Muhammad Ali Suhail

Consumer Behavior
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Chapter 3: Consumer Motivation and Personality

Learning Objective 3.1: The Dynamics of Motivation

Needs
 Motivation is the driving force behind human actions. It's fueled by needs, which are
desires or requirements individuals seek to satisfy. These can be biogenic
(physiological like food, water) or psychogenic (learned from environment, e.g., self-
esteem). Motivation arises when needs aren't met, creating a psychological tension,
driving individuals to take action to fulfill them.

Need Arousal
 Needs arousal can be triggered by biological stimuli, emotional or cognitive
processes, or external stimuli.
 Physiological arousal occurs when biological cues, such as low blood sugar or body
temperature, lead to the awareness of a need (e.g., hunger or warmth).
 Cognitive arousal happens when thoughts lead to an awareness of a need and actions
to fulfill it (e.g., prompted by social media reminders).

Goals
 Goals are desired outcomes individuals seek through motivated behavior. They are
essential as all human behavior is goal-oriented. People select goals to fulfill their
needs and alleviate psychological tension, whether moving towards positive outcomes
(approach objects) or avoiding negative ones (avoidance objects).
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1. Generic goals are outcomes that consumers seek in order to satisfy

physiological and psychological needs.
2. Product-specific goals are outcomes that consumers seek by using a
given product or service. For example, when a student tells his parents
that he wants to become an entrepreneur, he expresses a generic goal.
If he says he wants to earn an MBA from Stanford, he expresses a
product-specific goal.

Needs and Goals Are Interdependent

 Different motivations drive individuals to go shopping, including seeking specific
goods, recreational shopping, activity-specific shopping, and demand-specific
shopping.

Frustration and Defense Mechanisms

Frustration arises from the failure to achieve a goal. Consumers employ defense mechanisms,
cognitive and behavioral strategies, to handle this frustration. Understanding these
mechanisms is crucial for marketers to tailor their strategies effectively.
1. Aggression: Individuals may display aggressive behavior, such as outbursts or
boycotts, as a response to frustration, aiming to protect their self-esteem. In
marketing, consumer boycotts are an example of this behavior.
2. Rationalization: People rationalize their inability to attain goals due to frustration by
inventing plausible reasons or devaluing the goal's importance, justifying their
situation.
3. Regression: Frustration may lead to regressive behavior, where individuals react
childishly or immaturely, like fighting over merchandise during a bargain sale.
4. Withdrawal: Some respond to frustration by withdrawing from the situation, like
quitting a job after not getting a promotion.
5. Projection: Individuals may shift blame for their failures or frustrations onto external
objects or people, avoiding personal responsibility.
6. Daydreaming: Fantasizing or daydreaming allows individuals to experience imagined
fulfillment of unmet needs, providing an escape from frustration.
7. Identification: People might subconsciously identify with others or situations to cope
with frustration, a mechanism often utilized in advertising to resonate with consumers
and propose solutions to their frustrations.

Learning Objective 3.2: Systems of Needs

Murray's Psychogenic Needs
 Henry Murray introduced psychogenic needs to understand human motivations
beyond biological needs.
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 Psychogenic needs are psychological or social, arising from experiences, interactions,

and beliefs.
 They focus on mental and emotional fulfillment rather than physical survival.
 These needs are interconnected and can support, conflict, or reinforce each other.
 Fulfilling one psychogenic need may have implications for fulfilling others.
 Recognition and understanding of psychogenic needs are crucial from a marketing
perspective.
 Tailoring products, services, and marketing messages to these needs helps connect
with consumers psychologically.
 Effective appeal to these needs can enhance consumer engagement and satisfaction.
 Example: Products can tap into a consumer's need for achievement, and marketing
messages can highlight how the product helps attain goals and stand out in endeavors.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

 Maslow's theory categorizes human needs into five levels: physiological, safety,
social, egoistic, and self-actualization. This hierarchy provides insights into consumer
motivations and behaviors. Marketers often utilize this theory to develop strategies
that resonate with consumers' varying needs.
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 Fourth level of Maslow's hierarchy: Egoistic needs.

 Inwardly directed ego needs: Self-acceptance, self-esteem, success, independence,
personal satisfaction.
 Outwardly directed ego needs: Prestige, reputation, status, recognition from others.
 Fifth level of Maslow's hierarchy: Self-actualization need.
 Self-actualization need is the desire to fulfill one's potential and become everything
they are capable of.
 Examples of self-actualization: Artist expressing themselves on canvas, research
scientist striving to find a new cancer drug.
 Advertising appealing to self-actualization: Organization enabling individuals to do
great things, be all they can be.

The Validity of Maslow's Theory

 Maslow's hierarchy has gained wide acceptance as it aligns with perceived
motivations of individuals in society. It serves as a useful tool for marketers to tailor
their approaches, encompassing a broad range of individual needs.

Marketing Applications of Maslow's Theory

 Products purchased to satisfy physiological needs include health foods, medicines,
and low-fat products.
 Products like insurance, preventive medical services, and home security systems
satisfy safety and security needs.
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 Personal care and grooming products, along with most clothes, are bought to satisfy
social needs.
 High-tech and luxury products, such as sound systems and sports cars, fulfill ego and
esteem needs.
 Postgraduate college education, hobby-related products, and adventurous trips are
often sold as ways to achieve self-actualization

Learning Objective 3.3: Hidden Motives

 Motivational research: qualitative studies by Dr. Ernest Dichter in the 1950s and
1960s, uncovering consumers' subconscious motivations related to product, service,
or brand use.
 Dr. Ernest Dichter applied Freud's psychoanalytical techniques to study consumer
buying habits and motivations.
 Motivational research aimed to discover underlying feelings, attitudes, and emotions
driving consumer behavior, often linked to unconscious needs, including biological
and sexual drives.
 Marketers were fascinated by Dichter's entertaining and surprising explanations of
consumer behavior, often related to sexual symbolism.
 Major advertising agencies began employing psychologists to conduct motivational
research studies.
 Car symbolism: Cars allow consumers to convert subconscious fear of death and
urges to destroy into reality. Different car types represent various psychological
desires, e.g., convertibles as surrogate mistresses and sedans as wives.
 Barbie marketing: Dichter advised marketing Barbie as a teenage fashion model to
align with mothers' desires for a daughter's proper and fashionable appearance.
 Ice cream packaging: Dichter recommended round packaging with illustrations
suggesting abundance to align with the orgiastic nature of ice cream consumption.
 Motivational research uses qualitative methods (focus groups, in-depth interviews) to
uncover unsuspected consumer motivations and develop ideas for promotional
campaigns.
 Projective techniques are employed, such as storytelling, role-playing, word
association, sentence completion, Thematic Apperception Test, and picture drawing,
to reveal subconscious motives.
 Examples of findings using projective techniques: Kimberly-Clark's Huggies Pull-
Ups, Clearasil's advertising, Pillsbury's cake-mix repositioning, and Playtex's bra
advertising repositioning.
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Learning Objective 3.4: Motives and Technology

Personality Development
Personality comprises psychological characteristics shaping individual responses to their
environment. It's consistent yet subject to change, influenced by major life events or gradual
shifts. Various theories—psychoanalytic, neo-Freudian, and trait theory—illuminate different
aspects of personality, essential for understanding consumer behavior.

