ARMILLARY SPHERE

introduction
An armillary sphere (variations are known as spherical astrolabe, armilla, or armil) is
a model of objects in the sky (on the celestial sphere), consisting of a spherical
framework of rings, centered on Earth or the Sun, that represent lines of celestial
longitude and latitude and other astronomically important features, such as the ecliptic.
As such, it differs from a celestial globe, which is a smooth sphere whose principal
purpose is to map the constellations. It was invented separately, in ancient
China possibly as early as the 4th century BC and ancient Greece during the 3rd
century BC, with later uses in the Islamic world and Medieval Europe.
With the Earth as center, an armillary sphere is known as Ptolemaic. With the Sun as
center, it is known as Copernican.[1]
The flag of Portugal features an armillary sphere. The armillary sphere is also featured
in Portuguese heraldry, associated with the Portuguese discoveries during the Age of
Exploration. Manuel I of Portugal, for example, took it as one of his symbols where it
appeared on his standard, and on early Chinese export ceramics made for the
Portuguese court. In the flag of the Empire of Brazil, the armillary sphere is also
featured.
The Beijing Capital International Airport Terminal 3 features a large armillary sphere
metal sculpture as an exhibit of Chinese inventions for international and domestic
visitors.
Chinese Armillary sphere at Beijing Capital International Airport 紫薇辰恆 Ziwei
Chenheng Aug-2010

Description and use[edit]

This section refers to labels in the diagram below. (Open it in a second window on your
screen for easy magnified reference.)

Armillary sphere diagram

The exterior parts of this machine are a compages [or framework] of brass rings, which
represent the principal circles of the heavens.

1. The equinoctial A, which is divided into 360 degrees (beginning at its intersection
with the ecliptic in Aries) for showing the sun's right ascension in degrees; and
also into 24 hours, for showing its right ascension in time.
2. The ecliptic B, which is divided into 12 signs, and each sign into 30 degrees, and
also into the months and days of the year; in such a manner, that the degree or
 point of the ecliptic in which the sun is, on any given day, stands over that day in
the circle of months.
3. The tropic of Cancer C, touching the ecliptic at the beginning of Cancer in e, and
the tropic of Capricorn D, touching the ecliptic at the beginning of Capricorn in f;
each 231⁄2 degrees from the equinoctial circle.
4. The Arctic Circle E, and the Antarctic Circle F, each 231⁄2 degrees from its
respective pole at N and S.
5. The equinoctial colure G, passing through the north and south poles of the
heaven at N and S, and through the equinoctial points Aries and Libra, in the
ecliptic.
6. The solstitial colure H, passing through the poles of the heaven, and through the
solstitial points Cancer and Capricorn, in the ecliptic. Each quarter of the former
of these colures is divided into 90 degrees, from the equinoctial to the poles of
the world, for showing the declination of the sun, moon, and stars; and each
quarter of the latter, from the ecliptic as e and f, to its poles b and d, for showing
the latitude of the stars.
In the north pole of the ecliptic is a nut b, to which is fixed one end of the quadrantal
wire, and to the other end a small sun Y, which is carried round the ecliptic B—B, by
turning the nut : and in the south pole of the ecliptic is a pin d, on which is another
quadrantal wire, with a small moon Ζ upon it, which may be moved round by hand : but
there is a particular contrivance for causing the moon to move in an orbit which crosses
the ecliptic at an angle of 51⁄3 degrees, to opposite points called the moon's nodes; and
also for shifting these points backward in the ecliptic, as the moon's nodes shift in the
heaven.
Within these circular rings is a small terrestrial globe I, fixed on an axis K, which extends
from the north and south poles of the globe at n and s, to those of the celestial sphere
at N and S. On this axis is fixed the flat celestial meridian L L, which may be set directly
over the meridian of any place on the globe, so as to keep over the same meridian upon
it. This flat meridian is graduated the same way as the brass meridian of the common
globe, and its use is much the same. To this globe is fitted the movable horizon M, so
as to turn upon the two strong wires proceeding from its east and west points to the
globe, and entering the globe at the opposite points off its equator, which is a movable
brass ring set into the globe in a groove all around its equator. The globe may be turned
by hand within this ring, so as to place any given meridian upon it, directly under the
celestial meridian L. The horizon is divided into 360 degrees all around its outermost
edge, within which are the points of the compass, for showing the amplitude of the sun
and the moon, both in degrees and points. The celestial meridian L passes through two
notches in the north and south points of the horizon, as in a common globe: both here, if
the globe be turned round, the horizon and meridian turn with it. At the south pole of the
sphere is a circle of 25 hours, fixed to the rings, and on the axis is an index which goes
round that circle, if the globe be turned round its axis.
 The original diagram of Chinese scientist Su Song's book of
1092 showing the inner workings of his clocktower; a mechanically rotated armillary
sphere crowns the top.
The whole fabric is supported on a pedestal N, and may be elevated or depressed upon
the joint O, to any number of degrees from 0 to 90, by means of the arc P, which is fixed
in the strong brass arm Q, and slides in the upright piece R, in which is a screw at r, to
fix it at any proper elevation.
In the box T are two wheels (as in Dr Long's sphere) and two pinions, whose axes come
out at V and U; either of which may be turned by the small winch W. When the winch is
put upon the axis V, and turn backward, the terrestrial globe, with its horizon and
celestial meridian, keep at rest; and the whole sphere of circles turns round from east,
by south, to west, carrying the sun Y, and moon Z, round the same way, and causing
them to rise above and set below the horizon. But when the winch is put upon the
axis U, and turned forward, the sphere with the sun and moon keep at rest; and the
earth, with its horizon and meridian, turn round from horizon to the sun and moon, to
which these bodies came when the earth kept at rest, and they were carried round it;
showing that they rise and set in the same points of the horizon, and at the same times
in the hour circle, whether the motion be in the earth or in the heaven. If the earthly
globe be turned, the hour-index goes round its hour-circle; but if the sphere be turned,
the hour-circle goes round below the index.
And so, by this construction, the machine is equally fitted to show either the real motion
of the earth, or the apparent motion of the heavens.
To rectify the sphere for use, first slacken the screw r in the upright stem R, and taking
hold of the arm Q, move it up or down until the given degree of latitude for any place be
at the side of the stem R; and then the axis of the sphere will be properly elevated, so
as to stand parallel to the axis of the world, if the machine be set north and south by a
small compass: this done, count the latitude from the north pole, upon the celestial
meridian L, down towards the north notch of the horizon, and set the horizon to that
latitude; then, turn the nut b until the sun Y comes to the given day of the year in the
ecliptic, and the sun will be at its proper place for that day: find the place of the moon's
ascending node, and also the place of the moon, by an Ephemeris, and set them right
accordingly: lastly, turn the winch W, until either the sun comes to the meridian L, or
until the meridian comes to the sun (according as you want the sphere or earth to move)
and set the hour-index to the XII, marked noon, and the whole machine will be rectified.
— Then turn the winch, and observe when the sun or moon rise and set in the horizon,
and the hour-index will show the times thereof for the given day.[2]

