‭The Need for Food:‬

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● ‭ ll living organisms require food.‬
‭●‬ ‭Plants produce their food through photosynthesis, while animals must obtain it by consuming plants or other‬
‭animals.‬
‭●‬ ‭Food serves several crucial functions in plants and animals:‬
‭○‬ ‭Supports growth by providing the necessary substances for creating new cells and tissues.‬
‭○‬ ‭Acts as a source of energy, essential for various biological processes, such as respiration, building‬
‭large molecules, and powering animal activities.‬
‭○‬ ‭Facilitates the replacement of worn and damaged tissues, like red blood cells, skin, and wound repair.‬
‭ alanced Diets:‬
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‭‬ A
● ‭ balanced diet contains all the essential nutrients in the right proportions for maintaining good health.‬
‭●‬ ‭Essential nutrients include carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water.‬
‭●‬ ‭Carbohydrates and fats supply energy for internal body processes, maintaining body temperature, and‬
‭supporting physical activities.‬
‭●‬ ‭Energy derived from food is measured in calories or joules.‬
‭●‬ ‭The average daily energy intake needed is about 12,000 kJ, but it varies based on factors like age,‬
‭occupation, and activity level.‬
‭●‬ ‭Females generally require less energy than males, and children need more energy for growth.‬
‭●‬ ‭Excess energy from food can be stored as glycogen in the liver or as fat in the body.‬
‭ lasses of Food:‬
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‭‬
● ‭ hree main classes of food: carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.‬
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‭●‬‭Carbohydrates are a primary source of energy, like sugar and starch.‬
‭●‬‭Fats are found in animal products and plant oils, with the highest energy content.‬
‭●‬‭Proteins supply amino acids needed for building and repairing tissues.‬
‭●‬‭Plant-based sources of protein are available, but they may require careful selection to ensure complete‬
‭amino acid profiles.‬
‭ itamins:‬
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‭ ‬ ‭Vitamins are organic compounds needed in small quantities for various biochemical processes.‬
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‭●‬ ‭They do not provide energy directly but are essential for health.‬
‭●‬ ‭Vitamins can be water-soluble or fat-soluble.‬
‭●‬ ‭Deficiency in specific vitamins can lead to vitamin-deficiency diseases.‬
‭Examples of Vitamins:‬
‭‬ V
● ‭ itamin C is found in citrus fruits and is essential for skin and gum health. Deficiency leads to scurvy.‬
‭●‬ ‭Vitamin D is produced by the skin when exposed to sunlight and aids in calcium absorption. Deficiency can‬
‭result in rickets.‬
‭ ineral Ions:‬
M
‭●‬ E ‭ ssential mineral ions include iron, which is needed for hemoglobin production, and calcium, vital for bone‬
‭and muscle function.‬
‭●‬ ‭Iron deficiency can cause anemia.‬
‭●‬ ‭Calcium deficiency can lead to weak bones and other symptoms.‬
‭ ietary Fiber:‬
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‭ ‬ ‭Dietary fiber, also known as roughage, consists of plant cell walls that humans cannot digest.‬
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‭●‬ ‭It helps maintain healthy digestion and prevent constipation.‬
‭●‬ ‭Good sources of fiber include vegetables, fruits, and wholemeal bread.‬
‭ ater:‬
W
‭‬ W
● ‭ ater is a vital component of the body, constituting around 70% of most tissues.‬
‭●‬ ‭It serves as a solvent for various biochemical reactions, aids in digestion, and regulates body temperature.‬
‭●‬ ‭The body constantly loses water through evaporation, sweating, urination, and breathing, necessitating‬
‭regular water intake.‬
‭ nergy from Food Experiment:‬
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‭●‬ T ‭ o measure the energy content of a food item, conduct an experiment where you burn a sample and‬
