Electromagnetic Spectrum

Optical fiber geometry

θc Critical angle of incidence
θ critical angle of propagation
ƞ will be 1. α is called acceptance angle
Numerical aperture shows the light collecting
ability of the fiber thus its value must be high.
Let relative refractive index is Δ = (n1-n2)/n1

n1-n2 = n1 Δ
n1+n2 = 2 n1

Substitute in equation of NA we get

α
NA = ((n1-n2) (n1+n2))1/2
NA = ( 2 n1 . n1 Δ ) ½

NA = n1 ( 2 Δ) ½
NA= Sin α
The value of NA is between 0 and 1
NA in degree is given by
NA = 2α
Optical Fiber Types
 V Number
A normalized frequency parameter, which determines the number of modes of a step-
index fiber
The V number is a dimensionless parameter which is often used in the context of step-index fibers. It is defined as

where λ is the vacuum wavelength, a is the radius of the fiber core

The V number can be interpreted as a kind of normalized optical frequency. (It is proportional to the
optical frequency, but rescaled depending on waveguide properties
For V values below ≈ 2.405, a fiber supports only one mode per polarization direction (single-mode
fibers).
Multimode fibers can have much higher V numbers.
The V number determines the fraction of the optical power in a certain mode which is confined to the
fiber core.
For single-mode fibers, that fraction is low for low V values (e.g. below 1), and reaches ≈ 90% near the
single-mode cut-off at V ≈ 2.405
The total number of mode traveling in a fibre depends on the V – Number and is related as:
For Step Index Fibre:

For Graded Index Fibre:

 linearly polarized LP modes.
We need to distinguish TE and TM modes, where only either the electric or the magnetic field is exactly
perpendicular to the fiber axis. There are also hybrid modes of HE and EH type, having a non-zero
longitudinal components of both electric and magnetic field
The actual modes in optical fiber are called LP (linearly polarized)
linearly polarized LP modes.
Power Units
 Attenuation in Optical Fiber

Fiber losses depends on

1. Material absorption (Intrinsic and extrinsic)
2. Linear scattering losses
3. Non linear scattering losses
4. Stimulated Raman scattering
5. Bending losses
Extrinsic absorption
 Linear scattering losses
Rayleigh scattering
Rayleigh scattering is the dominant intrinsic loss mechanism in the low-absorption window between the ultraviolet
and infrared absorption tails. It results from inhomogeneities of a random nature occurring on a small scale
compared with the wavelength of the light.

These inhomogeneities manifest themselves as refractive index fluctuations and arise from density and
compositional. The index fluctuations caused by density inhomogeneities are fundamental and cannot be avoided.

The subsequent scattering due to the density fluctuations, which is in almost all directions, produces an
attenuation proportional to 1/λ4 .

where γR is the Rayleigh scattering coefficient, λ is the optical wavelength, n is the

refractive index of the medium, p is the average photoelastic coefficient, βc is the
isothermal compressibility at a fictive temperature TF, and K is Boltzmann’s constant.
The fictive temperature is defined as the temperature at which the glass can reach a
state of thermal equilibrium
 Mie scattering

Linear scattering may also occur at inhomogeneities which are comparable in size with the
guided wavelength.

These result from the nonperfect cylindrical structure of the waveguide and may be caused by
fiber imperfections such as irregularities in the core–cladding interface, core–cladding
refractive index differences along the fiber length, diameter fluctuations, strains and bubbles.

When the scattering inhomogeneity size is greater than λ/10, the scattered intensity which has
an angular dependence can be very large.
 Nonlinear scattering losses

• Optical waveguides do not always behave as completely linear channels whose increase in output
optical power is directly proportional to the input optical power. Several nonlinear effects occur,
which in the case of scattering cause disproportionate attenuation, usually at high optical power
levels.

• This nonlinear scattering causes the optical power from one mode to be transferred in either the
forward or backward direction to the same, or other modes, at a different frequency. It depends
critically upon the optical power density within the fiber and hence only becomes significant above
threshold power levels.