History[edit]
China[edit]

Armillary sphere at Beijing Ancient Observatory,

replica of an original from the Ming dynasty Armillary

Sphere 周天璇璣圖, 1615 Xingming guizhi
Throughout Chinese history, astronomers have created celestial globes (Chinese: 渾
象) to assist the observation of the stars. The Chinese also used the armillary sphere in
aiding calendrical computations and calculations.
According to Joseph Needham, the earliest development of the armillary sphere
in China goes back to the astronomers Shi Shen and Gan De in the 4th century BC, as
they were equipped with a primitive single-ring armillary instrument.[3] This would have
allowed them to measure the north polar distance (declination) a measurement that
gave the position in a xiu (right ascension).[3] Needham's 4th century BC dating,
however, is rejected by British sinologist Christopher Cullen, who traces the beginnings
of these devices to the 1st century BC.[4]
During the Western Han dynasty (202 BC – 9 AD) additional developments made by the
astronomers Luoxia Hong (落下閎), Xiangyu Wangren, and Geng Shouchang (耿壽昌)
advanced the use of the armillary in its early stage of evolution. In 52 BC, it was the
astronomer Geng Shouchang who introduced the first permanently fixed equatorial ring
of the armillary sphere.[3] In the subsequent Eastern Han dynasty (23–220 AD) period,
the astronomers Fu An and Jia Kui added the ecliptic ring by 84 AD.[3] With the famous
statesman, astronomer, and inventor Zhang Heng (張衡, 78–139 AD), the sphere was
totally complete in 125 AD, with horizon and meridian rings.[3] The world's first water-
powered celestial globe was created by Zhang Heng, who operated his armillary sphere
by use of an inflow clepsydra clock (see Zhang's article for more detail).
Subsequent developments were made after the Han dynasty that improved the use of
the armillary sphere. In 323 AD the Chinese astronomer Kong Ting was able to
reorganize the arrangement of rings on the armillary sphere so that the ecliptic ring
could be pegged on to the equator at any point desired.[3] The Chinese astronomer and
mathematician Li Chunfeng (李淳風) of the Tang dynasty created one in 633 AD with
three spherical layers to calibrate multiple aspects of astronomical observations, calling
them 'nests' (chhung).[3] He was also responsible for proposing a plan of having a
sighting tube mounted ecliptically in order for the better observation of celestial
latitudes. However, it was the Tang Chinese astronomer, mathematician, and monk Yi
Xing in the next century who would accomplish this addition to the model of the armillary
sphere.[5] Ecliptical mountings of this sort were found on the armillary instruments of
Zhou Cong and Shu Yijian in 1050, as well as Shen Kuo's armillary sphere of the later
11th century, but after that point they were no longer employed on Chinese armillary
instruments until the arrival of the European Jesuits.

