Viet Nam National University Ho Chi Minh City

University of Science
Faculty of Electronics & Telecommunications

Chapter 4:
Noise in Communication Systems

Dang Le Khoa

Email: dlkhoa@hcmus.edu.vn
 Outline
⚫ Properties of Signals
– Periodic Waveforms
– DC Value, Power
– Energy and Power Waveforms
– Signal-to-noise Ratio
– dB, dBm
⚫ Properties of Noise
– Random Variables
– Cumulative density function (CDF)
– Probability density function (PDF)
– Stationarity and Ergodicity
– Gaussian Distribution
Faculty of Electronics & Telecommunications
 Properties of Signals & Noise
➢ In communication systems, the received waveform is
usually categorized into two parts:

Signal: Noise:
The desired part containing the The undesired part
information.

➢Properties of waveforms include:

• DC value, • Phase spectrum,
• Root-mean-square (rms) value, • Power spectral density,
• Normalized power, • Bandwidth
• Magnitude spectrum, • ………………..
3
 Where does noise come from?
⚫ External sources: e.g., atmospheric, galactic noise, interference;
⚫ Internal sources: shot noise and thermal noise (generated by
communication devices themselves).
– Thermal noise caused by the rapid and random motion of electrons
within a conductor due to thermal agitation.
It has a Gaussian distribution with zero mean
– Shot noise: the electrons are discrete and are not moving in a
continuous steady flow, so the current is randomly fluctuating.
It has a Gaussian distribution with zero mean.
– The Gaussian distribution follows from the central limit theorem.

Faculty of Electronics & Telecommunications

 Periodic Waveforms

➢ Definition
A waveform w(t) is periodic with period T0 . A sinusoidal waveform
of frequency f0 = 1/T0 Hertz is periodic

➢ Theorem: If the waveform involved is periodic, the time average

operator can be reduced to

where T0 is the period of the waveform and a is an arbitrary real constant, which
may be taken to be zero.

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 DC Value

➢ Definition: The DC (direct “current”) value of a waveform

w(t) is given by its time average, w(t). Thus,

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 Power

➢ Definition.
Let v(t) denote the voltage across a set of circuit terminals,
and let i(t) denote the current into the terminal, as shown .
The instantaneous power (incremental work divided by
incremental time) associated with the circuit is given by:
p(t) = v(t)i(t)
the instantaneous power flows into the circuit when p(t) is
positive and flows out of the circuit when p(t) is negative.
➢ The average power is:
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 Evaluation of DC Value
➢ A 120V , 60 Hz fluorescent lamp wired in a high power factor configuration.
Assume the voltage and current are both sinusoids and in phase ( unity power
factor)

DC Value of this waveform is:

Vdc = v(t ) = V cos  0t Voltage
1 T0 / 2
=
T0 
−T0 / 2
V cos  0t  dt = 0

Where, Current
 0 = 2 / T0 , and
f 0 = 1 / T0 = 60Hz
Similarly,
I dc = 0 8
Instantenous Power
 Evaluation of Power

The instantaneous power is:

p(t ) = (V cos  0t )  (I cos  0t )
= 1 / 2 VI (1 + 2 cos  0t )
The Average power is:
P = 1/ 2 VI (1 + 2 cos 0t )
T0
VI
= −T 0
2
(1 + 2 cos 0t ) dt
2T0 2

VI
=
2
The Maximum power is: Pmax=VI
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 RMS Value
➢ Definition: The root-mean-square (rms) value of w(t) is:

V
Wrms = V cos(ot ) =
2
➢ Rms value of a sinusoidal: 2

➢ Theorem:
If a load is resistive (i.e., with unity power factor), the average
power is:

where R is the value of the resistive load.

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 Normalized Power
➢ In the concept of Normalized Power, R is assumed to be 1Ω,
although it may be another value in the actual circuit.
➢ Another way of expressing this concept is to say that the
power is given on a per-ohm basis.
➢ It can also be realized that the square root of the normalized
power is the rms value.
Definition. The average normalized power is given by:
Where w(t) is the voltage or current waveform


1
P = lim  g (t )dt
2
T → T
−

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 Energy and Power Waveforms

➢ Definition: w(t) is a power waveform if and only if the normalized

average power P is finite and nonzero (0 < P < ∞).

➢ Definition: The total normalized energy is


E= 
−
g 2 (t )dt

➢ Definition: w(t) is an energy waveform if and only if the total

normalized energy is finite and nonzero (0 < E < ∞).

