure. The industrial or laboratory equipment necessary to perform this
process in an artificial way is called Condenser.

A) What is the difference between gas and steam? Justify it technically

from a physical point of view?

GAS: Refers to the normal physical state of a substance at a temperature of

25° C and 760 mm Hg (mercury) pressure. They are amorphous fluids that
occupy the place that contains them and that:

They can only change physical state by a combination of pressure and

temperature values.

VAPOR: Refers to the gaseous phase of a substance that is in a liquid or solid

state at a temperature of 25° C and 760 mm Hg (mercury) pressure.

Unlike GAS, steam can change to the solid or liquid state by acting on only one
of the variables, i.e. varying the pressure or varying the temperature individually
and indistinctly. The particle size is also molecular, so the same applies to
gases.

B) What is the difference between fog and haze? Justify it technically

from the physical point of view.

BRUMA: The size range of these droplets is between 2 and 60μ (microns)
usually confused with the concept of fog.

FOG: The size range of the droplets is wide, but the most frequent ones
oscillate between 0.01 and 10 μ (microns) and some of them can even be seen
with the naked eye.

3. Calculate the number of molecules of o-Xylene (C8H10) that would be

in each cubic meter of air, if 0.01 hectoliters of that hydrocarbon were
evaporated and its molecules were spread uniformly through the Earth's
atmosphere. - Earth diameter = 13,000 km. - Total air layer thickness = 10
Km.

DATA:
o-Xylene (C8H10) 0.01 Hl =1000cm3
Earth diameter = 13,000 km. –
Total air layer thickness = 10 Km.

Considering that the density of Xylene (C₈H₁₀), at 20º C temperature, is.

equal to 0.865 g/cm³ the total mass evaporated would result:

Mass of Xylene (C₈H₁₀), evaporated = 1000 cm3X 0.865 g/cm3= 865 grams

Knowing that the molecular weight of toluene (C7H9) is 92 g/mol and that
according to Avogadro's Law, one mole contains 6.023 x 1023 molecules under
ideal conditions, the total number of molecules evaporated would be

Number of moles = 865 grams = 8.14 moles

106.16 g/mol

Then:

8.14 moles x 6.023 x 1023 molecules/mol = 4.90 x 1024 molecules

If the radius of Planet Earth is approximately 6500 km. (Earth diameter =

13,000 km) and the total layer of air in the atmosphere is approximately 10 km.
width, the total air volume will be:

4/3 π (65103- 65003) = 5.32 x 109 km3= 5.32 x1018 m3

Dividing the total number of molecules by the total volume of air in the
atmosphere will give the number of toluene molecules present in each cubic
meter of air:

4.90 x 1024 molecules of Xylene =9.21 x106 molecules/m3

5.32 x1018 m3of air

9.21 x106molecules/m3 molecules of o-Xylene (C8H10) would be in each cubic meter of air, if 0.01
hectoliters of this hydrocarbon were evaporated and its molecules were spread uniformly
through the Earth's atmosphere.

4. Contaminants are classified, from the point of view of Industrial

Hygiene, into 3 main groups. What are they? Cite the characteristics of
each group.

CHEMICAL RISKS
 -Explosives (solids, liquids and gaseous)
- Corrosives (solids, liquids and gases)
- Flammable Liquids
- Toxics (solids, liquids and gases)
- Oxidizing Materials (solids, liquids and gaseous)
- Reducing Materials (solids, liquids and gases)
- Hazardous Vapors
- Hazardous Gases

PHYSICAL RISKS
- Noise
- Vibration
- Extreme Temperatures
- Lighting and Color
- Radiation (ionizing and non-ionizing)

BIOLOGICAL RISKS

-Bacteria
- Mushrooms
- Viruses
- Parasites
- Mites
- Micro-organisms
- Insects
- Animals
- Vegetables

ERGONOMIC RISKS

PSYCHOSOCIAL RISKS

5. For air pollution to occur, at least three elements must be present.

What are they and why?

For an air pollution process to occur, three elements must be present:

1º) The existence of an emitting source: All tools, machinery, factories,

industrial waste, etc. are major sources of pollutants emitting control of them will
prevent pollution in the working environment and the atmosphere.

2º) That the concentration of pollutants is above the maximum permissible

values: Exceeding certain pollutant limits (CMP) puts the worker's health at risk
.

3º) That there is interference of the air in the psychophysical well-being of the
population.
Pollution means the increase of any of the substances that normally exist in the
air or the appearance of any other substance that is not normal.
The atmosphere is polluted when it contains elements of any nature in
proportions that can affect people's health, cause nuisances of any kind or
cause damage to vegetation, animals, properties, etc.

6. Toxins are assimilated in the human body by four fundamental

pathways. What are they? Rank them by importance and technically
justify why the order of precedence of each route of entry.

The main routes of penetration of pollutants into the human organism in the
occupational order are, in order of importance, the following:

Parenteral route: this is understood as the direct penetration of the

contaminant (wound, puncture, etc.) into the bloodstream through a
discontinuity in the skin (external epithelium). It is the most important route of
entry of a contaminant into the human body, since it immediately reaches the
circulatory system and through it quickly reaches any organ, affecting it rapidly.

Respiratory route: the penetration of contaminants through the respiratory

system (nose, mouth, larynx, bronchi, bronchioles and pulmonary alveoli) is the
second most important route of entry into the organism. Any substance
suspended in the environment can be inhaled, but only those with a certain
particle size will reach the alveoli. The solubility in aqueous media that the
substance possesses to facilitate its entry into the blood also influences, in case
of not being soluble according to its size and shape, it will affect the alveoli and
will eventually affect the respiratory capacity (pneumoconiosis). The total
amount of a pollutant absorbed by this route is a direct function of the
concentration in the environment, the time of exposure and pulmonary
ventilation.

Dermal route: includes the entire surface that surrounds the human body
(epidermis) and through whose pores certain types of substances can enter,
some have the capacity to do so directly and others are carried by other
substances, they can enter by absorption or adsorption. Skin temperature and
perspiration can significantly influence the ingress of contaminants.

Digestive pathway: this is understood as the penetration of contaminants

through the digestive system (mouth, esophagus, stomach, liver and intestines).
Although it is the last in importance since pollutants must be metabolized to
reach the bloodstream. Also most of this type of admission is accidental
(immersion, large splashes, etc.) or voluntary (confusion of containers, suicide
attempt, etc.).

7. Define Powder

Suspension in the air of small solid particles from various physical disintegration
processes. The size range of dust particles is wide, but the most frequent ones
range from 0.1 to 25 μ (microns).
 a) How many types are there?

There are two types: INORGANIC - ORGANIC

b) What are the main characteristics of each type?

8. Define Smoke.

Smoke: suspension in the air of solid particles originating from incomplete

combustion processes.

Metallic smoke (Fume): suspension in the air of solid metallic particles

originated in processes of condensation of the gaseous state, sublimation or
volatilization of a metal; it is very often accompanied by a chemical reaction,
generally of oxidation.

a) - A ) How many types are there?

ORIGINATED BY:
 INDUSTRY NATURE

What are the main characteristics of each type?

Smoke: Its size is generally less than 0.1μ (microns).

Metallic smoke (Fume): The size of its particles is similar to those of Smoke,
contrary to the physical phenomenon of dusts the particles of metallic smoke
flocculate (union to form another of larger size and sediment). They are more
hazardous to worker health.

9. Classify chemical pollutants by their effects on the human organism.

Classification according to their effects on the human organism

Irritants
Pneumoconiotics
Systemic Toxics
Anesthetics and Narcotics: Carcinogens
Allergy sufferers
Asphyxiating
Dermatosis producers
Combined effects
Simple effects
Additive effects
Enhancing effects

10. What is the difference between Respirable Fraction and Inhalable

Fraction. Explain and cite examples justifying them from the point of view
of granulometry and from the physical point of view.

Respirable: The mass fraction of inhaled particles that penetrate the non-ciliated
airways.
Inhalable: mass fraction of the total aerosol that is inhaled through the nose and
mouth.

EXAMPLES FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF GRANULOMETRY AND

PHYSICS

11. During the study of the dynamic behavior of particles in a working

atmosphere, the following data were obtained during the determinations:
Sedimentation velocity of the pollutant is equal to 7 x 10-4 cm/s
(centimeters over second); the density of the fluid is equal to 1.2934 x 10-3
gr/cm3 (grams over cubic centimeters); the viscosity of the fluid is equal
to 2 x 10-2 Poises and the density of the particle is equal to 0.2 gr/cm3
(grams over cubic centimeters). Calculate:

a) What will be the diameter of the particle?

b) Indicate if the particle responds to Respirable Fraction or Inhalable
Fraction, justify
DATA:

KNUSEN number = K = 1.72

λ = 10-4

Acceleration of gravity = g = 9.8 m/s2

MISSING

12. What is the difference between air flow and velocity in the duct?
Explain and cite more than one example of this difference and
substantiate it technically.

AIR FLOW: The study of air flow into the openings is based on a suction point
to which air flows from all directions.

VELOCITY IN THE DUCT: It is the speed of contaminated air in the ducts,

which should be at least 18 to 20 m/sec. When particulate material is
transported.

- This speed can be reduced when transporting gases or vapors, being

established in this case for design reasons at about 10 m/sec.

13. The personal risk assessment establishes 5 basic aspects. What are
they and why?
1) The existence of the risk in the operations performed by the operator.
2) Once the existence of the risk has been determined, it shall establish the
scope of the risk in order to eliminate or minimize it.
3) Establish appropriate procedures for control.
4) Determine the efficiency of controls.
5) Maintain the facilities in good condition.

The investigation of items one and two comprises two stages:

a) Sampling.
b) Analysis.
It is not a simple expression, but has the scope as a proportionality term
between the pollutant in the workplace air compared to the CMP as a function
of time.

14. What is the criterion used when there are no reasonable ways to
control heat load aggression? Why?

When there are no reasonable ways to control the aggression, the reduction of
exposure time and the provision of appropriate recovery sites or areas should
be resorted to.
In all cases, fresh water should be provided and salt intake should be controlled
due to its loss through sweating.
Heat acts on the human body in a very complex way, affecting the general
physiology of the organism.
Man is a homothermal being, that is to say, for the conditions that are the basis
of life to occur, it is necessary for the body temperature to remain stable; small
changes in temperature produce serious imbalances. If the body cannot
eliminate heat, it accumulates and the body temperature rises, and the body
must adapt to the new conditions. If the elevation continues, and the problem
cannot be solved, death ensues.

15. What are the kinds and degrees of treatment required to achieve a
regular supply of potable water.

The kind and degree of treatment required to achieve a regular supply of good
water varies greatly and depends primarily on the application involved and the
purity and reliability of the raw water; also important are the extent and
effectiveness of precautions taken to protect the treated water from
contamination before use.

The treatment techniques currently employed include, above all, the following:

a) Sedimentation: by deposition of suspended matter in sedimentation tanks or

reservoirs.
 b) Filtration: to remove particulate matter and microorganisms. The most
traditional method is biological filtration. There are others such as slow or rapid
sand filtration.

c) Sterilization: generally performed on a large scale by adding chlorine in some

form to the drinking water. Ultraviolet light and ionization are also used in some
sterilization facilities. Argentic ion treatment has also been used. When dealing
with small quantities, boiling water is an effective procedure.

d) Softening: to remove excess calcium and magnesium salts.

e) Oxygenation: through the formation of droplets (cascades or jets) or with

compressed air, to increase the degree of purification and the suppression of
excess iron.

f) Fluoridation: for prophylactic reasons (especially prevention of dental caries).

g) Salification: of drinking water to combat heat exhaustion due to the loss of

salt from the body is a remedy sometimes used in certain industries where work
is performed at high temperatures or located in hot climates.

16. What is demineralized water and how does it differ from drinking
water?

Demineralized water is water that has been evaporated and subsequently

condensed. This process eliminates almost all dissolved substances and
microorganisms that water usually contains; it is practically the pure chemical
substance H2O.

According to the definitions presented, the differences between drinking water

and distilled water are as follows:

- Drinking water is water that is fit for human consumption and contains a
minimum amount of minerals and salts. Water that has been treated under
different processes for human consumption.

- Distilled water is water that is pure and free of salts and minerals and that if
you drink it as well as you drink it, it will be excreted in your urine as if it were
nothing. It has no minerals and is not suitable for human consumption.

17. How is demineralized water obtained?

Distillation removes almost all microbes and possible contaminants from the
water. The distillation process requires water to be boiled and the vapor
collected and re-condensed, at which time it is collected and bottled. While
distillation cleans the water of metals, as well as viruses and organic
compounds that may affect the safety of the water, it also removes natural
minerals, which makes the water tasteless.
18. What is demineralized water used for? Why?

Demineralized water or demi water is water from which minerals and salts have
been removed. It is used when water with low salt content or low conductivity is
required. Some examples of its use are:

- Boiler feed water

- Pharmaceutical uses
- Electronics industry
- Food uses
- Industrial uses

A specific conductivity is used for each application. However, there will always
remain a certain conductivity, due to the acid/base balance of the water. The
best quality demineralized water has a resistance of approximately 18.2
megohms per centimeter or a conductivity of 0.055 microSiemens per
centimeter.

19. Explain what are the main sources of pollution of watercourses.

Why?

Sources of contamination Several sources of contamination can be listed,

taking into account those resulting from human action, leaving aside the natural
ones, as they are of little relevance.

In general, they are caused by various types of drains and eventual solid
discharges.

Among the first ones we have mainly sewage, rainwater, industrial, high
temperature, from the exploitation of oil and its derivatives, from agricultural and
livestock exploitation, from activities related to the use of radioactive elements,
etc.
 SUMMARY TABLE OF POLLUTANT SOURCES

Sewage drains: They are one of the most serious causes of water pollution, due
to their content of organic matter, pathogenic microorganisms, detergents, etc.