Celestial globe from the Qing dynasty

In 723 AD, Yi Xing (一行) and government official Liang Ling-zan (梁令瓚) combined
Zhang Heng's water powered celestial globe with an escapement device. With drums hit
every quarter-hour and bells rung automatically every full hour, the device was also
a striking clock.[6] The famous clock tower that the Chinese polymath Su Song built by
1094 during the Song dynasty would employ Yi Xing's escapement with waterwheel
scoops filled by clepsydra drip, and powered a crowning armillary sphere, a central
celestial globe, and mechanically operated manikins that would exit mechanically
opened doors of the clock tower at specific times to ring bells and gongs to announce
the time, or to hold plaques announcing special times of the day. There was also the
scientist and statesman Shen Kuo (1031–1095). Being the head official for the Bureau
of Astronomy, Shen Kuo was an avid scholar of astronomy, and improved the designs
of several astronomical instruments: the gnomon, armillary sphere, clepsydra clock, and
sighting tube fixed to observe the pole star indefinitely.[7] When Jamal al-Din of Bukhara
was asked to set up an 'Islamic Astronomical Institution' in Khubilai Khan's new capital
during the Yuan dynasty, he commissioned a number of astronomical instruments,
including an armillary sphere. It was noted that "Chinese astronomers had been building
[them] since at least 1092".[8]
India[edit]
The armillary sphere was used for observation in India since early times, and finds
mention in the works of Āryabhata (476 CE).[9] The Goladīpikā—a detailed treatise
dealing with globes and the armillary sphere was composed between 1380 and 1460
CE by Parameśvara.[9] On the subject of the usage of the armillary sphere in India,
Ōhashi (2008) writes: "The Indian armillary sphere (gola-yantra) was based on
equatorial coordinates, unlike the Greek armillary sphere, which was based on ecliptical
coordinates, although the Indian armillary sphere also had an ecliptical hoop. Probably,
the celestial coordinates of the junction stars of the lunar mansions were determined by
the armillary sphere since the seventh century or so. There was also a celestial globe
rotated by flowing water."[10]
Hellenistic world and ancient Rome[edit]
Further information: Planetarium and Antikythera mechanism

Ptolemy with an armillary sphere model, by Joos van

Ghent and Pedro Berruguete, 1476, Louvre, Paris
The Greek astronomer Hipparchus (c. 190 – c. 120 BC) credited Eratosthenes (276 –
194 BC) as the inventor of the armillary sphere.[11][12][13][14][15] Names of this device in Greek
include ἀστρολάβος astrolabos and κρικωτὴ σφαῖρα krikōtē sphaira "ringed sphere".
[16]
The English name of this device comes ultimately from the Latin armilla (circle,
bracelet), since it has a skeleton made of graduated metal circles linking the poles and
representing the equator, the ecliptic, meridians and parallels. Usually a ball
representing the Earth or, later, the Sun is placed in its center. It is used to demonstrate
the motion of the stars around the Earth. Before the advent of the
European telescope in the 17th century, the armillary sphere was the prime instrument
of all astronomers in determining celestial positions.
In its simplest form, consisting of a ring fixed in the plane of the equator, the armilla is
one of the most ancient of astronomical instruments. Slightly developed, it was crossed
by another ring fixed in the plane of the meridian. The first was an equinoctial, the
second a solstitial armilla. Shadows were used as indices of the sun's positions, in
combinations with angular divisions. When several rings or circles were combined
representing the great circles of the heavens, the instrument became an armillary
sphere.[1]
Armillary spheres were developed by the Hellenistic Greeks and were used as teaching
tools already in the 3rd century BC. In larger and more precise forms they were also
used as observational instruments. However, the fully developed armillary sphere with
nine circles perhaps did not exist until the mid-2nd century AD, during the Roman
Empire.[17] Eratosthenes most probably used a solstitial armilla for measuring
the obliquity of the ecliptic. Hipparchus probably used an armillary sphere of four rings.
[17]
The Greco-Roman geographer and astronomer Ptolemy (c. 100 – c. 170 AD)
describes his instrument, the astrolabon, in his Almagest.[17] It consisted of at least three
rings, with a graduated circle inside of which another could slide, carrying two small
tubes positioned opposite each other and supported by a vertical plumb-line.[1][17]
Medieval Middle East and Europe[edit]
 The spherical astrolabe from medieval Islamic astronomy, c.

1480, in the Museum of the History of Science, Oxford [18]

An
armillary sphere in a painting by Florentine Italian artist Sandro Botticelli, c. 1480.

An Ottoman illustration of an armillary sphere, 16th century

Persian and Arab astronomers produced an improved version of the Greek armillary
sphere in the 8th century, and wrote about it in the treatise of Dhat al-Halaq or The
instrument with the rings by the Persian astronomer Fazari (d.c. 777). Abbas Ibn
Firnas (d.887) is thought to have produced another instrument with rings (armillary
sphere) in the 9th century which he gave to Caliph Muhammad I (ruled 852–886).[19] The
spherical astrolabe, a variation of both the astrolabe and the armillary sphere, was
invented during the Middle Ages in the Middle East.[20] About 550 AD, Christian
philosopher John Philoponus wrote a treatise on the astrolabe in Greek, which is the
earliest extant treatise on the instrument.[21] The earliest description of the spherical
astrolabe dates back to the Persian astronomer Nayrizi (fl. 892–902). Muslim
astronomers also independently invented the celestial globe, which were used primarily
for solving problems in celestial astronomy. Today, 126 such instruments remain
worldwide, the oldest from the 11th century. The altitude of the sun, or the Right
Ascension and Declination of stars could be calculated with these by inputting the
location of the observer on the meridian ring of the globe.
The armillary sphere was reintroduced to Western Europe via Al-Andalus in the late
10th century with the efforts of Gerbert d'Aurillac, the later Pope Sylvester II (r. 999–
1003).[22] Pope Sylvester II applied the use of sighting tubes with his armillary sphere in
order to fix the position of the pole star and record measurements for
the tropics and equator.[23]
Korea[edit]

Korean celestial globe

Chinese ideas of astronomy and astronomical instruments were introduced to Korea,
where further advancements were also made. Jang Yeong-sil, a Korean inventor, was
ordered by King Sejong the Great of Joseon to build an armillary sphere. The sphere,
built in 1433 was named Honcheonui (혼천의,渾天儀).
The Honcheonsigye, an armillary sphere activated by a working clock mechanism was
built by the Korean astronomer Song Iyeong in 1669. It is the only
remaining astronomical clock from the Joseon dynasty. The mechanism of the armillary
sphere succeeded that of Sejong era's armillary sphere (Honŭi 渾儀, 1435) and celestial
sphere (Honsang 渾象, 1435), and the Jade Clepsydra (Ongnu 玉漏, 1438)'s sun-
carriage apparatus. Such mechanisms are similar to Ch'oe Yu-ji (崔攸之, 1603~1673)'s
armillary sphere(1657). The structure of time going train and the mechanism of striking-
release in the part of clock is influenced by the crown escapement which has been
developed from 14th century, and is applied to gear system which had been improved
until the middle of 17th century in Western-style clockwork. In particular, timing device
of Song I-yŏng's Armillary Clock adopts the early 17th century pendulum clock system
which could remarkably improve the accuracy of a clock.[24]
 Tycho Brahe's zodiacal armillary sphere, from his Astronomiae
Instauratae Mechanica (Wandesburg, 1598), p. 36.
Renaissance[edit]
Further advances in this instrument were made by Danish astronomer Tycho
Brahe (1546–1601), who constructed three large armillary spheres which he used for
highly precise measurements of the positions of the stars and planets. They were
described in his Astronomiae Instauratae Mechanica.[25]
Armillary spheres were among the first complex mechanical devices. Their development
led to many improvements in techniques and design of all mechanical
devices. Renaissance scientists and public figures often had their portraits painted
showing them with one hand on an armillary sphere, which represented the zenith
of wisdom and knowledge.
The armillary sphere survives as useful for teaching, and may be described as a
skeleton celestial globe, the series of rings representing the great circles of the
heavens, and revolving on an axis within a horizon. With the earth as center such a
sphere is known as Ptolemaic; with the sun as center, as Copernican.[1]


Sculpture of 13th-century English scientist Roger Bacon holding an armillary sphere, Oxford University
Museum of Natural History
 

Young girl with an astronomical instrument, by Jan Gossaert, c. 1520-1540

Portrait in the frontispiece of Antoine Crespin's Propheties par l'astrologue du treschrestien Roy de
France et de Madame la Duchesse de Savoye, Lyon, France, 1572

Allegory of Ingenuity by Giuseppe Crespi, c. 1695

Allegory of the Arts, by Francesco de Mura, c. 1750

A representation of an armillary sphere is present in the modern flag of Portugal and
has been a national symbol since the reign of Manuel I.
 The Armillary sphere in Geneva
Seamless celestial globe[edit]
In the 1980s, Emilie Savage-Smith discovered several celestial globes without
any seams in Lahore and Kashmir.[26]: 5 Hollow objects are typically cast in two halves,
and Savage-Smith indicates that the casting of a seamless sphere was considered
impossible,[26]: 4 though techniques such as rotational molding have been used since at
least the '60s to produce similarly seamless spheres. The earliest seamless globe was
invented in Kashmir by the Muslim astronomer and metallurgist Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman
in 1589–90 (AH 998) during Akbar the Great's reign; another was produced in 1659–60
(1070 AH) by Muhammad Salih Tahtawi with Arabic and Sanskrit inscriptions; and the
last was produced in Lahore by a Hindu astronomer and metallurgist Lala Balhumal
Lahori in 1842 during Jagatjit Singh Bahadur's reign. 21 such globes were produced,
and these remain the only examples of seamless metal globes.
These Mughal metallurgists used the method of lost-wax casting in order to produce
these globes.[27]

Paralympic Games[edit]
An artwork-based model of an Armillary sphere has been used since the March 1, 2014
to light the Paralympic heritage flame at Stoke Mandeville Stadium, United Kingdom.
The sphere includes a wheelchair that the user can rotate to spark the flame as part of a
ceremony to celebrate the past, present and future of the Paralympic Movement in the
UK. The Armillary Sphere was created by artist Jon Bausor and will be used for future
Heritage Flame events. The flame in the first-ever ceremony was lit by London
2012 gold medallist Hannah Cockroft.[28]

Heraldry and vexillology[edit]

 The flag of Portugal features a pronounced armillary
sphere
The armillary sphere is commonly used in heraldry and vexillology, being mainly known
as a symbol associated with Portugal, the Portuguese Empire and the Portuguese
discoveries.
In the end of the 15th century, the armillary sphere became the personal heraldic
badge of the future King Manuel I of Portugal, when he was still a Prince. The intense
use of this badge in documents, monuments, flags and other supports, during the reign
of Manuel I, transformed the armillary sphere from a simple personal symbol to a
national one that represented the Kingdom of Portugal and in particular its Overseas
Empire. As a national symbol, the armillary sphere continued in use after the death of
Manuel I.
In the 17th century, it became associated with the Portuguese dominion of Brazil. In
1815, when Brazil gained the status of kingdom united with that of Portugal, its coat of
arms was formalized as a golden armillary sphere in a blue field. Representing Brazil,
the armillary sphere became also present in the arms and the flag of the United
Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. When Brazil became independent as an
empire in 1822, the armillary sphere continued to be present in its national arms and in
its national flag. The celestial sphere of the present Flag of Brazil replaced the armillary
sphere in 1889.
The armillary sphere was reintroduced in the national arms and in the national Flag of
Portugal in 1911.

6' Armillary Sphere at the San Jacinto Battle Field in La

Porte, Texas

See also[edit]
 Antikythera mechanism – Ancient analogue astronomical computer
 Atlas (statue) – Statue of Atlas at Rockefeller Center in Manhattan, New York, U.S.
 Chinese constellations – Groupings used in Chinese astrology
 De sphaera mundi – Book by Sacrobosco, describes the late medieval (Ptolemaic)
cosmos
 Jang Yeong-sil – Korean mechanical engineer, scientist and inventor
 Orrery – Mechanical model of the solar system, a free-standing solar system
model – Illustrates relative position of Sun and planets
 Prague astronomical clock, also known as Prague Orloj – Medieval astronomical
clock on the Old Town Hall building in Prague, Czech Republic
 Santucci's Armillary Sphere – largest in the world
 Torquetum – Medieval astronomical instrument