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 Energy and Power Waveforms
➢ If a waveform is classified as either one of these types, it
cannot be of the other type.
➢ If w(t) has finite energy, the power averaged over infinite time
is zero.
➢ If the power (averaged over infinite time) is finite, the energy
if infinite.
➢ However, mathematical functions can be found that have both
infinite energy and infinite power and, consequently, cannot be
classified into either of these two categories. (w(t) = e-t).
➢ Physically realizable waveforms are of the energy type.
– We can find a finite power for these!!

13
 Decibel
➢ A base 10 logarithmic measure of power ratios.
➢ The ratio of the power level at the output of a circuit
compared with that at the input is often specified by
the decibel gain instead of the actual ratio.
➢ Decibel measure can be defined in 3 ways
Decibel Gain
Decibel signal-to-noise ratio
Mill watt Decibel or dBm

➢ Definition: Decibel Gain of a circuit is:

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 Decibel Gain

➢ If resistive loads are involved,

Definition of dB may be reduced to,

or

15
 Decibel Signal-to-noise Ratio (SNR)
➢ Definition. The decibel signal-to-noise ratio (S/R, SNR) is:

Where, Signal Power (S) =

And, Noise Power (N) =

So, definition is equivalent to

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 Decibel with Mili watt Reference (dBm)

➢ Definition. The decibel power level with respect to 1 mW is:

= 30 + 10 log (Actual Power Level (watts)

• Here the “m” in the dBm denotes a milliwatt reference.
• When a 1-W reference level is used, the decibel level is
denoted dBW;
• when a 1-kW reference level is used, the decibel level is
denoted dBk.
E.g.: If an antenna receives a signal power of 0.3W, what is the
received power level in dBm?
dBm = 30 + 10xlog(0.3) = 30 + 10x(-0.523)3 = 24.77 dBm
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Why probability in Communications?
⚫ Modeling effects of noise
– Quantization
– Channel
– Thermal
⚫ What happens when noise and signal are filtered, mixed, etc?
⚫ Making the “best” decision at the receiver
 Signals
⚫ Two types of signals
– Deterministic – know everything with complete certainty
– Random – highly uncertain, perturbed with noise
⚫ Which contains the most information? Information content is determined
from the amount of uncertainty and unpredictability. There is no
information in deterministic signals

Information = Uncertainty

Let x(t) be a radio broadcast. How useful is it if x(t) is known? Noise is ubiquitous.
2.5
y[n]
2 x[n]

1.5

x(t) y(t) 0.5

h(t)
-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2

-2.5
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
 Need for Probabilistic Analysis
⚫ Consider a server process
– e.g. internet packet switcher, HDTV frame decoder, bank teller line,
instant messenger video display, IP phone, multitasking operating
system, hard disk drive controller, etc., etc.

Customers arrive Queue,

at random times Length L Satisfied customer

Server:
1 customer
Rejected customer, per  seconds
Queue full
 Relative Frequency
⚫ nA – number of elements in a set, e.g. the number of times an
event occurs in N trials
⚫ Probability is related to the relative frequency
⚫ For N small, fraction varies a lot; usually gets better as N
increases n
f ( A) = A Relative Frequency
n
n 
P ( A ) = lim  A  Probability
n →
 n 
0  P ( A)  1
P ( A) = 0 Never Occurs
P ( A) = 1 Always Occurs
 Random Variables
⚫ Definition: A real-valued random variable (RV) is a real-
valued function defined on the events of the probability
system

Event RV P(x)
Value
E P(x)
A 3 0.2
B 1
A B -2 0.5
D 0.5
C C 0 0.1
D -1 0.2
-2 -1 0 3 x
 Cumulative Density Function

⚫ The cumulative density function (CDF) of the RV, x,

is given by Fx(a)=Px(x<a)

P(x) Fx(a)
1 1
0.5
0.2 0.1 0.2 0.5

-2 -1 0 3 x -2 -1 0 3 a
 Probability Density Function
⚫ The probability density function(PDF) of the RV x is
given by f(x)
⚫ Shows how probability is distributed across the axis

dFx ( a ) dPx ( x  a )
fx ( x ) = =
da a = x da a=x

fx(x)
1
0.5
0.2 0.1 0.2

-2 -1 0 3 x
 Types of Distributions
⚫ Discrete-M discrete values at x1, x2, x3,. . . , xm
⚫ Continuous- Can take on any value in an defined interval
fx(x) Fx(a)
1 1
0.5
DISCRETE
0.2 0.1 0.2 0.5