1. Freudian concepts (Psychoanalytic Theory)

 Freudian theory: Unconscious needs or drives, particularly biological and sexual ones,
are fundamental to human motivation and personality.
 Freud's theory is constructed based on patients' early childhood experiences, dream
analysis, and mental and physical adjustment issues.
 The human personality comprises three interacting systems: the id, superego, and ego.
 Id: Warehouse of primitive and impulsive drives, seeking immediate
satisfaction of basic physiological needs without concern for specific means.
 Superego: Internal expression of society's moral and ethical codes, guiding
individuals to satisfy their needs in a socially acceptable manner, acting as a
restraint on the impulsive id.
 Ego: Individual's conscious control, balancing the impulsive demands of the id
and the sociocultural constraints of the superego.
 Personality formation according to Freud occurs in five stages: oral, anal, phallic,
latent, and genital. Adult personality is shaped by how individuals handle crises
during each stage.
 Fixation: If needs are inadequately met during a particular developmental stage, an
individual may become fixated at that stage, influencing their personality in
adulthood. For instance, inadequate food satisfaction during the oral stage may lead to
dependence on others in adulthood.

2. Neo-Freudian Theory
 Neo-Freudian personality theory: Extends Freud's concepts, emphasizing social
relationships' influence on personality development.
 Alfred Adler: Human beings seek rational goals, known as a "style of life," aiming to
overcome feelings of inferiority by striving for superiority.
 Harry Stack Sullivan: Focuses on individuals striving to establish significant and
rewarding relationships, aiming to reduce tensions like anxiety.
 Karen Horney: Studies child–parent relationships' impact on reducing anxiety and
identifies three personality groups:
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 Compliant individuals: Seek love, appreciation, and acceptance by moving

towards others.
 Aggressive individuals: Strive for excellence and admiration by moving
against others.
 Detached individuals: Pursue independence, self-reliance, and freedom from
obligations by moving away from others.
 CAD scale: A personality test based on Horney's theory measuring if a person is
primarily compliant, aggressive, or detached, used to understand relationships
between personality types and product usage and brand preferences.
 Marketing applications:
 Marketers can position products or services as providing a sense of
belonging or appreciation within a social or group context, appealing to the
compliant individual.
 Tailoring advertisements to appeal to different personality types, e.g., an ad
featuring compliments for the photographer's pictures to attract compliant
individuals, and an ad featuring solitary mountain biking for aggressive
individuals.

Personality traits
Characteristics that differentiate individuals and are measured through self-administered
questionnaires assessing high or low scores on specific traits.
 Consumer behavior and personality traits:
 Personality traits are reflected in consumers' shopping patterns, although they
often don't significantly influence brand selections.
 Understanding personality traits helps marketers effectively segment
consumers and tailor advertisements to specific segments.
 Key personality traits related to consumer behavior:
 Receptivity to new products: Involves traits like dogmatism, social character,
and the need for uniqueness.
 Dogmatism: The degree of rigidity an individual displays towards new
information or beliefs.
 Social character: Reflects a person's predisposition to be influenced by others
or societal norms in decision-making.
 Need for uniqueness: Desire to differentiate oneself by consuming distinct or
unconventional products.
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 Significance of understanding personality traits in consumer behavior: Enables

marketers to target consumer segments effectively and tailor advertising strategies to
match consumers' distinct personality traits.
Innovators versus Laggards
 nnovativeness: The degree of willingness a consumer has to adopt new products and
services shortly after their introduction.
 Motivational factors inspiring consumer innovativeness:
1. Functional factors: Interest in the performance of an innovation.
2. Hedonic factors: Gratification felt by using the innovation.
3. Social factors: Desire for recognition by others due to the pursuit of
innovations.
4. Cognitive factors: Mental stimulation experienced by using an innovation.
 Levels of innovativeness:
1. Global Innovativeness: A personality trait that represents the fundamental
nature of a consumer's innovativeness, independent of any product-related
context.
2. Domain-Specific Innovativeness: Innovativeness related to a specific domain
or product category.
3. Innovative Behavior: Actions or responses indicating early acceptance of
change and the adoption of innovations, like being among the first to purchase
new and different products or services.
 Significance of understanding levels of innovativeness:
1. Helps tailor marketing efforts to appeal to both early adopters (innovators) and
later adopters (laggards).
2. Crucial for successful product launches and marketing campaigns.

Open- versus Closed-Minded

Dogmatism A personality trait representing one’s degree of cognitive rigidity—the opposite
of being open-minded—toward information and opinions contradictory to one’s own.
Consumers exhibit varying degrees of openness to new experiences or ideas. Recognizing
these differences enables marketers to craft messaging and products that resonate with both
open-minded and closed-minded individuals, widening the consumer base.

Conformity versus Individuality

Consumer behaviors also vary in terms of conformity or individuality. Some consumers
prefer products aligned with societal norms (conformity), while others seek unique and
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individualized experiences. Acknowledging and addressing these preferences is vital in

marketing strategies.
Inner-directed
Consumers who rely on their own inner values and standards in evaluating new
products, and are also likely to be consumer innovators.
Other-directed
Consumers who look up to others for guidance as to what is appropriate or
inappropriate and are unlikely to be consumer innovators.
Need for uniqueness
Need for uniqueness is defined as an individual’s pursuit of differentness relative to
others that is achieved through the acquisition of consumer goods in order to enhance
one’s personal and social identity.

Novel and Complex or Simple and Safe Experiences

 Optimum Stimulation Level (OSL):

 Reflects the degree to which a person prefers novel, complex, and unusual
experiences (high OSL) or a simple, uncluttered, and calm existence (low
OSL).
 High OSL individuals are more inclined to take risks, try new products, and
maintain high stimulation levels while shopping.
 College students with high OSL tend to experiment with personal appearance
and seek unusual clothing styles.
 Sensation Seeking:
 Describes one's need for varied, novel, and complex sensations and
experiences, often willing to take risks for such experiences.
 Teenage males with high sensation-seeking scores often engage in extreme
sports.
 High sensation-seeking individuals are more likely to incorporate
volunteerism into their vacations.
 Novelty Seeking:
 Involves seeking variety and exploring new alternatives in consumer behavior.
 Components include exploratory purchase behavior, vicarious exploration, and
innovativeness (using an adopted product in a new or novel way).
 Particularly relevant in technological products where various models offer
different levels of functions and features.
 High Need for Uniqueness:
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 Represents a personality trait where individuals seek to maintain a unique and

uncommon persona.
 Expresses preferences for unusual gifts, uniqueness, and standing out from the
crowd.
 Important in consumer behavior, influencing brand choices and purchase
decisions.

Preference for Thinking

 Need for Cognition (NFC):

 Measures a person's inclination towards and enjoyment of thinking.

 High NFC individuals respond more to ads with detailed product-related
information, while low NFC individuals are attracted to peripheral aspects like
attractive models or celebrities in ads.
 Including diagnostic product information in ads increases ad persuasion for
high-NFC consumers but not for low-NFC consumers.
 High NFC individuals are more likely to seek product information, current
events, and educational resources online compared to low NFC individuals.
 Consumer Behavior on the Internet:
 High-NFC individuals focus on the objectives of their planned online
activities.
 Low-NFC individuals tend to get distracted during online activities.

Preference for Written or Visual

 Preference for Written or Visual:

 People have varying preferences for information consumption—some favor

written text, while others are drawn to images.
 Verbalizers:
 Prefer promotional messages with written, textual, and verbal
information.
 Visualizers:
 More receptive to pictorial images.
 Can be further categorized into:
 Object Visualizers: Encode and process images as a single
perceptual unit.
 Spatial Visualizers: Process images piece by piece.
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 High object visualization scorers tend to have low spatial visualization scores
and vice versa.
 Visual artists tend to excel in object imagery, while scientists and engineers do
better with spatial imagery.
 Advertisement Mediums:
 Most advertisements comprise a mix of both verbal and pictorial information.
 Social media platforms are increasingly emphasizing visual content, and
consumers engage more with visual elements like visual instructions, memes,
and infographics.

Importance of Possessions
 Materialism:

 Gauges the extent to which an individual is preoccupied with purchasing and

displaying nonessential, often conspicuous luxury goods.
 Highly materialistic consumers define themselves by acquiring possessions
and value showcasing their belongings.
 Less materialistic consumers focus more on seeking fulfilling experiences and
enjoying life with others.
 Some individuals are "tightwads" who spend less than intended, feeling
discomfort about paying, while others are "spendthrifts" who spend more than
intended without discomfort.
 Dreams about buying things can influence actual thoughts, discussions, and
considerations of purchasing the products dreamt about.
Compulsions and Fixations
 Compulsive Consumers:

 Addictive and out-of-control buyers, often causing damaging consequences for

themselves and others.

 Examples: uncontrollable shopping, gambling, drug addiction, alcoholism, and eating

disorders.

 Online buying has exacerbated compulsive shopping, and at least 75% of compulsive
buyers are females.

 Psychological intervention is often necessary to control severe compulsive shopping.

 Easy availability of credit cards contributes to compulsive consumption, particularly

among college students.

 Marketers need to avoid encouraging irresponsible consumption in their

promotional messages.

Fixated Consumers:
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 Collectors and hobbyists who accumulate items related to their interests and showcase them
to others.

 Characteristics:

1. Passion and interest in the category they collect.

2. Willingness to invest effort and time in adding to their collections.

3. Willingness to spend time and discretionary income in buying more collection items.

4. Aggressive competitiveness at auctions and similar events.

Consumer Ethnocentrism
 Consumer ethnocentrism, where consumers favor domestic products over foreign
ones, influences purchasing decisions. Acknowledging and addressing this preference
is important for marketers operating in diverse markets.

Personality and Color

Color Associations with Personality:
 Consumers associate specific colors with certain personality traits and
genders.
 Examples: Red connotes excitement (e.g., Coca-Cola), blue is linked to
communication (e.g., Facebook), green and brown convey ruggedness, and
black represents sophistication.
 Brands use color strategically to convey desired brand image and personality
(e.g., black for a premium image).
Color Symbolism in Branding:
 Black: Conveys sophistication and is used for creating a premium image (e.g., Miller
Beer's Miller Reserve).
 Black and White Combination: Suggests careful engineering, high-tech, and
sophistication (e.g., Nike sports shoes).
 More Colors and Lighter Tones: Associated with femininity.
 Darker Tones and Fewer Colors: Considered more masculine.
Color Usage in Marketing and Branding:
 Fast-Food Restaurants: Use bright colors (e.g., red, yellow, blue) in signs and designs
to convey fast service and inexpensive food.
 Fine Restaurants: Opt for sophisticated colors (e.g., gray, white, soft tones) to enhance
their classy environments and service.
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Anthropomorphism and Brand Personification

 Anthropomorphism: Attributing human characteristics to non-human entities, like
products.
 Study findings: Consumers perceive products presented with human-like features
more favorably.
 Brand Personification: When consumers attribute human traits or characteristics to a
brand, forming a "brand personality."
 Brand Personality:
 Provides an emotional identity for a brand.
 Differentiates the brand and creates favorable attitudes, purchase intentions,
and loyalty.
 Can be functional (dependable) or symbolic (representative of a particular trait
or lifestyle).
 Relationship with Human Characteristics:
 Study found that consumers with different attachment and avoidance anxiety
levels prefer different brand personalities.
 High anxiety and high avoidance prefer exciting brand personality.
 High anxiety and low avoidance prefer a sincere brand personality.
 Consumer Behavior and Brand Personification:
 Consumers personify brands due to effective advertising that imparts human
characteristics to offerings.
 Examples: M&M "person," Mr. Coffee machine being perceived as a person.
 Perceived brand personalities influence consumer trust, attachment, and
commitment.
 Creating Brand Personality:
 Promotional messages have a significant influence in creating a brand
personality.
 Dimensions of brand personality include excitement, sophistication, affection,
popularity, and competence.
 Consumer-Brand Relationship:
 Some consumers develop strong relationships with brands, going beyond
product functionality.
 Examples: Naming cars, getting brand-related tattoos, showcasing emotional
attachment.
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Product Personality and Gender

Consumers often attribute gender-specific traits to products, influencing their purchasing
decisions. For instance, products like Celestial Seasonings' Tracy Jones are given feminine
personas, while others like Mr. Coffee are endowed with a masculine personality. These
gender associations vary across cultures, impacting how consumers perceive products.