References[edit]
1. ^ Jump up to:a b c d One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication
now in the public domain: Huggins, Margaret Lindsay (1911). "Armilla". In Chisholm,
Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 575–576.
2. ^ Elements of the general description incorporate text from the Encyclopædia Britannica First Edition
(1771).
3. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g Needham, Volume 3, 343.
4. ^ Christopher Cullen, "Joseph Needham on Chinese Astronomy", Past and Present, No. 87 (May,
1980), pp. 39–53 (45)
5. ^ Needham, Volume 3, 350.
6. ^ Needham (1986), Volume 4, Part 2, 473–475.
7. ^ Sivin, III, 17
8. ^ S. Frederick Starr, Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to
Tamerlane. Princeton University Press, 2013, p. 452.
9. ^ Jump up to:a b Sarma (2008), Armillary Spheres in India
10. ^ Ōhashi (2008), Astronomical Instruments in India
11. ^ Williams, p. 131
12. ^ Walter William Bryant: A History of Astronomy, 1907, p. 18
13. ^ John Ferguson: Callimachus, 1980, ISBN 978-0-8057-6431-4, p. 18
14. ^ Henry C. King: The History of the Telescope, 2003, ISBN 978-0-486-43265-6, p. 7
15. ^ Dirk L. Couprie, Robert Hahn, Gerard Naddaf: Anaximander in Context: New Studies in the Origins
of Greek Philosophy, 2003, ISBN 978-0-7914-5537-1, p. 179
16. ^ ἀστρολάβος, κρικωτή. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at
the Perseus Project.
17. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. (16 November 2006). "Armillary
Sphere." Encyclopædia Britannica. Accessed 14 October 2017.
18. ^ Lindberg, David C.; Shank, Michael H. (7 October 2013). The Cambridge History of Science:
Volume 2, Medieval Science. Cambridge University Press. p. 173. ISBN 978-1-316-02547-5.
Retrieved 15 May 2018.
19. ^ Al-Makkari, (ed. 1986), Nafh Al-Teeb, Volume 4. Dar Al-Fikre, Egypt, pp. 348–349.
20. ^ Emilie Savage-Smith (1993). "Book Reviews", Journal of Islamic Studies 4 (2), pp. 296–299.
"There is no evidence for the Hellenistic origin of the spherical astrolabe, but rather evidence so far
available suggests that it may have been an early but distinctly Islamic development with no Greek
antecedents."

21. ^ Modern editions of John Philoponus' treatise on the astrolabe are De usu astrolabii eiusque
constructione libellus (On the Use and Construction of the Astrolabe), ed. Heinrich Hase, Bonn: E.
Weber, 1839, OCLC 165707441 (or id. Rheinisches Museum für Philologie 6 (1839): 127–71); repr.
and translated into French by Alain Philippe Segonds, Jean Philopon, traité de l'astrolabe, Paris:
Librairie Alain Brieux, 1981, OCLC 10467740; and translated into English by H.W. Green in R.T.
 Gunther, The Astrolabes of the World, Vol. 1/2, Oxford, 1932, OL 18840299M repr. London: Holland
Press, 1976, OL 14132393M pp. 61–81.
22. ^ Darlington, 467–472.
23. ^ Darlington, 679–670.
24. ^ KIM Sang-Hyuk, A study on the operation mechanism of song I-yong`s armillary clock, Ph.D
dissertation, JoongAng University
25. ^ Brashear, Ronald (May 1999). "Astronomiæ instauratæ mechanica by Tycho Brahe:
Introduction". Special Collections Department. Smithsonian Institution Libraries. Retrieved July
11, 2020.
26. ^ Jump up to:a b Savage-Smith, Emilie (2017). "Of Making Celestial Globes There Seems No
End" (PDF). Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society. No. 132: 1–9.
27. ^ Savage-Smith, Emilie (1985), Islamicate Celestial Globes: Their History, Construction, and Use,
Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.
28. ^ "First ever Heritage Flame lit at Stoke Mandeville in a historic moment for Paralympic
Movement". www.paralympic.org. 3 January 2014.

Sources[edit]
 Encyclopædia Britannica (1771), "Geography".
 Darlington, Oscar G. "Gerbert, the Teacher," The American Historical
Review (Volume 52, Number 3, 1947): 456–476.
 Kern, Ralf: Wissenschaftliche Instrumente in ihrer Zeit. Vom 15. – 19. Jahrhundert.
Verlag der Buchhandlung Walther König 2010, ISBN 978-3-86560-772-0
 Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3. Taipei:
Caves Books, Ltd.
 Sivin, Nathan (1995). Science in Ancient China. Brookfield, Vermont: VARIORUM,
Ashgate Publishing
 Williams, Henry Smith (2004). A History Of Science. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger
Publishing. ISBN 1-4191-0163-3.

External links[edit]

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 Armillary Spheres and Teaching Astronomy | Whipple Museum
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Christianson, Gale (1984). In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton & His Times. New York: Free
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regarding Newton's knowledge of Patristics

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Gjertsen, Derek (1986). The Newton Handbook. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-7102-0279-2.

Levenson, Thomas (2010). Newton and the Counterfeiter: The Unknown Detective Career of the World's
Greatest Scientist. Mariner Books. ISBN 978-0-547-33604-6.

Manuel, Frank E. (1968). A Portrait of Isaac Newton. Belknap Press of Harvard University, Cambridge,
MA.

Stewart, James (2009). Calculus: Concepts and Contexts. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-495-55742-5.

Westfall, Richard S. (1980). Never at Rest. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-27435-7.

Westfall, Richard S. (2007). Isaac Newton. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-921355-9.

Westfall, Richard S. (1994). The Life of Isaac Newton. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-
47737-6.

White, Michael (1997). Isaac Newton: The Last Sorcerer. Fourth Estate Limited. ISBN 978-1-85702-416-6.

Further reading
Primary

Newton, Isaac. The Principia: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. University of California
Press, (1999)

Brackenridge, J. Bruce. The Key to Newton's Dynamics: The Kepler Problem and the Principia: Containing
an English Translation of Sections 1, 2, and 3 of Book One from the First (1687) Edition of Newton's
Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, University of California Press (1996)

Newton, Isaac. The Optical Papers of Isaac Newton. Vol. 1: The Optical Lectures, 1670–1672, Cambridge
University Press (1984)

Newton, Isaac. Opticks (4th ed. 1730) online edition

Newton, I. (1952). Opticks, or A Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections & Colours of Light.
New York: Dover Publications.

Newton, I. Sir Isaac Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy and His System of the
World, tr. A. Motte, rev. Florian Cajori. Berkeley: University of California Press (1934)

Whiteside, D. T., ed. (1967–1982). The Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-07740-8. – 8 volumes.

Newton, Isaac. The correspondence of Isaac Newton, ed. H.W. Turnbull and others, 7 vols (1959–77)

Newton's Philosophy of Nature: Selections from His Writings edited by H.S. Thayer (1953; online edition)

Isaac Newton, Sir; J Edleston; Roger Cotes, Correspondence of Sir Isaac Newton and Professor Cotes,
including letters of other eminent men, London, John W. Parker, West Strand; Cambridge, John
Deighton (1850, Google Books)

Maclaurin, C. (1748). An Account of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophical Discoveries, in Four Books. London:
A. Millar and J. Nourse

Newton, I. (1958). Isaac Newton's Papers and Letters on Natural Philosophy and Related Documents,
eds. I.B. Cohen and R.E. Schofield. Cambridge: Harvard University Press

Newton, I. (1962). The Unpublished Scientific Papers of Isaac Newton: A Selection from the Portsmouth
Collection in the University Library, Cambridge, ed. A.R. Hall and M.B. Hall. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press

Newton, I. (1975). Isaac Newton's 'Theory of the Moon's Motion' (1702). London: Dawson

Alchemy

Craig, John (1946). Newton at the Mint. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Craig, John (1953). "XII. Isaac Newton". The Mint: A History of the London Mint from A.D. 287 to 1948.
Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 198–222. ASIN B0000CIHG7.

de Villamil, Richard (1931). Newton, the Man. London: G. D. Knox. – Preface by Albert Einstein.
Reprinted by Johnson Reprint Corporation, New York (1972)
Dobbs, B. J. T. (1975). The Foundations of Newton's Alchemy or "The Hunting of the Greene Lyon".
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Keynes, John Maynard (1963). Essays in Biography. W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN 978-0-393-00189-1. Keynes
took a close interest in Newton and owned many of Newton's private papers.

Stukeley, W. (1936). Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's Life. London: Taylor and Francis. (edited by A.H.
White; originally published in 1752)

Trabue, J. "Ann and Arthur Storer of Calvert County, Maryland, Friends of Sir Isaac Newton," The
American Genealogist 79 (2004): 13–27.

Religion

Dobbs, Betty Jo Tetter. The Janus Faces of Genius: The Role of Alchemy in Newton's Thought. (1991),
links the alchemy to Arianism

Force, James E., and Richard H. Popkin, eds. Newton and Religion: Context, Nature, and Influence.
(1999), pp. xvii, 325.; 13 papers by scholars using newly opened manuscripts

Pfizenmaier, Thomas C. (1997). "Was Isaac Newton an Arian?". Journal of the History of Ideas. 58 (1):
57–80. doi:10.1353/jhi.1997.0001. JSTOR 3653988. S2CID 170545277.

Ramati, Ayval (2001). "The Hidden Truth of Creation: Newton's Method of Fluxions". The British Journal
for the History of Science. 34 (4): 417–38. doi:10.1017/S0007087401004484. JSTOR 4028372. S2CID
143045863.

Snobelen, Stephen D. (2001). "'God of Gods, and Lord of Lords': The Theology of Isaac Newton's General
Scholium to the Principia". Osiris. 16: 169–208. Bibcode:2001Osir...16..169S. doi:10.1086/649344. JSTOR
301985. S2CID 170364912.

Snobelen, Stephen D. (December 1999). "Isaac Newton, heretic: the strategies of a Nicodemite". The
British Journal for the History of Science. 32 (4): 381–419. doi:10.1017/S0007087499003751. JSTOR
4027945. S2CID 145208136.

Science

Bechler, Zev (2013). Contemporary Newtonian Research (Studies in the History of Modern Science)
(Volume 9). Springer. ISBN 978-94-009-7717-4.

Berlinski, David. Newton's Gift: How Sir Isaac Newton Unlocked the System of the World. (2000); ISBN 0-
684-84392-7

Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan (1995). Newton's Principia for the Common Reader. Oxford: Clarendon
Press. ISBN 978-0-19-851744-3.