-2 -1 0 3 x -2 -1 0 3 a
fx(x) Fx(a) Continuous
1 1

0.5 0.5

-1 0 1 x -1 0 1 x
 PDF Properties
⚫ fx(x) is nonnegative, fx(x) > 0
⚫ The total probability adds up to one

 f x ( x ) dx = Fx (  ) = 1
−

fx(x) Fx(a)
CDF
2 PDF 1

-1 0 1 -1 1
 Calculating Probability
⚫ To calculate the probability for a range of values
Px ( a  x  b ) = Px ( x  b ) − Px ( x  a )
= Fx ( b ) − Fx ( a )
b +
= lim  f x ( x ) dx
 →0 a +

AREA= F(b)- F(a) F(b)

fx(x) 2
F(a)

-1 0 a b 1 -1 a b 1
 Discrete Random Variables
• Summations are used instead of integrals for discrete RV.
• Discrete events are represented by using DELTA
functions.

If x is discretely distributed and xi represents a discrete event

M
f ( x) =  P( xi ) ( x - xi )
i =1
L
F( a) =  P( xi )
i =1
 Stationarity and Ergodicity
⚫ Ensemble averaging : là giá trị trung bình của biến trên tập quá
trình ngẫu nhiên tại một thời điểm nhất định ( biến số thời gian
t được giữa không đổi)
⚫ Stationary random process : giá trình trung bình không thay
đổi theo thời gian
⚫ Time averaging : thuộc tính đạt được bằng cách lấy trung bình
trên từng mẫu theo thời gian
⚫ Ergodic process : là quá trình dừng trong đó trung bình trên
tập bằng trung bình theo thời gian của tín hiệu.

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 Ensemble Averages

⚫ The expected value (or ensemble average) of y=h(x) is:


y = E  y  =  h ( x ) f x ( x ) dx
−

[•] =  [•] f x ( x ) dx
−

For Discrete distributions


y = [h( x)] = E  y  =  h(x ) f (x )
i x i
i =−
 Moments

⚫ The r th moment of RV x about x=xo is


( x − xo ) =  ( x − xo ) r f x ( x ) dx
r
−

MEAN is the first moment taken about x o =0


m = x =  x f x ( x ) dx
−

VARIANCE  2 is the second moment around the mean


 = ( x − x) =  ( x − x) 2 f x ( x ) dx
2 2
−

STANDARD DEVIATION  - the second moment around mean


=  = 2
 ( x − x) 2 f x ( x ) dx
−

 2 = x 2 − ( x) 2
 Gaussian Distribution
⚫ Gaussian distribution also called Normal distribution is one of
the most common and important distributions
⚫ PDF
fx ( x ) =
1
e
−( x − m )
2
( 2 2 ) m is the mean and is  variance
2 
⚫ CDF
 m−a 1  m−a
F (a) = Q   = erfc   Complementary Error Function
   2  2 
1  − 2 2
Q( z)  e d  (m = 0,  = 1) Q function
2 z
2  − 2
erfc ( z )  e d  = 1 − erf ( z ) Error function
 z
2 z − 2 1  z 
erf ( z ) 
e d Q( z ) = erfc  
 0 2  2
Gaussian Distribution
 Gaussian CDF
⚫ Start with definition of CDF:

F (a) =
a
f x ( x ) dx =
1 a −( x − m )
2
( )dx
2 2

− 2 − 
e

⚫ Change variables, y=(m-x)/:

F (a) =
1 ( m−a )  − y2 ( ) ( − ) dy
2 2

2 
e

1  − y2 ( )dy = Q  m − a 
2 2
= 
2 ( m − a ) 
e
  
 m−a
F (a) = Q  
  
 Ideal Low-Pass Filtered White Noise
⚫ Suppose white noise is applied to an ideal low-pass filter such
that
⚫ Baseband

⚫ Passband

Băng thông của tín hiệu phức là B thì băng thông của tín hiệu
truyền là 2B
 Signal-to-noise power ratio (SNR)
⚫ Energy-per-bit (Eb), Energy per-symbol (Es). Mật độ phổ
công suất N0/2
⚫ Do nhiễu n(t) có mật độ phổ công suất đồng nhất N0/2, tổng
công suất nhiễu trong băng thông 2B là N = N0/2 × 2B = N0B.
Vậy SNR là:
Pr
SNR =
N0 B
⚫ SNR thường diễn tả dưới dạng năng lượng của bit Eb hoặc
của symbol Es Pr Es Eb
SNR = = =
N0 B N0 BTs N0 BTb
với Ts là thời gian ký hiệu và Tb là thời gian 1 bit
⚫ Khi hệ số roll-off =1, chúng ta có SNR = Es/N0

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