Attenuation

• Attenuation is a measure of decay of signal strength that

occurs when light pulse propagates through the length of
(or) Signal attenuation is defined as the ratio of optical
input power (Pi) to the optical output power (Po).
• Attenuation in an optical fiber is caused by absorption,
scattering, and bending losses.
 Absorption of Light
• Absorption is a major cause of signal loss in an optical fiber.
Absorption in optical fibers is explained by three factors:
• Imperfections in the atomic structure, presence of missing
molecules or oxygen defects and diffusion of hydrogen
molecules into the glass fiber.

• Intrinsic Absorption. - If an optical fiber were absolutely pure,

with no imperfections or impurities, then all absorption would
be intrinsic. Intrinsic absorption sets the minimal level of
absorption.

• Extrinsic Absorption. - Extrinsic absorption is caused by

impurities such as iron, nickel, and chromium, are introduced
into the fiber during fabrication. Extrinsic absorption is caused
by the electronic transition of these metal ions from one
energy level to another.
 Absorption Loss

z=0 z=L
Attenuation
 Scattering
• Basically, scattering losses are caused by the interaction
of light with density fluctuations within a fiber when
optical fibers are manufactured.
• When the light interacts with higher and lower molecular
density areas scattering is produced as shown in figure.
 Scattering Loss
• Small (compared to wavelength) variation in material density, chemical
composition, and structural inhomogeneity scatter light in other directions
and absorb energy from guided optical wave.

• The essential mechanism is the Rayleigh scattering. Since the black body
radiation classically is proportional to  4 (this is true for wavelength
typically greater than 5 micrometer), the attenuation coefficient due to
Rayleigh scattering is approximately proportional to  . This seems to me
4

not precise, where the attenuation of fibers at 1.3 & 1.55 micrometer can
be exactly predicted with Planck’s formula & can not be described with
Rayleigh-Jeans law. Therefore I believe that the more accurate formula for
scattering loss is
1
 hc 
 scat  5 exp( )
 k B T 
h  6.626  10 34 Js, k B  1.3806  10 23 JK -1 , T : Temperature
Absorption & scattering losses in fibers

Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000

 Rayleigh Scattering
• In commercial fibers operating between 700-nm and 1600-
nm wavelength, the main source of loss is called Rayleigh
scattering.

• Rayleigh scattering is the main loss mechanism between

the ultraviolet and infrared regions.

• Rayleigh scattering occurs when the size of the density

fluctuation (fiber defect) is less than one-tenth of the
operating wavelength of light.

• As the wavelength increases, the loss caused by Rayleigh

scattering decreases.
 MIE Scattering
• If the size of the defect is greater than one-tenth of the
wavelength of light - the scattering mechanism is called
Mie scattering.
• Mie scattering, caused by these large defects in the fiber
core, scatters light out of the fiber core.
.
• Optical fibers are manufactured with very few large
defects.
Light Ray Scattering
Non Linear Scattering
 Bending Loss
• Radiative losses occurs when optical fiber undergoes a bend of finite radius of
curvature.
Classified into two types:
1.Microbending loss: When the radius of curvature of bend is less than fiber
diameter.
• Microscopic bends of the fiber axis that occur mainly when a fiber is cabled
• Microbend losses are caused by small discontinuities or imperfections
&Uneven coating applications and improper cabling procedures.
2. Macrobending loss: When the radius of curvature of bend is larger than fiber
diameter.(occurs in mmf)
• Optical radiation from the bends depends upon field strength and radius of
curvature.
• To maintain the phase of the light wave, the mode phase velocity must
increase.
• Fiber bend is less than some critical radius, the mode phase velocity must
increase to a speed greater than the speed of light which is difficult.
 Radius of Curvature

Rc=Radius of Curvature
Wavelength
N1=Refractive index of the core
N2=Refractive Index of the cladding
Microbend
Macro- & Micro-bending Loss
Macro & Micro-bending Loss
 Dispersion in Optical Fibers
Dispersion means spreading of light pulse as it propagate
through fiber.

Two types of dispersion:

 Intramodal dispersion
 Intermodal dispersion
Dispersion leads to PULSE SPREADING in single
mode fiber.
Increase in spectral width of optical source increases
Intramodal dispersion.

The varying delay in arrival time between different

components of a signal "smears out" the signal in time.
 Intramodal Dispersion
• Pulse spreading that occurs within a single mode

• Intramodal dispersion occurs because different colors of

light travel through different materials and different
waveguide structures at different speeds

• Also called GROUP VELOCITY DISPERSION (GVD)

• Occurs in all types of fibers

• Two main causes : Material dispersion

Waveguide dispersion
 Material Dispersion
• Arises from variations of the refractive index of the core
material as a function of wavelength
• Spreading of a light pulse is dependent on the
wavelengths interaction with the refractive index of the
fiber core
• Different wavelengths travel at different speeds in the
fiber material and hence exit the fiber at different times
• Material dispersion is a function of the source spectral
width.
• The spectral width specifies the range of wavelengths that
can propagate in the fiber.
• Material dispersion is less at longer wavelengths.
 Waveguide Dispersion
• Arises because a Single Mode Fiber confines only 80%
of the optical power to the core other 20% tends to travel
through the cladding results in spreading of the light
pulses.
• The amount of dispersion depends on the fiber design
and the size of the fiber core relative to the wavelength of
operation
• In multimode fibers, waveguide dispersion and material
dispersion are basically separate properties.
• Multimode waveguide dispersion is generally small
compared to material dispersion and is usually neglected.
 Intermodal Dispersion
•Intermodal or modal dispersion arises due to variation in
group delay for each individual mode at single frequency
occurs in MMF.
•The pulse spreads because each mode propagates along
the fiber at different speeds.
• Modes travel in different directions, some modes travel
longer distances.
•The modes of a light pulse that enter the fiber at one time
exit the fiber a different times.
•These conditions causes the light pulse to spread.
•As the length of the fiber increases, modal dispersion
increases.
 Optical Fiber Connection
• Requires both jointing and termination of the
transmission medium
• Number of connections or joints is dependent upon the
link length
• Fiber to fiber connection with low loss and minimum
distortion is important
Two major categories of fiber joint currently in use:
1. Fiber splices
2. Fiber Connectors
Splices and Connectors - Ideally couple all light
propagating in one fiber into the adjoining fiber
Fiber Couplers
•Branching devices that split all the light from the main
fiber into two or more fibers
•Couple a proportion of the light propagating in the main
fiber into a branch fiber
•Combine light from one or more branch fibers into a main
fiber
 OPTICAL SOURCE
• Optical source are active components whose
fundamental function is to convert electrical energy
to optical energy.
• Light output is highly directional.
• Requires low power for operation.
• Optical output stable irrespective of temperature.
• Narrow radiation pattern (beam width)
• Linearity (output light power proportional to driving
current)
• Fast response time (wide band)
 Direct band gap material

Electrons and holes move with same momentum value hence

emits photons.
 Indirect band gap material

Conduction band with minimum energy and valance band

with maximum energy emmits phonons.
Electron diffusion across
a PN junction
Forward bias condition
Reverse bias condition
Double-heterostructure configuration
 Heterojunction

• Heterojunction structure are used to achive

carrier and optical confinement.
• Heterojunction is the advanced junction
design to reduce diffraction loss in the optical
cavity.
Uses two adjoining semiconductor material at
different band gap
• Electron hole recombination occursin the
InGaAsP active region when forward biased.
 Surface-Emitting LEDs
• The surface-emitting LED used where the data rate
exceed 100 Mbps.
• The active region is the portion of the LED where
photons are emitted. The light emitting region is
perpendicular to the fiber axis.
• A well is etched into the substrate to avoid heavy
absorption of emitted light emitting surface.
• In SLEDs, the size of the primary active region is
limited to a small circular area of 20 μm to 50 μm in
diameter emmision pattern is isotropic with HPBW
120 degree.
• Isotropic emmision is called lambartian pattern.
 Surface-emitting LED

n – GaAs 50 µm dia
N – Ga Al As wide bandgap
p - Ga As narrow bandgap
P - Ga Al As wide bandgap
Edge-emitting LED
 Major requirement of photo Detector
• High sensitivity at operating wavelength.
• Large energy response to received optical signal.
• High Quantum efficiency.
• Short response time
• Minimum noise.
• Small size, high reliability.
• Low bias voltage and low cost.
pin photodiode circuit
pin energy-band diagram
Reverse-biased pin photodiode
 CONCLUSION

This presentation concludes the study of

optical fiber communication have looked how
they work and made from. We have examined
the property of fiber and various types of
optical sources and their function. This
presentation does not covers all aspects of
optical fiber works it will have equipped your
knowledge and skills essential to the fiber
optic industries.