Product Personality and Geography

Consumers often associate products with particular geographic locations, which influences
their preferences. This association can be real or fictitious, and it plays a significant role in
enhancing brand equity. Incorporating geographic cues strategically in branding and
marketing helps in appealing to consumers and engaging them effectively

Self-Perception
 Self-Image: How individuals perceive themselves, which plays a role in their
purchase decisions.
 Multiple "Selves": People act differently in various situations, leading to different
self-images in different contexts.
 Components of Self-Image:
1. Actual Self-Image: How consumers see themselves.
2. Ideal Self-Image: How consumers would like to see themselves.
3. Social Self-Image: How consumers believe others see them.
4. Ideal Social Self-Image: How consumers would like others to see them.
 Social Media Self-Image: The self-image curated on social media, often carefully
chosen and edited to create a specific image for others to see.
 Impact on Buying Behavior: Consumers select the type of self-image that guides
them in buying situations. This choice varies based on the product or context.
 Marketing Implications: Marketers can segment markets based on relevant self-
images and position products or services as symbols of those self-images.
Understanding consumers' self-images is crucial for creating effective marketing
strategies.

The Extended Self

Consumers’ possessions can confirm or extend their self-images. For instance, acquiring a
sought-after pair of “vintage” Levi jeans might enrich a teenager’s self-image because she
might see herself as being more desirable, fashionable, and successful when she wears those
pants. Researchers suggested that possessions are extensions of self in the following ways:
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Ways Possessions Extend Self:

1. Actual Functionality: Possessions enable individuals to achieve tasks or goals that
might otherwise be challenging or impossible (e.g., using a computer for problem-
solving).
2. Symbolic Value: Possessions make individuals feel better about themselves,
enhancing their self-image (e.g., being seen as the "best dressed" at work).
3. Status and Rank: Possessions can confer status or rank in society, like owning
prestigious or rare items (e.g., being an art collector with a renowned masterpiece).
4. Legacy and Immortality: Possessions can create a sense of immortality, especially
when considering leaving valuable bequests after one's passing.

Altering the Self

 Self-Alteration: Consumers often seek to change or improve their selves. Various
products like clothing, grooming aids, cosmetics, accessories, and digital platforms
like Snapchat provide opportunities for consumers to enhance their appearance and
express different aspects of their identity.
 Snapchat and Digital Alteration: Platforms like Snapchat allow users to digitally
alter their appearance using filters, emojis, face swapping, and other features,
enabling them to experiment with various looks and expressions.
 Vanity and Types:
1. Physical Vanity: Excessive concern with or an inflated view of one's physical
appearance.
2. Achievement Vanity: Excessive concern with or an inflated view of one's
personal achievements.
 Characteristics of Vain Individuals: Vain individuals often prioritize their
appearance and achievements, seeking to look their best and valuing personal
accomplishments. They may also be highly materialistic and show a strong interest in
personal care and beauty products.

Chapter Summary
Absolutely! In this comprehensive overview of Chapter 3, "Consumer Motivation and
Personality," we have delved deeply into the dynamics that drive consumer behavior and
shape their perceptions. The chapter begins by exploring the concept of motivation and its
driving force—needs. Motivation arises when needs are unfulfilled, creating psychological
tension that drives consumers towards goals and actions. Two fundamental types of needs are
highlighted: biogenic needs (related to physical existence) and psychogenic needs (shaped by
social and personal factors).
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Understanding these needs is foundational, and from there, the discussion extends to the
interdependence of needs and goals. Goals are the sought-after results of motivated behavior,
and consumers are in a perpetual cycle of setting and achieving goals to fulfill their needs.
The chapter underscores the importance of recognizing defense mechanisms and managing
frustration when goals are not achieved.

Moving forward, the chapter explores different systems of needs, starting with Henry
Murray's psychogenic needs, providing a structured understanding of human motivations.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is another pivotal framework that categorizes human needs into
five levels, offering profound insights into consumer motivations and behavior. These
frameworks are crucial tools for marketers to tailor their strategies according to diverse
consumer needs effectively.
The chapter also delves into the fascinating realm of hidden motives and how these
subconscious influences play a significant role in consumer behavior. Ernest Dichter's
motivational research approach and projective techniques help uncover these concealed
motivators, enabling marketers to craft more compelling marketing strategies.
The influence of technology on consumer motivation and personality development is
explored, emphasizing the importance of understanding how technology shapes consumer
behaviors. Technology not only influences the ways consumers interact with products and
brands but also impacts their personality traits and preferences.
The discussion on personality development introduces various theories and personality traits
that influence consumer behavior. Recognizing and leveraging these traits, preferences, and
tendencies are essential for marketers to design persuasive strategies.
Lastly, the chapter touches on the critical aspect of perception in consumer behavior,
underscoring the significance of sensory inputs, thresholds, and perceptual organization in
shaping consumers' perceptions of products and brands.
This comprehensive summary provides a solid understanding of the core concepts covered in
Chapter 3, empowering you to excel in your Consumer Behavior exam. If you have any
specific questions or need further clarification on any topic, feel free to ask!
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Chapter 4 Consumer Perception and Positioning

Perception: The process by which individuals select, organize, and interpret stimuli into a
meaningful and coherent picture of the world. It can be described as “how we see the world
around us.” Perception is all about consumers’ subjective understandings rather than objective
realities.

Repositioning: The process by which a company strategically changes the distinct image and
identity of its products, services, and brands.

Sensory Information
 Perception and Sensory Input: Perception is not solely based on sensory input. It's a
result of two inputs: physical stimuli from the outside environment and people's
expectations, motives, and previous experiences.
 Sensation: Sensation is the immediate response of sensory organs to stimuli, which
are units of input to the senses. It involves sensory receptors like eyes, ears, nose,
mouth, and skin.
 Sensory Sensitivity: Sensory sensitivity varies based on an individual's sensory
receptors' quality and the intensity of stimuli they are exposed to. Sensitivity to
stimuli is critical in evaluating and experiencing consumer products.
 Sensation and Energy Change: Sensation depends on energy changes in the
environment where perception occurs. A bland or unchanging environment provides
little or no sensation, emphasizing the role of differentiation in input.
 Adaptability to Sensory Input: Human organisms can accommodate varying levels
of sensory input, allowing for increased sensitivity when needed and protection from
excessive stimulation.

Sight
 Sight is a significant sensory input affecting consumer perception, particularly in
brand colors, store layouts, and website design.
 Retailers strategically position products in stores to attract consumer attention and
guide their choices.
 Packaging is vital in offering perceptual cues about a product's freshness and taste to
consumers.
 Transparent packaging is employed to convey freshness and natural ingredients,
positively influencing consumer perception.
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 Marketers need to thoughtfully design and present products within clear packages to
uphold the desired perception, like ensuring intact fruit pieces in yogurt or keeping
tortilla chips whole.