‭calculate the energy released by heating a known quantity of water.‬
‭●‬ ‭The energy content can be compared to official values to assess accuracy.‬
‭Safety Notes:‬
‭ ‬ ‭Ensure eye protection.‬
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‭●‬ ‭Take care when handling the needle and open flame.‬
‭●‬ ‭Proper ventilation and adult supervision are required.‬
‭Digestive System:‬
‭‬ F
● ‭ eeding involves the intake, chewing, and swallowing of food.‬
‭●‬ ‭However, for food to benefit the body, it must undergo digestion, turning solid food into soluble forms and‬
‭reducing molecular size.‬
‭●‬ ‭Soluble products are then absorbed into the bloodstream, which delivers nutrients to living cells in tissues‬
‭and organs.‬
‭ egions of the Alimentary Canal and Their Functions:‬
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‭‬
● ‭ he alimentary canal is a tubular structure in the body where food digestion occurs.‬
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‭●‬ ‭Soluble nutrients are absorbed, and indigestible components are expelled.‬
‭●‬ ‭The inside of the alimentary canal is lined with layers of cells called an epithelium.‬
‭●‬ ‭Epithelial cells are continually replaced as they are worn away during food movement.‬
‭●‬ ‭The lining also contains cells that produce mucus, a slimy liquid that lubricates and protects the canal.‬
‭●‬ ‭Mucus might prevent digestive enzymes from damaging the canal.‬
‭●‬ ‭Some digestive enzymes are produced within the canal's lining, while others originate from glands located‬
‭outside the canal. Glands release enzymes into the canal through ducts.‬
‭●‬ ‭Examples of digestive glands include salivary glands and the pancreas.‬
‭ ‬ ‭The alimentary canal features numerous blood vessels near its lining, which supply oxygen, remove carbon‬
●
‭dioxide, and absorb digested food.‬

‭Physical Digestion:‬
‭●‬ P ‭ hysical digestion involves breaking down food into smaller pieces without altering the chemical structure of‬
‭the food molecules.‬
‭●‬ ‭Key processes of physical digestion occur in the mouth, stomach, and with the aid of bile.‬
‭●‬ ‭The human diet is omnivorous, similar to carnivores in terms of tooth types, but human teeth are not‬
‭designed for hunting or crushing bones.‬
‭Types of Human Teeth and Their Functions:‬
‭●‬ ‭Human teeth have distinct functions:‬
‭○‬ ‭Incisors: Located at the front and used to cut food into smaller pieces.‬
‭○‬ ‭Canines: Pointed and larger, behaving like additional incisors.‬
‭○‬ ‭Premolars and molars: With knobbly surfaces that crush food into smaller pieces, aiding in digestion.‬
‭Tooth Structure:‬
‭‬ T
● ‭ eeth have a portion above the gum line, covered by hard enamel.‬
‭●‬ ‭The root of the tooth is embedded in the jaw bone, covered by cement.‬
‭●‬ ‭Beneath the enamel is a softer layer called dentine, and within the dentine is the pulp cavity containing‬
‭nerves and blood vessels.‬
‭ tomach's Role in Physical Digestion:‬
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‭‬
● ‭ he stomach stores food and transforms it into a liquid form.‬
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‭●‬ ‭The stomach's elastic walls stretch as food accumulates.‬
‭●‬ ‭Muscles in the stomach wall contract and relax, churning and squeezing the food with gastric juice.‬
‭●‬ ‭This process increases the food's surface area for more efficient digestion.‬
‭●‬ ‭The duration of food retention in the stomach depends on its content, with water passing through quickly,‬
‭while meals with protein and fat may stay for longer.‬
‭●‬ ‭The stomach has a valve at its base to prevent solid food from passing through and allows liquid products of‬
‭digestion to enter the small intestine.‬
‭ eristalsis:‬
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‭ eristalsis is a wave of contractions in the muscular layers of the alimentary canal, pushing food along the‬