Cohen, I. Bernard and Smith, George E., ed. The Cambridge Companion to Newton. (2002). Focuses on
philosophical issues only; excerpt and text search; complete edition online "The Cambridge Companion
to Newton". Archived from the original on 8 October 2008. Retrieved 13 October 2008.
Cohen, I. B. (1980). The Newtonian Revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-
22964-7.

Gleick, James (2003). Isaac Newton. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-375-42233-1.

Halley, E. (1687). "Review of Newton's Principia". Philosophical Transactions. 186: 291–97.

Hawking, Stephen, ed. On the Shoulders of Giants. ISBN 0-7624-1348-4 Places selections from Newton's
Principia in the context of selected writings by Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo and Einstein

Herivel, J. W. (1965). The Background to Newton's Principia. A Study of Newton's Dynamical Researches
in the Years 1664–84. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Newton, Isaac. Papers and Letters in Natural Philosophy, edited by I. Bernard Cohen. Harvard University
Press, 1958, 1978; ISBN 0-674-46853-8.

Numbers, R. L. (2015). Newton's Apple and Other Myths about Science. Harvard University Press. ISBN
978-0-674-91547-3.

Pemberton, H. (1728). "A View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy". The Physics Teacher. 4 (1): 8–9.
Bibcode:1966PhTea...4....8M. doi:10.1119/1.2350900.

Shamos, Morris H. (1959). Great Experiments in Physics. New York: Henry Holt and Company, Inc. ISBN
978-0-486-25346-6.
Dr. Amos Ariny

31/Aug/2022. Source;NASA.GOV

(NASA Astronaut Flight Engineer or Astronomer or Computational Astrophysicist)

THE SIX STEPS OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD INCLUDE:

1) asking a question about something you observe,

2) doing background research to learn what is already known about the topic,

3) constructing a hypothesis,

4) experimenting to test the hypothesis,

5) analyzing the data from the experiment and drawing conclusions, and

6) communicating the results to others.

www.facebook.com/aamor9

https://www.linkedin.com/in/dr-amos-ariny-022056220?originalSubdomain=ug
www.mit.academia.edu/amosariny

www.https://ug.linkedin.com/in/amos-ariny-00434629
Wikipedia account, Winning science fair trophy 2011 photo, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngora_High_School
VIrtual Guest Passport Stamp_NG-17_Final.pdf

Amos Ariny (Astronomer or Astronaut or Computational Astrophysicist)

Email; aamor9@gmail.com
Dr. Amos Ariny ,(Astronomer or NASA Astronaut Flight Engineer) 1984- Present, PhD Earth ,Atmospheric
and Planetary science.

Email; aamor9@gmail.com

https://www.linkedin.com/in/dr-amos-ariny-022056220/

Website;https;//www. Facebook.com/aamor9.

Website;www;twitter.com/aamor9

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Wikipedia account, Winning science fair trophy 2011 photo,

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngora_High_School

Supervisor; Dr. Vemitra White,

Dr. Vemitra White, v_w48@txstate.edu

Masschussetts Institute of Technology collaboration with Texas State University USA AND National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

Thank you for registering for Artemis Learning Pathway: What is Artemis? , please find your registration
record at the link below:
https://na.eventscloud.com/ereg/record.php?id=ed5601cf0dc8a8fd412955b4561fe8eb-
MjAyMi0wNCM2MjU2OGVjODc1NGFh

The link to the webinar is: https://nasastemepdc.adobeconnect.com/marshallnasaepd/.

Website;www.mit.academia.edu/amosariny
Dr. Amos Ariny (Astronomer)

(Bsc, Msc, PhD ;Earth , Atmospheric and Planetary Science )

Massachusetts Institute of Technology-Texas State University USA.

MIT OpenCourseWare

77 Massachusetts Ave, NE49

Cambridge, MA 02139-4301
Dr. Amos Ariny (Astronomer)

(Bsc, Msc, PhD ;Earth , Atmospheric and Planetary Science )

Massachusetts Institute of Technology-Texas State University USA.

MIT OpenCourseWare

77 Massachusetts Ave, NE49

Cambridge, MA 02139-4301
Amos Ariny (Astronomer) 1992 Photo. NASA.GOV. NASA Astronaut Flight Engineer ,1984, 1987.
https://digitalworldvision.tumblr.com/following
Dr. Amos Ariny

31/Aug/2022. Source;NASA.GOV

( NASAAstronaut Flight Engineer or Astronomer or Computational Astrophysicist)

Amos Ariny(Astronomer) 2009 Photo , NASA.GOV.

(NASA Astronaut Flight Engineer or Astronomer or Computational Astrophysicist)