• The most important types of nonlinear scattering within optical fibers are stimulated Brillouin and
Raman scattering, both of which are usually only observed at high optical power densities in long
single-mode fibers. These scattering mechanisms in fact give optical gain but with a shift in
frequency, thus contributing to attenuation for light transmission at a specific wavelength.
However, it may be noted that such nonlinear phenomena can also be used to give optical
amplification in the context of integrated optical techniques
 Stimulated Brillouin scattering
Stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) may be regarded as the modulation of light through thermal molecular vibrations
within the fiber. The scattered light appears as upper and lower sidebands which are separated from the incident light by the
modulation frequency. The incident photon in this scattering process produces a phonon* of acoustic frequency as well as a
scattered photon. This produces an optical frequency shift which varies with the scattering angle because the frequency of
the sound wave varies with acoustic wavelength.

The frequency shift is a maximum in the backward direction, reducing to zero in the forward direction, making SBS a
mainly backward process. Brillouin scattering is only significant above a threshold power density. Assuming that the
polarization state of the transmitted light is not maintained, it may be shown that the threshold power PB is given by:

where d and λ are the fiber core diameter and the operating wavelength, respectively, both measured in micrometers, αdB is
the fiber attenuation in decibels per kilometer and ν is the source bandwidth (i.e. injection laser) in gigahertz. The
expression given in Eq. allows the determination of the threshold optical power which must be launched into a single-mode
optical fiber before SBS occurs
 Stimulated Raman scattering

Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) is similar to SBS except that a high-frequency optical
phonon rather than an acoustic phonon is generated in the scattering process. Also, SRS
can occur in both the forward and backward directions in an optical fiber, and may have
an optical power threshold of up to three orders of magnitude higher than the Brillouin
threshold in a particular fiber.

Using the same criteria as those specified for the Brillouin scattering threshold given in
Eq.
 Fiber bend loss

Optical fibers suffer radiation losses at bends or curves on their paths.

The critical radius of curvature for a single-mode fiber Rcs can be estimated as
Different Types of Losses in Optical Fiber

FIBER TYPE WAVELENGTH FIBER LOSS

Multimode 50/125
µm 850 nm 3.5 dB/km
(OM2/OM3/OM4)
Multimode 62.5/125
850 nm 3.5 dB/km
µm (OM1)
Single-mode 9 µm 1310 nm 0.4 dB/km
Single-mode 9 µm 1550 nm 0.3 dB/km
 Dispersion

Dispersion mechanisms within the fiber cause

broadening of the transmitted light pulses as
they travel along the channel.

For no overlapping of light pulses down on

an optical fiber link the digital bit rate BT
must be less than the reciprocal of the
broadened (through dispersion) pulse
duration (2t).
• Intermodal dispersion
• Intramodal dispersion
• Material or Chromatic dispersion
• Waveguide dispersion
• Polarization dispersion
Intermodal dispersion
 Intramodal Dispersion (Chromatic or intramodal) dispersion
Material dispersion
Since optical sources do not emit just a single frequency but a band of frequencies, then
there may be propagation delay differences between the different spectral components of
the transmitted signal.
pulse broadening due to material dispersion is given by:
Material dispersion and waveguide dispersion effects vary in vary in opposite senses as the
wavelength increased, but at an optimum wavelength around 1300 nm, two effects almost
cancel each other and chromatic dispersion is at Attenuation is therefore also at minimum
and makes 1300 nm a highly attractive operating wavelength.
 Waveguide dispersion

Waveguide dispersion is caused by the difference in the index of refraction between the core
and cladding, resulting in a ‘drag’ effect between the core and cladding portions of the
Waveguide dispersion is significant only in fibers carrying fewer than 5-10 modes. Since
multimode optical fibers carry hundreds of modes, they will not have observable waveguide
The combination of material dispersion and waveguide dispersion is called chromatic These
losses primarily concern the spectral width of transmitter and choice of correct wavelength.
Polarization mode dispersion in optical fiber
FABRICATION OF OPTICAL FIBERS

Basically, fiber manufacturers use two methods to fabricate multimode and single mode glass fibers. One method is
vapor phase oxidation, and the other method is direct-melt process. In vapor phase oxidation, gaseous metal halide
compounds, dopant material, and oxygen are oxidized (burned) to form a white silica powder (SiO2). Manufacturers call
SiO2 the soot.