The evacuation of these drains into watercourses without prior treatment can
cause serious damage, especially the decomposition of organic matter by
bacterial action prior to the reduction of dissolved oxygen, and can even lead to
its elimination.

Storm drains: Storm drains are not sufficiently taken into account when
analyzing the causes of water pollution, even though they can be dangerous.
Rainwater carries pollutants present in the atmosphere and especially mineral
substances and animal and vegetable waste accumulated on roofs, rooftops,
patios, sidewalks and streets.

Industrial drains: Together with sewage drains, they are the predominant cause
of water pollution. It is very difficult to define the characteristics of industrial
drains, since they present the particularity of their great variety in terms of
nature and quantity of waste produced, with notorious differences according to
the types of industries, a concept that includes similar ones, since it depends on
the modality of the manufacturing process developed.
High temperature discharges: This is a form of water pollution that has begun to
cause concern in recent years and is referred to as thermal pollution. The
elevated temperature in a watercourse determines the kind of fish that can live
and reproduce, since this factor governs the amount of dissolved oxygen
available. It also has another important negative effect, since oxygen combines
more rapidly with organic wastes as the water temperature rises, and may even
disappear completely.

Drainage from the exploitation and transportation of oil and its derivatives: This
cause of contamination is due to accidental losses and lack of care in the
handling of oil and its derivatives, as well as spills caused by ships transporting
the product and carrying out transfer operations, unloading ballast or cleaning
their tanks. The oil or its derivatives present in bodies of water is not only
objectionable from an aesthetic point of view and because of the damage
caused to beaches and shores, but also because of the thin film it forms when it
spreads over the surface, preventing re-aeration and the corresponding
incorporation of oxygen necessary for the self-purification processes.

Drainage originated in activities related to the use of radioactive elements: This

is a problem that gradually becomes more and more relevant as this type of
activity develops.

Drainage from farms: This cause of pollution refers especially to changes in the
quality of water used for agricultural purposes.

Solid discharges: This form of pollution is produced by direct discharges of solid

waste, whether domestic or industrial, into watercourses. The effects of water
pollution can be considered by analyzing some aspects linked to the different
water uses.

20. What are the basic processes and cares that must be taken into
account during the cleaning operation and the fitting out of water tanks or
reservoirs for human consumption? Why?

"The disinfection of wells, storage tanks or reservoirs and water distribution

pipes intended for drinking consumption shall be carried out periodically and
whenever the competent authority so orders". "No newly drilled well, storage
tank or reservoir and distribution pipes, newly constructed, may be released for
use without prior disinfection process" - Law 5376/48, Art. 18.
DISINFECTANT TO BE USED

Chlorine, preferably from a chlorogen whose active chlorine content is known,

should be used as a disinfecting agent. Sodium hypochlorite for industrial use
has an active chlorine content of 10 g/liter, concentrated bleach water has an
active chlorine content of 80 g/liter and simple bleach water has an active
chlorine content of 20 g/liter.

DISINFECTION OF IN-USE AND NEWLY CONSTRUCTED WELLS AND

THEIR PIPELINES

The amount of chlorogen to be used has been calculated for bleach water of 80
g/liter. The procedure is as follows:

a) If sufficient rubber or plastic tubing of small diameter is available to reach the

bottom of the well, it shall be inserted through the suction pipe.

b) If a pipe as mentioned above is not available, the chlorogen must be

introduced through a hole in the pipe to reach the bottom of the well. The
amount of 8 to 10 liters of concentrated bleach water is then added. The pump
is then operated. The entire circuit is closed and left in contact for at least 24
hours, and then pumped again until the residual chlorine disappears.

DISINFECTION OF TANKS, WATER STORAGE RESERVOIRS AND

PIPELINES

a) Empty it completely.
b) Brush or scrape the walls, lid and bottom.
c) Wash with abundant water, draining continuously until all dirt is removed.
d) Apply lime whitewash to the walls, lid and bottom. Once dry, fill the tank and
add the necessary chlorogen, which depends on the volume of the tank,
according to the following table:
e) Once the hypochlorite has been added, open all faucets until the smell of
chlorine is perceived, then close them and leave them to act for 24 hours.

f) Empty the interior to remove all chlorine.

Once wells, tanks, water storage tanks, pipes, etc. have been disinfected,
proceed to microbiological analysis of the water. Do not use water directly until
a "BACTERIOLOGICAL POTABILITY" result is obtained. It is advisable to boil
or chlorinate before drinking.