Scent
 Smell is underused in marketing, but it strongly triggers memories.
 Scented strips and stickers enhance ads, e.g., coffee aroma on a newspaper's front
page.
 Ambient scent in stores improves the shopping experience, making time seem shorter.
 Retailers like Abercrombie & Fitch use strong fragrances to attract customers and
make them linger.
 Some companies trademark scents, like FLOTEK's orange-scented hydraulic fluid.
 Strategic scent placement, like Cinnabon's baking ovens, entices customers.
 Certain scents are trademarked, such as piña colada aroma for ukuleles and the beach
smell.

Touch
 Touching a product influences persuasion and is a persuasive tool in retail.
 Most purchase decisions happen at the point of purchase, influenced by product touch.
 Apple Store allows customers to touch and use products, leading to more purchases.
 Effect of interpersonal touch on sales depends on personal preference and cultural
norms.
 Being touched by a salesperson can increase or decrease sales based on individual and
cultural preferences.
 Some negatives associated with touch in retail, especially for women; being touched
from behind can deter sales.

Sound
 Companies invest in designing products and packages with carefully selected audio
input.
 Absence of sound is used as an effective advertising tool, especially for social media
users.
 Hotels strategically use music to set moods in different areas and times, catering to
guests' experiences.
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 Music in retail stores prompts dopamine release, creating pleasure and a generous
mood in shoppers.
 Retailers design store playlists to communicate the brand message, match consumer
demographics, and encourage spending.
 Appropriate music selection in stores prolongs consumer stay and increases purchase
likelihood.
Taste
 Human palate perceives five fundamental tastes: salty, sweet, sour, bitter, and umami.
 Umami is a full-bodied taste found in foods like chicken soup, cured meat, fish stock,
seaweed, and cooked tomato.
 Marketers can influence taste perception using visual and auditory cues.
 Graphic warning labels on cigarette packaging led smokers to perceive a different
taste in their cigarettes, showcasing the impact of visuals on taste perception.

Sensory Input and Culture: Cultural differences can influence how individuals interpret sensory
information. What is appealing or attractive in one culture may not be the same in another,
highlighting the impact of cultural norms and values on sensory perception.

The Absolute and Differential Thresholds: These thresholds determine how much
stimulation (e.g., price changes, product enhancements) is needed for consumers to notice a
difference in a product or its features.

The Absolute Threshold: The minimum level of stimulation required for a consumer to detect
a particular stimulus, like a price drop.
 Example: Noting a billboard at a specific distance while driving.
 Sensory Adaptation: Getting accustomed to a certain stimulation, making a stimulus
less noticeable.
 Concerns: Advertisers change campaigns to maintain ad perceptibility.
 Efforts: Some marketers increase sensory input in ads, but excessive attempts, like
loud commercials, can backfire.

The Differential Threshold: The point at which a consumer perceives a difference in a

stimulus, for instance, a noticeable change in product packaging.
 Weber's Law: The JND is relative to the intensity of the initial stimulus; stronger
initial stimuli require a greater additional intensity for the difference to be noticed.
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 Example: During economic downturns, consumers are price-sensitive and notice even
small price changes; marketers may adjust quantities below the JND to avoid
noticeable price increases.
 Consumer Perception: Consumers often notice reductions in product sizes, leading
to complaints and activism, indicating changes beyond the JND.

Product Pricing and Improvements

 Weber's Law in Marketing:
 Determine Just Noticeable Differences (JNDs) for changes in products.
 Prevent Discernibility: Keep changes below the JND (e.g., size reductions,
price increases).
 Highlight Improvements: Ensure improvements are slightly above the JND
to be noticeable.
 Meeting the Differential Threshold:
 Ensure product improvements exceed the JND for easy perception.
 Example: Apple's Retina Displays were noticeable improvements above the
JND, unlike earlier less noticeable changes

Logos and Packaging

 Update packaging designs with minimal changes below the JND to maintain
consumer recognition.
 Example: Heinz's label update below the JND preserved recognition.
 Beware of Changes Above JND:
 Coca-Cola's holiday cans (too close to Diet Coke's) caused confusion, quickly
rectified.
 Impact on Branding:
 Changes above the JND may anger loyal customers (e.g., The Gap, Starbucks,
Tropicana logos).
 Subliminal advertising involves briefly displaying messages or images at an
imperceptible speed during, for instance, a movie, aiming to influence viewers'
subconscious without them consciously noticing. In a drive-in theater, these
messages were flashed between regular frames, seeking to shape consumers'
thoughts or behaviors without their awareness. However, its actual impact and
ethical implications have been widely debated, and its effectiveness remains
uncertain and controversial.
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 Starbucks removed the name from its logo, initially facing backlash but
ultimately aiming for acceptance over time
 Balancing Change and Recognition:
 Betty Crocker and Xerox updated logos with minimal changes to retain
recognition

Subliminal Perception
 Subliminal Perception:
 Perception of stimuli below conscious awareness, too weak or brief to be
consciously seen or heard.
 Example: Subliminal advertising tested in a drive-in movie theater, where
brief messages were flashed to stimulate responses, but actual effects were
debated.
 Effectiveness and Controversy:
 Subliminal perception lacks credible evidence for significantly influencing
attitudes or behavior.
 Examples: Accusations of subliminal messages in movies and products
promising life changes through subliminal recordings.
 Research suggests subliminal stimuli might trigger certain associations or
motivations but doesn't drastically alter behavior.
 Perception and Expectations:
 Individuals perceive what aligns with their expectations and desires.
 Example: People interpret ambiguous or unclear stimuli based on personal
beliefs and expectations.

Perceptual Selection: Consumers selectively attend to certain stimuli based on various

factors. Consumers selectively perceive stimuli based on subconscious processes. Example: A
shopper at a supermarket is exposed to thousands of stimuli but focuses only on items
relevant to her needs.

 Stimuli's Features: Stimuli that stand out due to their distinct features are more likely
to be noticed by consumers.
 Contrast: Stimuli that contrast with the environment are more likely to be
noticed.
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 Shocking and Unrealistic Images: Unusual or shocking visuals attract

attention.
 Sensory Input: Varying sensory input can combat perceptual defense.

 Personal Expectations: Consumers tend to notice stimuli that align with their
expectations or previous experiences.

 Consumer Motivation: Motivated consumers are more likely to be attentive to certain

stimuli that are relevant to their needs or interests.
 People notice stimuli related to their needs or interests and ignore irrelevant
ones.
 Marketing targets consumer segments based on perceived needs and
preferences.

 Perceptual Defense:
 Consumers subconsciously screen out psychologically threatening stimuli.
 Threatening or damaging stimuli are less likely to be consciously perceived.
 Changing sensory input or increasing stimuli can combat perceptual defense.
Selective Attention:
 Consumers pay more attention to stimuli that align with their interests and
minimal attention to irrelevant ones.
 Preferences for message form and type of medium vary among individuals.
Selective Exposure:
 Consumers choose to engage with messages that resonate with their
preferences and needs.
 They actively avoid messages that they find unpleasant or irrelevant.
Blocking:
 Consumers may block stimuli from conscious awareness to protect themselves
from sensory overload.
 Technologies like DVRs and streaming services enable people to avoid
unwanted stimuli like TV commercials.

Perceptual Organization: This involves how consumers organize and interpret stimuli in
their environment.
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 Grouping
 Definition: People's natural tendency to group stimuli together, creating a
unified picture or impression.
 Effect on Memory and Recall: Perceiving stimuli as groups or chunks
facilitates memory and recall.
 Marketing Application: Marketers use grouping to imply desired meanings
related to their products, influencing consumers' perceptions.
 Examples of Grouping in Marketing:
 Tea Advertisement: Using a scene of a young couple sipping tea in a cozy
room to associate tea with romance, fine living, and warmth.
 Zip Codes: Grouping digits in zip codes to aid memory and recall, where
adding new digits challenges established grouping patterns.
 Grouping in Supermarket Placement:
 Vlasic's Pickle Jars: Moving pickle jars to locations next to products like
hamburgers and buns, associating them with complementary items.
 Coca-Cola Products: Strategically placing different-sized Coca-Cola bottles
and bottled water near foods they are commonly consumed with, creating
interaction points.

 Figure and Ground

 Refers to the interrelationship between a stimulus (figure) and its
environment or context (ground).
 Stimuli contrasting with their environment are more likely to be
noticed.
 Perception of Figure and Ground:
 Figure is perceived more clearly and dominantly than the ground.
 Ground is often seen as indefinite, hazy, and subordinate.
 Influence of Prior Experiences:
 Past experiences affect how figure and ground patterns are perceived.
 Can lead to figure-ground reversals based on individual interpretations.
 Marketing Application: Product Placement:
 Product placement involves integrating advertised products (figure)
into entertainment content (ground).
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 Examples: Dell monitors in Netflix's "Orange Is the New Black," Eggo

Waffles in "Stranger Things."
 Consumer Avoidance of Traditional Commercials:
 Consumers use time-shifting devices or online options to skip or avoid
traditional TV commercials.
 Advertisers respond by creating their own shows or content that subtly
integrate brands without interruption.

 Closure
 Definition: Closure is the natural tendency of individuals to organize
incomplete sensory input into a complete image or understanding. People seek
closure by filling in missing pieces to comprehend the whole.
 Implication in Marketing:
 Encouraging consumers to complete incomplete information in
promotional messages.
 Engaging consumers by making them actively participate in filling
gaps or completing tasks.
 Leveraging familiar stimuli, such as audio from a TV commercial, to
trigger mental completion based on memory.
 Examples of Closure in Advertising:
 Unscrambling Words: Asking consumers to unscramble words to
derive a meaningful message.
 Picture Association: Showing pictures and prompting consumers to
name the activities or items depicted.
 Sentence Completion: Including sentences with missing words and
asking consumers to fill in the blanks.
 Matching Tasks: Asking consumers to match occupations with people
shown wearing different styles of clothes.
 Incomplete Pictures: Presenting incomplete pictures to encourage
consumers to imagine the complete image.

Interpretation Cues: Consumers use cues to interpret stimuli.

 Integral Indicators: Interpretation based on inherent product characteristics, like the
taste of a beverage.
 Definition: Integral indicators, or intrinsic cues, refer to physical
characteristics of the product itself (e.g., size, color, flavor, aroma).
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 Consumer Judgment: Consumers often use these cues (e.g., flavor of ice
cream) to assess product quality.
 Rational Justification: Consumers prefer justifying their product choices based
on intrinsic cues, making decisions seem rational or objective.
 Example - Hillshire Farm: Redesigned sliced meat package to showcase meat
visibly, recognizing consumers' preference for appealing product presentation.
 Marketing Strategies: Companies like Procter & Gamble use luxury treatment
and packaging for common items (e.g., paper towels, dishwasher soap) to
enhance perceived quality and justify higher prices.
 Consumer Perception: Packaging and appearance play a crucial role in
influencing consumer perception of product quality.

 External Indicators: Interpretation based on external factors, such as branding,

packaging, or advertising.
 Definition: Extrinsic indicators, or extrinsic cues, refer to characteristics not
inherent to the product itself, used by consumers to judge quality.
 Examples of Extrinsic Cues:
Colors: Colors of products like powdered fruit drinks and orange juice
influence perceived flavors (e.g., purple for "tart").
Price: Consumers often associate higher quality with higher prices.
Brand Image: Strong brand image can influence perceptions of
quality.
Manufacturer's Image: Consumers may judge quality based on the
reputation of the manufacturer.
Retail Store Image: Perception of the retail store can impact
perceived product quality.
Perceived Country of Origin: Consumers may associate products
with certain countries and judge quality accordingly.
Influence on Perception: In the absence of direct experience,
consumers use these external cues to evaluate the product's quality.
 Marketing Strategies:
Packaging and Branding: Häagen-Dazs' success with a
Scandinavian-sounding name and the use of perceived origins like
"Russian" for vodka.
Wine Example: Perception of wine quality influenced by the region it
comes from and the closure method (corks vs. screw caps).
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Beer Industry Example: Importance of package design and

differentiation in a highly competitive market, particularly illustrations
and logos.
 Consumer Interpretation: Consumers tend to interpret ambiguous stimuli in
a way that fulfills their personal needs, wishes, or interests.
 Impact on Purchase Decisions: Over half of beer purchase decisions are
made at the shelf, emphasizing the importance of effective marketing and
labeling strategies.
 Study Findings: Illustrates the relative importance of extrinsic factors (e.g.,
branding, packaging) and intrinsic factors (e.g., alcohol percentage) in
consumers' beer purchases.

Sstereotyping
 stereotypes Biased notions that people carry in their minds about the
meanings of various stimuli. When presented with these stimuli, people
“add” these biases to what they see or hear and form mostly distorted
impressions.

 Individuals have biased mental images of stimuli, known as stereotypes.

 Stereotypes influence perceptions and can lead to distorted impressions.

 Example: Benetton ad promoting racial harmony perceived as depicting a

white man arresting a black man due to stereotypes.

 Reasons for Stereotyping:

 Quick Processing: Stereotypes allow quick and easy processing of sensory

input.

 Visual Shorthand: Stereotypes serve as visual shortcuts to present ideas.

 Oversimplification: Stereotyping oversimplifies an image either positively or

negatively.

 Triggers of Stereotyping:

 Physical Appearance: People attribute certain qualities associated with

specific types of people to others who resemble them.

 Descriptive Terms: Verbal messages often reflect stereotypes, influencing

perceptions.

 First Impressions: First impressions tend to be lasting and influence

subsequent perceptions.