Manufacturers deposit the soot on the surface of a glass substrate (mandrel) or inside a hollow tube by one of the
following methods:

Outside Vapor Phase Oxidation (OVPO).

Inside Vapor Phase Oxidation (IVPO) OR Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition (MCVD)
Vapor Phase Axial Deposition (VAD).
Plasma Chemical Vapor Deposition (PCVD)

The soot forms the core and cladding material of the preform. The refractive index of each layer of soot is changed by
varying the amount of dopant material being oxidized.
OVPO preform preparation
Inside Vapor Phase Oxidation (IVPO) OR
Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition (MCVD)
Vapor Phase Axial Deposition (VAD).
Double-crucible fiber drawing process.
Optical Fiber Fabrication Process
Optical Connector Types
Splicing Definition: Splicing of optical fibers is a technique used to join two optical
fibers.
This technique is used in optical fiber communication, in order to form long optical
links for better as well as long-distance optical signal transmission.
Splicers are basically couplers that form a connection between two fibers or fiber
bundles.
Basically, the elastic material is rubber, inside which a small hole is present.
The diameter of this hole is somewhat less than the diameter of the fiber to be
spliced.
Also, tapering is done at the ends of both the fibers in order to allow easy
insertion inside the tube.
The fiber losses are more in case of this technique as compared to the fusion
technique.
Losses majorly depend on the core and cladding diameter as well as core position
with respect to the centre.
 Advantages of fiber splicing:
1.It allows long-distance optical signal
transmission.
2.Less reflection at the time of signal
transmission.
3.Splicing provides almost permanent
connection of the two fibers.

Disadvantages of fiber splicing:

1.Sometimes the fiber losses are very
much higher than the acceptable limits.
2.Splicing increases, the overall cost of the
The loss range lies between 0.05 to 0.10 dB optical fiber communication system.
 Nonlinear Effect
The nonlinear effects of fibers are caused by their nonlinear polarization effects. When
the incident optical power of a fiber exceeds a certain value, the optical power density in
the fiber core will become excessively high because the effective cross-sectional area of a
fiber ranges only from 50 to 80 μm², triggering the nonlinear polarization of fiber
materials.

The fiber nonlinear effect is proportional to the optical power density of signals，and
significantly affects the signal phase, pulse shape, and optical power evolution.
SPM
SPM is phase modulation of light caused by an instant change in the light intensity to gradually broaden the signal spectrum.
XPM
XPM is a nonlinear optical effect where one wavelength of light can affect the phase of another wavelength of light through
the optical Kerr effect.

Compared with SPM, XPM brings more serious impacts. A larger channel quantity indicates a smaller dispersion coefficient
but a larger phase shift caused by XPM.
FWM
FWM is an intermodulation phenomenon in nonlinear optics, whereby interactions between two or three wavelengths
produce another two new wavelengths.

The FWM is obvious only when the channel spacing is small and wavelengths are close to the zero dispersion point.
SRS&SBS
Both SRS and SBS indicate that energy exchanging occurs between lightwave and phonon, causing the lightwave to be scattered
to different wavelengths.

The phonon caused by SRS is generally optical phonon with a high frequency. SRS can make the frequency move either upwards
or downwards.

SBS is backward. To be specific, the frequency of incident wavelengths is moved downwards.

Impact on the WDM System
In the traditional synchronous transmission network, fibers feature linearity because the incident optical power is small. The major
factors affecting transmission are fiber loss and dispersion. In the WDM system, however, the wavelength division multiplexing
technology makes one fiber carry dozens of or even hundreds of optical channels. In addition, with the use of fiber amplifiers,
high-power optical signals on multiple wavelengths are coupled into one fiber, causing the nonlinearity feature in the fiber.
Nonlinearity becomes a key factor that limits the transmission performance.
 How to Compensate?
The hazards of fiber nonlinear effects to the WDM system vary depending on their
origins. In general, the following measures can be taken for compensation: