Dennis G.

Term paper

Thermodynamics III Term Paper

Dennis Gatuanjau Nderitu

E023-01-1098/2020

Dedan Kimathi University of Technology

B.Sc. Mechanical Engineering

Thermodynamics III

Mr. Patrick Wanjiru

22/04/2023

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1. Describe the working principle of the gas turbine. Also, illustrate the new trend in
manufacturing gas turbines and their working principles

Gas turbines

A gas turbine is an internal combustion engine that converts fuel energy to mechanical energy.
This mechanical energy is then utilized to power various devices, including generators, pumps,
and aircraft. The gas turbine is a complex machine comprised of a number of important parts.
Compressors, turbines, shafts, combustion chambers, exhaust systems, and gearboxes are the
main components of a gas turbine (Waqar et al., 2023).

Compressor

The compressor is the gas turbine's first main component. Compressing the incoming air,
which is then mixed with fuel and consumed in the combustion chamber, is its responsibility.
The compressed air increases the combustion process's efficiency by allowing more fuel to be
consumed in a smaller space. Typically, the compressor consists of multiple phases, each of
which compresses air to a higher pressure. In gas turbines, there are two primary categories of
compressors: axial compressors and centrifugal compressors. Large gas turbines typically
employ axial compressors, whereas smaller turbines use centrifugal compressors (Zohuri and
Bahman, 2015). Centrifugal compressors use a spinning impeller to drive air outward, whereas
axial compressors force air through a series of rotating blades.

Turbine

The second main component of a gas turbine is the turbine. It is responsible for extracting
energy from the high-temperature, high-pressure gas produced in the combustion chamber. The
flow of the hot gas through the turbine causes it to rotate. This rotational energy is then used to
power the turbine's compressor and other connected apparatus. In gas turbines, there are two
primary varieties of turbines: axial turbines and radial turbines. Large gas turbines typically
employ axial turbines, while lesser turbines employ radial turbines. Radial turbines use a single
set of blades that rotate in a circular motion, whereas axial turbines use a series of rotating blades
to extract energy from the hot gas

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Shaft

The shaft is the third major component of a gas turbine. It connects the compressor and
turbine, allowing them to spin together. The shaft is typically made from high-strength materials,
such as steel or titanium, to withstand the high stresses and temperatures that are generated in the
gas turbine.

Combustion chamber

The fourth main component of a gas turbine is the combustion chamber. It is responsible
for burning fuel and mixing it with compressed air from a compressor. Typically, the fuel is
injected through a series of nozzles into the combustion chamber, where it is ignited by a spark
plug or other ignition source (Zohuri and Bahman, 2015). The combustion chamber's high-
temperature, high-pressure gas is then used to power the turbine. In gas turbines, there are
various types of combustion chambers, including can-type combustors, annular combustors, and
can-annular combustors. Small gas turbines typically employ can-type combustors, whereas
larger turbines employ annular and can-annular combustors

Exhaust system

The exhaust system is the fifth major component of a gas turbine. Its job is to channel the
hot, high-pressure gas that is created in the combustion chamber out of the turbine and into the
atmosphere. The exhaust system typically includes a series of ducts and nozzles that help to
control the flow of gas and reduce noise.

Gearbox

The gearbox is the sixth major component of a gas turbine. Its job is to transfer the
rotational energy from the turbine to other machinery, such as generators or pumps. The gearbox
typically includes a series of gears and bearings that help to transfer the energy efficiently and
smoothly.

Working principle

A gas turbine is an internal combustion engine that transforms fuel energy into
mechanical energy. The Brayton cycle, which consists of compression, heating, expansion, and
cooling, is the foundation of the gas turbine's operating principle. The cycle begins with the

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compression of air, which is followed by the mixing of fuel and combustion in the combustion
chamber. The hot, high-pressure gas produced in the combustion chamber is then used to power
the turbine, which in turn drives the compressor and other equipment

Working principle

The gas turbine operates on the principle of the Brayton cycle, which is a thermodynamic
cycle that describes the processes that take place inside the engine. The cycle consists of four
processes: compression, heating, expansion, and cooling. The cycle starts with the compression
of air, which is then mixed with fuel and burned in the combustion chamber. The hot, high-
pressure gas that is created in the combustion chamber is then used to power the turbine, which
drives the compressor and other machinery (Zohuri and Bahman, 2015).

Compression

The compression process involves compressing the incoming air to increase its pressure
and temperature. The compressor is typically made up of several stages, each of which
compresses the air to a higher pressure. The compressed air is then fed into the combustion
chamber, where it is mixed with fuel and burned.

Heating

The heating process involves burning the fuel and mixing it with the compressed air in
the combustion chamber. The fuel is typically injected into the combustion chamber through a
series of nozzles, where it is ignited by a spark plug or other ignition source. The hot, high-
pressure gas that is created in the combustion chamber is then used to power the turbine.

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Expansion

The expansion process involves using the hot, high-pressure gas to power the turbine.
The hot gas flows through the turbine, causing it to spin. This rotational energy is then used to
power the compressor and other machinery connected to the turbine. The turbine is typically
made up of several stages, each of which extracts energy from the hot gas as it flows through.

Cooling

The cooling process involves cooling the hot gas as it exits the turbine and enters the
exhaust system. The exhaust system is designed to channel the hot, high-pressure gas out of the
turbine and into the atmosphere (Waqar et al., 2023). The hot gas is typically cooled using a
series of ducts and nozzles that help to control the flow of gas and reduce noise.

Power cycles: There are two main types of power cycles used in gas turbines: the simple cycle
and the combined cycle.

Simple cycle

The simple cycle is the most basic type of power cycle used in gas turbines. It consists of
a single combustion chamber and a single turbine. The compressed air is mixed with fuel and
burned in the combustion chamber, and the hot gas is used to power the turbine. The simple
cycle is typically used in small gas turbines, such as those used in aircraft and small power
plants.

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Combined cycle

The combined cycle is a more advanced type of power cycle used in gas turbines. It
consists of two or more combustion chambers and one or more turbines. In a combined cycle, the
exhaust gas from the first turbine is used to heat water, which produces steam. The steam is then
used to power a second turbine, which generates additional power. The combined cycle is
typically used in large power plants, as it is more efficient than the simple cycle (Waqar et al.,
2023).

New trends in gas turbines

Gas turbines are widely used in power generation, aviation, and other industrial
applications due to their high efficiency, reliability, and compact size. However, there is always a
need for developing new and improved gas turbine technologies to enhance their performance,
reduce their emissions, and increase their service life. There are three new gas turbine
technologies that have gained significant attention in recent years: fully radial flow turbines, gas
lubricated turbines, and recuperators.

Fully radial flow turbines:

Fully radial flow turbines are a type of gas turbine that uses a radial flow compressor and
turbine instead of an axial flow compressor and turbine. This technology has been developed to
address the limitations of traditional axial flow turbines, such as low efficiency at low flow rates
and high sensitivity to variations in operating conditions. The working principle of a fully radial
flow turbine is similar to that of an axial flow turbine. The air enters the compressor, where it is
compressed and then enters the combustion chamber, where fuel is added and burned to produce
hot gas. The hot gas expands through the fully radial flow turbine, where it drives the turbine
blades and generates mechanical energy. The mechanical energy is then used to drive the
compressor and any other equipment connected to the turbine, such as a generator. The
advantage of using a fully radial flow turbine is that it provides a more uniform and consistent
flow of air and gas throughout the turbine, which improves efficiency and reduces sensitivity to
variations in operating conditions (Li, 2023). Additionally, fully radial flow turbines have a more
compact design than axial flow turbines, which makes them ideal for use in small-scale power
generation and other applications where space is limited.

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Gas lubricated turbines:

Gas lubricated turbines are a type of gas turbine that uses a gas instead of a liquid as a
lubricant for the turbine bearings. Traditionally, gas turbines have used liquid lubricants, such as
oil, to reduce friction and wear between the turbine blades and bearings. However, liquid
lubricants can cause problems, such as contamination of the hot gas and the need for frequent oil
changes. Gas lubricated turbines use a high-pressure gas, such as air or nitrogen, as a lubricant
for the bearings. The gas is injected into the turbine at a high pressure, which creates a thin layer
of gas between the turbine blades and bearings. This layer of gas reduces friction and wear and
provides a cooling effect, which helps to protect the bearings from overheating. The advantage of
using gas lubricated turbines is that they eliminate the need for liquid lubricants, which reduces
the risk of contamination and the need for frequent maintenance. Additionally, gas lubricated
turbines are more environmentally friendly than liquid lubricated turbines, as they do not
produce any hazardous waste or emissions (Li, 2023).

Recuperators:

Recuperators are a type of heat exchanger that is used in gas turbines to recover waste
heat from the exhaust gas and transfer it to the incoming air. The recovered heat can then be used
to preheat the air before it enters the combustion chamber, which improves efficiency and
reduces emissions. The working principle of a recuperator is based on the principle of heat
transfer. The exhaust gas from the turbine passes through the recuperator, where it transfers its
heat to the incoming air. The incoming air is preheated and then enters the combustion chamber,
where it is mixed with fuel and burned to produce hot gas. The hot gas then drives the turbine
and generates mechanical energy. The advantage of using a recuperator is that it improves the
efficiency of the gas turbine by reducing the amount of heat lost in the exhaust gas (Li, 2023).
Additionally, recuperators can reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases and other pollutants, as
they improve the combustion efficiency and reduce the need for additional fuel.

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2. Using neat diagrams, describe Internal Combustion Engines (ICEs), their different
types, and their working principles. Illustrate the new trends in the ICEs and
explain the Hybrid engines and Electric engines and their effects on the ICEs.

Internal combustion engines

Spark ignition engines

The Spark Ignition (SI) engine is a type of internal combustion engine used in most automobiles
and light aircraft. Below are the major Parts of a Spark Ignition Engine

1. Cylinder Block - The cylinder block is a critical part of the engine that houses the
cylinders where the fuel combustion process takes place. It is typically made of cast iron
or aluminum.

2. Piston - The piston is a cylindrical component that moves up and down inside the
cylinder. It is connected to the crankshaft by a connecting rod and converts the energy
from the combustion process into mechanical energy.

3. Connecting Rod - The connecting rod connects the piston to the crankshaft and transfers
the force from the piston to the crankshaft.

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4. Crankshaft - The crankshaft is a rotating shaft that converts the linear motion of the
piston into rotational motion. It is responsible for generating power and transmitting it to
the wheels of the vehicle.

5. Camshaft - The camshaft is a rotating shaft with eccentric lobes that open and close the
engine's intake and exhaust valves.

6. Valves - The intake and exhaust valves are critical components of the engine that allow
air and fuel to enter the cylinder and exhaust gases to exit the engine.

7. Cylinder Head - The cylinder head is a component that sits on top of the cylinder block
and seals the combustion chamber. It also houses the intake and exhaust valves and the
spark plug.

8. Spark Plug - The spark plug is a critical component of the engine that ignites the air-fuel
mixture in the combustion chamber (Sabhadiya, 2023).

Working Mechanism of a Spark Ignition Engine The spark ignition engine operates on a four-
stroke cycle (Harish, 2022):

1. Intake Stroke - During the intake stroke, the piston moves down, creating a vacuum in the
cylinder. The intake valve opens, and the air-fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder.

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2. Compression Stroke - During the compression stroke, the piston moves up, compressing
the air-fuel mixture to a high pressure and temperature. The spark plug ignites the air-fuel
mixture, causing a rapid expansion of gases, which pushes the piston down.

3. Power Stroke - During the power stroke, the expanding gases push the piston down,
creating rotational motion in the crankshaft. This rotational motion is then transmitted to
the wheels of the vehicle.

4. Exhaust Stroke - During the exhaust stroke, the piston moves up, pushing the exhaust
gases out of the cylinder through the open exhaust valve (Mishra, 2017).

Compression ignition

Compression Ignition (CI) engines, also known as Diesel engines, are a type of internal
combustion engine that is commonly used in commercial vehicles and heavy equipment. Unlike
spark ignition engines, which use a spark to ignite the fuel-air mixture, compression ignition
engines use the heat generated by compressing the air to ignite the fuel (Threewitt, 2017). Major
Parts of a Compression Ignition Engine

1. Cylinder Block - The cylinder block is a critical part of the engine that houses the
cylinders where the fuel combustion process takes place. It is typically made of cast iron
or aluminum.

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2. Piston - The piston is a cylindrical component that moves up and down inside the
cylinder. It is connected to the crankshaft by a connecting rod and converts the energy
from the combustion process into mechanical energy.

3. Connecting Rod - The connecting rod connects the piston to the crankshaft and transfers
the force from the piston to the crankshaft.

4. Crankshaft - The crankshaft is a rotating shaft that converts the linear motion of the
piston into rotational motion. It is responsible for generating power and transmitting it to
the wheels of the vehicle.

5. Fuel Injector - The fuel injector is a critical component of the engine that injects fuel into
the cylinder at the right time.

6. Glow Plug - The glow plug is a heating element that is used to preheat the air in the
combustion chamber, making it easier to ignite the fuel.

7. Camshaft - The camshaft is a rotating shaft with eccentric lobes that open and close the
engine's intake and exhaust valves.

8. Valves - The intake and exhaust valves are critical components of the engine that allow
air to enter the cylinder and exhaust gases to exit the engine (Mishra, 2017).

The working principle of a compression ignition engine follows a four stroke cycle:

1. Intake Stroke - During the intake stroke, the piston moves down, creating a vacuum in the
cylinder. The intake valve opens, and air is drawn into the cylinder.

2. Compression Stroke - During the compression stroke, the piston moves up, compressing
the air in the cylinder to a high pressure and temperature. The fuel injector sprays fuel
into the combustion chamber, which is ignited by the heat generated by the compressed
air. The glow plug helps to preheat the air, making it easier to ignite the fuel.

3. Power Stroke - During the power stroke, the expanding gases push the piston down,
creating rotational motion in the crankshaft. This rotational motion is then transmitted to
the wheels of the vehicle.

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4. Exhaust Stroke - During the exhaust stroke, the piston moves up, pushing the exhaust
gases out of the cylinder through the open exhaust valve (Tindal, 1998).

Advantages of Compression Ignition Engines

1. Fuel Efficiency - Compression ignition engines are more fuel-efficient than spark ignition
engines because they operate at a higher compression ratio, which allows them to extract
more energy from the fuel.

2. Power - Compression ignition engines produce more torque than spark ignition engines,
which makes them well-suited for heavy-duty applications such as commercial vehicles
and heavy equipment.

3. Durability - Compression ignition engines are generally more durable than spark ignition
engines because they operate at lower RPMs and have a simpler design (Threewitt,
2017).

Limitations of Compression Ignition Engines

1. Noise - Compression ignition engines are generally noisier than spark ignition engines
because of the high compression ratios and the fuel injection process.

2. Emissions - Compression ignition engines produce more nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions
than spark ignition engines, which can contribute to air pollution.

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3. Maintenance - Compression ignition engines require more maintenance than spark

ignition engines because they have more complex fuel systems and require regular
replacement of the fuel filter (Threewitt, 2017).

Dual cycles

The dual cycle is a thermodynamic cycle that combines the features of both the Otto
cycle and the Diesel cycle (M, S. et al., 2023). It is also known as the mixed cycle or the limited
pressure cycle. The dual cycle is used in engines to achieve high efficiency and power output.

The Dual Cycle Processes:

The dual cycle consists of five processes, which are as follows:

1. Isentropic Compression: The first process in the dual cycle is isentropic compression. The
air is compressed in a cylinder without any heat exchange with the surroundings. The
compression process is carried out adiabatically, which means that there is no heat
exchange between the working substance and the surroundings. The temperature and
pressure of the air increase during this process.

2. Heat Addition: The second process is heat addition. The fuel is injected into the
compressed air, which ignites and burns, causing an increase in temperature and pressure.
This process is carried out at constant volume.

3. Isentropic Expansion: The third process is isentropic expansion. The hot gases expand in
the cylinder without any heat exchange with the surroundings. This process is carried out
adiabatically. The pressure and temperature of the gases decrease during this process.

4. Heat Rejection: The fourth process is heat rejection. The hot gases are expelled from the
cylinder, and heat is rejected to the surroundings. This process is carried out at a constant
volume.

5. Isobaric Compression: The final process is isobaric compression. The remaining gases in
the cylinder are compressed at a constant pressure. This process completes the cycle and
prepares the cylinder for the next cycle (M, S. et al., 2023).

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Working Principle:

The dual cycle operates on the principle of increasing the thermal efficiency of the engine
by combining the features of both the Otto and Diesel cycles. The dual cycle is designed to
provide maximum power output while maintaining high efficiency. The cycle begins with the
isentropic compression of air in the cylinder, which increases the pressure and temperature of the
air. The heat addition process follows, where fuel is injected into the compressed air, which
ignites and burns, causing an increase in pressure and temperature. The isentropic expansion
process follows, where the hot gases expand, causing a decrease in pressure and temperature.
The heat rejection process follows, where the hot gases are expelled from the cylinder, and heat
is rejected to the surroundings. The cycle completes with the isobaric compression process,
where the remaining gases are compressed at a constant pressure (Connor, 2019).

The dual cycle has several advantages over other cycles. The combination of the Otto and
Diesel cycles provides a better balance between power output and efficiency. The cycle can
operate at higher compression ratios, which increases the power output and efficiency of the
engine. The dual cycle is also less sensitive to changes in load and speed, making it suitable for a
wide range of applications.

New trends in Internal Combustion Engines

The future of internal combustion engines (ICEs) is being shaped by various

technological advancements, environmental concerns, and changing consumer demands. Despite
the increasing popularity of electric and hybrid vehicles, ICEs are still expected to play a

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significant role in the transportation sector for the foreseeable future (Horizon, 2015). However,
they will need to become more efficient and eco-friendly to meet regulatory standards and
consumer expectations. One major concept that is evolving in ICE design is the move towards
more efficient combustion. This includes advancements such as lean-burn technology, which
reduces the amount of fuel needed to produce power. Additionally, some new ICE designs utilize
homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) technology, which combines the best features
of gasoline and diesel engines to achieve high fuel efficiency and low emissions (Horizon, 2015).

Another major concept in ICE design is the use of alternative fuels. Many ICE
manufacturers are exploring the use of alternative fuels such as hydrogen, natural gas, and
biofuels. Hydrogen-powered ICEs produce only water as an emission, making them a potentially
attractive alternative to traditional gasoline-powered engines. Natural gas-powered ICEs emit
significantly fewer greenhouse gases than traditional gasoline engines. Biofuels, made from plant
materials, can be blended with gasoline to reduce emissions. Currently, ICE manufacturers are
also experimenting with various hybrid designs, which combine an ICE with an electric motor.
These hybrids can improve fuel efficiency and reduce emissions by using the electric motor to
assist the ICE during acceleration and by capturing energy during braking.

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Additionally, ICE manufacturers are exploring ways to improve the overall efficiency of
the engine by reducing friction, improving lubrication, and optimizing the combustion process.
This can be achieved through advancements in materials, such as the use of lightweight materials
like carbon fiber, and improvements in engine design, such as variable valve timing and direct
fuel injection (Patrick, 2023).