 Halo Effect: Overall evaluation of an object based on the evaluation of just

one or a few dimensions.
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Interpretation:
Consumer Imagery: This relates to how consumers perceive the value, quality, and image of
a product.
 Perceived Value: Consumers assess whether a product's benefits justify its price. For
example, a product offering numerous features may be perceived as having higher
value.
 Perceived Quality: Consumers evaluate a product's quality based on its features,
durability, or reputation of the brand. Positive past experiences can enhance perceived
quality.
 Price-Quality Relationship: Consumers often associate higher prices with better
quality, assuming that more expensive products are of higher quality.
 Brand Image: Consumers form an image of a brand based on its reputation, past
experiences, and marketing efforts. A positive brand image can lead to consumer
loyalty and trust.
 Package Perceptions/Image: The design and messaging on product packaging can
influence how consumers perceive the product and the brand.
 Service Quality: Consumers evaluate service quality based on their experiences with a
service, which influences their perception of the brand providing the service.
 Retail Store Perceptions/Image: Consumers' perception of a retail store is influenced
by factors like store layout, cleanliness, customer service, and the overall shopping
experience.
 Company Image: The overall image of a company, including its values, mission, and
corporate social responsibility initiatives, can impact how consumers perceive its
products and services.

Risk Perception: Consumers assess risks associated with a product or purchase decision,
influencing their willingness to buy.
 The Components of Perceived Risk:
 Financial Risk: The risk of losing money.

 Performance Risk: The risk of the product not performing as expected.

 Physical Risk: The risk of harm or injury.

 Psychological Risk: The risk of not meeting personal expectations.

 Time Risk: The risk of time lost.

 Reducing Perceived Risk:

 Information: Providing consumers with relevant information about the product
can reduce perceived risk.
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 Brand Loyalty: Consumers often stick to brands they trust, reducing the
perceived risk associated with trying something new.
 Store Image: A reputable store's positive image can reduce perceived risk.

 Price-Quality Relationship: Consumers may associate higher prices with better

quality, reducing perceived risk.

Positioning and Repositioning

 Positioning:
 Process of creating a distinct image and identity for products, services, or
brands in consumers' minds.
 Results in a unique perception of the product relative to competing offerings.
 Positioning Strategy Steps:
 Define the market, relevant buyers, and competition.
 Identify product's key attributes and research consumer perception of each
attribute.
 Research how consumers perceive competing offerings.
 Determine the target market's preferred attribute combination.
 Develop a distinctive, value-based positioning concept communicating
applicable attributes as benefits.
 Create a position statement focused on benefits and value, using it to
communicate with target audiences.
 Positioning Strategies:
 Umbrella Positioning: Describes universal benefits of a company's offering,
not specific to products.
 Premier Position: Focuses on brand exclusivity and high perceived value.
 Positioning Against Competition: Contrasts the brand with competitors to
highlight unique aspects.
 Key Attribute Positioning: Emphasizes superiority based on relevant product
attributes.
 Un-owned Position: Fills perceptual positions not clearly associated with a
brand or product.

1. Umbrella Positioning:
 Example: Coca-Cola
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 Explanation: Coca-Cola uses an umbrella positioning strategy with its slogan

"Open Happiness." This slogan focuses on the universal benefit of bringing
joy and happiness to people, regardless of the specific product within the
brand.
2. Premier Position:
 Example: Rolex
 Explanation: Rolex employs premier positioning by positioning itself as a
luxury brand synonymous with prestige and exclusivity. Its high-quality
watches are associated with status, luxury, and a high perceived value.
3. Positioning Against Competition:
 Example: Avis
 Explanation: Avis famously used this strategy with the slogan "We're No. 2.
We Try Harder." By acknowledging their position against the industry leader
(Hertz), they emphasize their dedication to providing better service and effort.
 7Up:
 Slogan: "The Uncola"
 By calling itself "The Uncola," 7Up acknowledged and contrasted itself with
the dominant soft drink brand, Coke, emphasizing its uniqueness and
alternative appeal.
 Gett Taxi vs. Uber:
 Gett Taxi positioned itself directly against Uber, acknowledging Uber's market
leadership in ridesharing apps.
 The positioning implies that Gett Taxi offers a different or better service,
encouraging consumers to consider an alternative to the established leader
4. Key Attribute Positioning:
 Example: Volvo
 Explanation: Volvo focuses on the attribute of safety. Their positioning
emphasizes the superior safety features of their cars, creating a perception that
Volvo vehicles are among the safest on the road.
5. Un-owned Position:
 Example: Lululemon Athletica (athletic apparel)
 Explanation: Lululemon filled a unique perceptual position by combining
athletic wear with a lifestyle brand. They promote yoga-inspired athletic wear,
associating it with a lifestyle of health and wellness. This position was
relatively un-owned before Lululemon entered the market.
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 Visine, originally known for eye drops to relieve redness, expanded its product
line to include items for relief of multiple symptoms, allergies, redness, and
tired and dry eyes. This expansion allowed Visine to fill various perceptual
positions related to eye care needs.
 Crest toothpaste similarly diversified its product line to cover multiple
positions, offering distinct benefits such as tartar protection, cavity protection,
sensitivity relief, and more. Crest recognized different benefits that consumers
sought and created product versions to fill those positions

Repositioning

Changing Perceptions through Repositioning:

Repositioning is a strategic process where a company aims to change the distinct image and
identity its product or brand holds in consumers' minds. This is done for various reasons, such
as consumer familiarity with the original positioning, changing consumer preferences, or
evolving market dynamics.
Reasons for Repositioning:
1. Combatting Familiarity: Over time, consumers may get accustomed to a brand's
original positioning, and it might lose its impact. Repositioning helps revive and
rejuvenate the brand's image.
2. Competitive Differentiation: When multiple competitors stress the same benefit in
their positioning, companies need to uncover new attributes that consumers perceive
as important to stand out.
3. Appealing to a New Segment: Repositioning can be used to target a new consumer
segment by adjusting the brand's message, image, or features to align with the
preferences of the new target audience.
Examples of Repositioning:
 Chevrolet: As Chevrolet expanded globally, it needed a new slogan that would create
a united, global perception. They transitioned from "Chevy Runs Deep" to "Find New
Roads" to create a flexible and exciting brand image.
 Hard Rock Café: Their slogan transitioned from "You know who you are" appealing
to the inner rebel in young adults, to "See the show" emphasizing that there's always
something fun happening at Hard Rock establishments.
 New York Lottery: The slogan changed from "You got to be in it to win it" to "Be
Ready," emphasizing instant gratification and immediate winning experiences.
 Yellow Tail Wines: They shifted from slogans like "Open for everything" and "Tails,
you win" to "The go to," reinforcing their previous messages and positioning the wine
for everyday consumption and most occasions.
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 Chili's Restaurant Chain: The advertising focus transitioned from showcasing close-
ups of food preparation to highlighting the restaurant's personality, value, and
engaging the customer, e.g., "Get out of the office more often, with Chili’s $6 Lunch
Break combos."