‭canal.‬
‭ ile:‬
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 ‭●‬ B ‭ ile is a green, watery fluid produced in the liver, stored in the gallbladder, and delivered to the duodenum‬
‭through the bile duct.‬
‭●‬ ‭Bile contains bile salts, which emulsify fats, breaking them into small droplets with a larger surface area for‬
‭more efficient digestion.‬
‭●‬ ‭The green color of bile is due to bile pigments formed from the breakdown of hemoglobin in the liver.‬
‭ hemical Digestion:‬
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‭●‬ C ‭ hemical digestion involves breaking down large, insoluble food molecules into small, soluble ones through‬
‭the action of enzymes.‬
‭●‬ ‭This process allows the small molecules to be absorbed through the alimentary canal's epithelium and into‬
‭the bloodstream.‬
‭●‬ ‭Enzymes are the chemicals responsible for dissolving food, significantly accelerating the breakdown‬
‭compared to a simple immersion in water.‬
‭●‬ ‭Starch is digested into glucose, proteins into amino acids, and fats into glycerol and fatty acids.‬
‭ unctions of the Main Parts of the Alimentary Canal:‬
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● ‭ outh‬‭: Ingestion, physical digestion by teeth, and‬‭chemical digestion of starch using salivary amylase.‬
‭●‬ ‭Salivary Glands‬‭: Produce saliva containing amylase‬‭for starch digestion and to lubricate and stick food‬
‭particles.‬
‭●‬ ‭Esophagus (Gullet)‬‭: Transfers food from the mouth‬‭to the stomach through peristalsis.‬
‭●‬ ‭Stomach‬‭: Produces gastric juice with protease for‬‭protein digestion and hydrochloric acid to create an‬
‭optimal pH for protease and kill bacteria.‬
‭●‬ ‭Duodenum (First Part of Small Intestine)‬‭: Receives‬‭pancreatic juice and bile for chemical digestion of‬
‭proteins, fats, and starch and emulsification of fats.‬
‭●‬ ‭Ileum (Second Part of Small Intestine)‬‭: Site for absorption‬‭of digested food, water, and final stages of‬
‭chemical digestion.‬
‭●‬ ‭Pancreas‬‭: Secretes pancreatic juice containing enzymes‬‭for digestion of proteins, fats, and starch.‬
‭●‬ ‭Liver‬‭: Produces bile to emulsify fats, performs assimilation‬‭of nutrients like glucose, and converts excess‬
‭amino acids into glycogen.‬
‭●‬ ‭Gallbladder‬‭: Stores bile produced in the liver and‬‭releases it into the duodenum.‬
‭●‬ ‭Colon (First Part of Large Intestine)‬‭: Absorbs water‬‭from undigested food and bile salts to return to the‬
‭liver.‬
‭●‬ ‭Rectum‬‭: Stores feces.‬
‭●‬ ‭Anus‬‭: Involved in egestion of feces.‬
‭ igestion of Starch:‬
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‭●‬ S ‭ tarch digestion occurs in two places: the mouth (by salivary amylase) and the duodenum (by pancreatic‬
‭amylase).‬
‭●‬ ‭Amylase works best in a neutral or slightly alkaline pH and breaks down large, insoluble starch molecules‬
‭into smaller, soluble maltose molecules.‬
‭●‬ ‭Maltose, a disaccharide sugar, is further broken down to glucose by the enzyme maltase in the epithelial‬
‭cells of the villi.‬
‭ igestion of Protein:‬
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‭‬ P
● ‭ roteins are digested into smaller molecules called peptides and then into completely soluble amino acids.‬
‭●‬ ‭Pepsin is a protease secreted in the stomach, functioning optimally in the acidic stomach environment.‬
‭●‬ ‭Trypsin, secreted by the pancreas and activated in the duodenum, works on proteins and peptides under‬
‭alkaline conditions.‬
‭●‬ ‭Epithelial cells of the villi contain enzymes in their cell membranes, such as peptidase, which complete the‬
‭breakdown of peptides into amino acids.‬
‭ unction of Bile in Chemical Digestion:‬
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‭●‬ B ‭ ile is slightly alkaline, containing sodium hydrogencarbonate, and neutralizes the acidic mixture of food and‬
‭gastric juices as it enters the duodenum.‬