Hybrid and electric engines

Hybrid and electric use advanced technology to improve fuel efficiency and reduce
emissions. While there are some similarities between hybrid and electric cars, there are also
some key differences in how they work.

Hybrid

Hybrid cars work by combining the power of an internal combustion engine (ICE) with
an electric motor. The ICE is used to power the car at high speeds and when accelerating, while
the electric motor is used for low-speed driving and when idling. This allows the hybrid to
operate more efficiently than a traditional gasoline-powered car (Patrick, 2023). One type of
hybrid car is a parallel hybrid, which has both the ICE and electric motor connected to the
transmission. In this design, both engines can work together to power the car or separately to
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optimize fuel efficiency. Another type of hybrid is a series hybrid, where the ICE is used to
generate electricity to power the electric motor, which drives the car. This design allows for more
efficient use of the ICE.

Electric

Electric cars, on the other hand, do not have an ICE and run solely on electric power.
Instead of an ICE, electric cars have an electric motor and a battery pack that stores energy.
When the car is plugged in, the battery pack is charged, and the energy is used to power the
electric motor, which drives the car. To recharge the battery while driving, some electric cars use
regenerative braking, which captures energy from the brakes and stores it in the battery
(Domonoske, 2019). Additionally, some electric cars have a range extender, which is a small ICE
that generates electricity to recharge the battery while driving.

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Effect of hybrid and electric engines on Internal Combustion Engines

Electric and hybrid vehicles are expected to have a significant impact on the future of
internal combustion engines (ICEs). As electric and hybrid vehicles gain more popularity, the
demand for ICEs is expected to decrease, which could lead to a decrease in their production.

According to a study published in the Journal of Cleaner Production, the rise of electric
vehicles (EVs) and the increasing focus on reducing greenhouse gas emissions is expected to
significantly reduce the demand for ICEs in the coming years. This reduction in demand is likely
to be felt in industries such as oil and gas, as well as automotive manufacturing. The impact on
ICEs is already being felt in the automotive industry, with many manufacturers investing heavily
in the development of electric and hybrid vehicles. This is due to consumer demand for more
environmentally-friendly transportation options, as well as government regulations aimed at
reducing emissions. Despite the shift towards electric and hybrid vehicles, it is important to note
that ICEs are still expected to play a role in the transportation sector for the foreseeable future
(Domonoske, 2019).

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References

Connor, N. (2019) What is dual cycle - limited pressure cycle - definition, Thermal Engineering.
Available at: https://www.thermal-engineering.org/what-is-dual-cycle-limited-pressure-
cycle-definition/

Domonoske, C. (2019) As more electric cars arrive, what's the future for gas-powered engines?,
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cars-arrive-whats-the-future-for-gas-powered-engines

Harish (2022) Spark ignition engine, working and parts, Mechanical Education. Available at:
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Horizon, H. (2015) The Future of Internal Combustion Engine Design: 2022 trends, The Future
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Mishra, P. (2017) How spark ignition engine works?, Mechanical Booster. Available at:
https://www.mechanicalbooster.com/2017/10/spark-ignition-engine.html

Patrick (2023) How motor vehicle engine technology is advancing: From hybrid to electric
engines, Carnewscast. Available at: https://carnewscast.com/how-motor-vehicle-engine-
technology-is-advancing-from-hybrid-to-electric-engines/

Sabhadiya, J. (2023) What is a spark-ignition engine?, Engineering Choice. Available at:

https://www.engineeringchoice.com/what-is-a-spark-ignition-engine/

Threewitt, C. (2017) How gas compression-ignition engines work, HowStuffWorks.

HowStuffWorks. Available at: https://auto.howstuffworks.com/gas-compression-ignition-
engines.htm

Tindal (1988) Compression ignition engine, Compression Ignition Engine - an overview |

ScienceDirect Topics. Available at:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/compression-ignition-engine

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Waqar, E. et al. (2023) Gas turbine: Working principle, main components, and types:
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principle-main-components-and-types/

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