‭●‬ ‭Bile, along with pancreatic juice, creates alkaline conditions in the duodenum, providing the optimal pH for‬
‭enzyme activity.‬
‭ bsorption:‬
A
‭●‬ A
‭ bsorption Locations:‬‭Nutrients are primarily absorbed‬‭in the ileum (second part of the small intestine),‬
‭and water absorption also occurs in the colon (part of the large intestine).‬
 ‭●‬ ‭Efficiency of Ileum for Absorption:‬‭The ileum is efficient for nutrient absorption due to several factors:‬
‭○‬ ‭Large surface area provided by its length.‬
‭○‬ ‭Circular folds in its internal surface, each bearing villi, which are tiny projections that may be‬
‭finger-like or flattened.‬
‭○‬ ‭Thin lining epithelium, facilitating the rapid passage of fluids.‬
‭○‬ ‭Presence of microvilli on the outer membrane of epithelial cells, significantly increasing their surface‬
‭area.‬
‭○‬ ‭A dense network of blood capillaries in each villus.‬
‭●‬ ‭Absorption Mechanism:‬‭Small molecules of digested‬‭food like glucose and amino acids pass into the‬
‭epithelial cells and then through the wall of the capillaries in the villi, entering the bloodstream. The blood‬
‭carries these nutrients to the liver via the hepatic portal vein.‬
‭●‬ ‭Fatty Acids and Glycerol:‬‭While some fatty acids and‬‭glycerol enter the blood capillaries of the villi, a‬
‭substantial proportion combines to re-form fats within the intestinal epithelium. These fats then enter the‬
‭lacteals, and their fluid flows into the lymphatic system.‬
‭●‬ ‭Vitamins and Mineral Salts:‬‭Water-soluble vitamins‬‭may diffuse into the epithelium, while fat-soluble‬
‭vitamins are carried within microscopic fat droplets. Mineral salts are likely absorbed through active transport,‬
‭with calcium ions requiring vitamin D for effective absorption.‬
‭ xperiments:‬
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‭Experiment 2 - The Action of Salivary Amylase on Starch:‬
‭ ‬ I‭n this experiment, saliva (or amylase solution) is used to demonstrate the conversion of starch into sugar.‬
●
‭●‬ ‭Two test tubes, one containing unboiled saliva (or amylase solution) and the other containing boiled saliva (or‬
‭amylase solution), are mixed with a starch solution.‬
‭●‬ ‭The test tubes are tested for the presence of sugar using Benedict's solution, which forms a red or orange‬
‭precipitate in the presence of reducing sugar.‬
‭●‬ ‭Results show that the unboiled saliva (or amylase) digests the starch into sugar, while boiled saliva (or‬
‭amylase) does not, suggesting that it's an enzyme responsible for the conversion.‬
‭ xperiment 3 - Modelling the Action of Amylase on Starch:‬
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‭ ‬ I‭n this experiment, Visking tubing is used to model the digestion of starch.‬
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‭●‬ ‭Visking tubing is filled with a starch solution and amylase (or saliva), and the contents are surrounded by‬
‭distilled water.‬
‭●‬ ‭After a certain period, samples from the Visking tubing and the surrounding water are tested for the presence‬
‭of starch and reducing sugar.‬
‭●‬ ‭The results indicate that starch is digested into reducing sugar and that reducing sugar can diffuse from the‬
‭tubing into the surrounding water, demonstrating the process of digestion and absorption.‬
‭ xperiment 4 - The Action of Pepsin on Egg White Protein:‬
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‭‬ T
● ‭ his experiment demonstrates the action of pepsin on protein using egg white suspension.‬
‭●‬ ‭Four test tubes are labeled A, B, C, and D and filled with egg white suspension, pepsin solution, and/or dilute‬
‭hydrochloric acid (HCl) as specified.‬
‭●‬ ‭The tubes are placed in warm water, and after a period, the contents are observed.‬
‭●‬ ‭Tube C goes clear, indicating that pepsin digests egg protein into soluble products only in an acidic‬
‭environment. The other tubes do not go clear, confirming the role of pepsin in the digestion process.‬