Perceptual Mapping: Perceptual mapping involves creating a diagram that visually represents
how consumers perceive competing brands based on relevant product attributes. This tool assists
marketers in understanding:

1. Consumer Perceptions of Brands in Comparison to Competitors: Perceptual maps illustrate

how consumers view different brands in relation to each other.

2. Direction for Altering Undesirable Consumer Perceptions: It helps identify how brands can
modify their positioning to change unfavorable consumer perceptions.

3. Un-owned Perceptual Positions as Opportunities: By revealing gaps or unoccupied positions

on the map, it indicates opportunities for developing new brands or products.

The main purpose of perceptual mapping is to formulate repositioning strategies and refine the
perception of products and services among consumers.

In the exemplified perceptual map (Figure 4.14), researchers studied how consumers perceive ten
stores based on two dimensions: innovativeness vs. traditionality and luxury vs. thriftiness. For
instance, Barneys was perceived as a highly innovative, high-end store, distinct from its closest
competitor, Bloomingdale’s. On the other hand, Macy’s and Old Navy were seen similarly, indicating
a need for Macy's to correct this perception by emphasizing its high-end image. Modell’s and H&M
were viewed as close competitors, highlighting the necessity for clearer positioning. Bergdorf
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Goodman and Saks Fifth Avenue were seen as high-end competitors, with Saks being perceived as
more traditional.

The perceptual map aids in comprehending consumer perceptions, enabling effective positioning and
targeted marketing strategies for each brand.

Miscellaneous IMP topics

Selective Retention
Selective retention, in the context of consumer perception and positioning, refers to the tendency of
individuals to remember information that aligns with their existing beliefs and preferences while
forgetting information that contradicts them. For marketers, understanding this phenomenon is
crucial because it helps tailor advertising and marketing strategies to align with consumers' pre-
existing attitudes and preferences. By crafting messages that resonate with what consumers already
believe or prefer, marketers can increase the likelihood of the message being remembered and
positively influencing consumer perceptions and choices. Ultimately, this understanding aids in fine-
tuning marketing strategies to be more effective in influencing consumer perceptions and positioning
of products or brands.

Three Levels of Product

The Three Levels of Product is a model that helps marketers understand and analyze a product from
multiple perspectives, encompassing its core features as well as the additional elements that
enhance its value to consumers. These levels are often referred to as the Core Product, Actual
Product, and Augmented Product.

1. Core Product:

 This represents the fundamental benefit or service that addresses the core need or
desire of the consumer.

 It identifies the primary problem or requirement that the product aims to fulfill.
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 For example, the core product of a smartphone is communication and access to

information.

2. Actual Product:

 This level encapsulates the tangible features and attributes that the product
possesses.

 It includes the design, features, quality, brand, and packaging, among other tangible
aspects.

 The actual product makes the core product more appealing and satisfying for
consumers.

 For a smartphone, this would encompass the design, screen size, camera quality,
processor speed, and other physical attributes.

3. Augmented Product:

 This level involves additional elements that enhance the value of the product and
provide a competitive advantage.

 It incorporates services, warranties, after-sales support, delivery options, brand

reputation, and any extra offerings that accompany the product.

 These add-ons differentiate the product in the market and offer additional value to
the consumer.

 For a smartphone, the augmented product may include a warranty, customer

support, software updates, and optional accessories.

Understanding and strategically managing these three levels of a product is crucial for businesses. It
allows them to design products that not only fulfill the core needs of consumers but also offer a
compelling overall package that attracts and retains customers

3 Layers of Society

The third layer typically referred to in the context of society is "meso." Here's an explanation of all
three layers:

1. Macro Level:

 The macro level of society pertains to the overarching, large-scale structures,

systems, and trends that influence society as a whole.

 It focuses on broad social phenomena, institutions, and societal patterns that shape
the functioning of an entire society or nation.

 Examples of macro-level factors include government policies, economic systems,

cultural norms, and global trends.

2. Micro Level:
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 The micro level of society involves the individual or small-group interactions within a
society.

 It delves into the personal experiences, behaviors, and interactions of individuals and
how they are influenced by societal structures and norms.

 Examples of micro-level factors include interpersonal relationships, family dynamics,

personal beliefs, and individual behaviors.

3. Meso Level:

 The meso level serves as an intermediate or middle ground between the macro and
micro levels.

 It focuses on intermediate-sized social groups or institutions, such as communities,

organizations, or subcultures.

 This level examines the interactions, relationships, and dynamics within these
intermediate groups that contribute to broader social patterns.

 Examples of meso-level factors include community organizations, schools, work

teams, and interest-based groups.

The three types of goods

1. Transparent Good: Attributes and quality can be easily assessed before purchase (e.g.,
electronics).

1. Credence Good: Quality and attributes are challenging to evaluate even after purchase (e.g.,
medical services).

2. Experience Good: Quality is assessed during or after consumption (e.g., dining at a

restaurant).

The difference between credence and experience goods is primarily in when the assessment of
quality or attributes occurs:

 For credence goods, it's difficult to assess quality even after purchase due to lack of expertise
or information.

 For experience goods, assessment happens during or after consumption, as the consumer
gains experience with the product or service.

personal fulfillment
1. Affirmation: Affirmation refers to positive statements or declarations aimed at reinforcing
and uplifting one's thoughts, beliefs, or self-worth. It's a way to boost confidence and
maintain a positive mindset.

2. Achievement: Achievement pertains to successfully reaching specific goals or objectives,

often reflecting competence, effort, and accomplishment in various aspects of life such as
academics, career, personal growth, etc.
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3. Power: Power involves the capacity or ability to influence, control, or have an impact on
people, circumstances, or events. It can manifest in different forms, such as social, political,
or personal power, and plays a significant role in interactions and decision-making.

Three motivational conflict scenarios

1. Approach-Approach Conflict: This occurs when an individual is faced with choosing between
two desirable options or goals, but they can only choose one. For instance, choosing
between two equally appealing job offers.

2. Approach-Avoidance Conflict: This conflict arises when a single decision or situation has
both positive and negative aspects, creating a dilemma for the individual. They are attracted
to the goal but also fear the potential negative consequences. For example, deciding
whether to accept a higher-paying job in a location far from family and friends.

3. Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict: In this conflict, an individual has to choose between two

undesirable options or goals. Neither choice is appealing, and the individual must select the
lesser of two evils. An example might be choosing between a tedious job with a good salary
or being unemployed

Two primary types of consuming entities

1. Personal Consumer:

 Personal consumers are individuals who purchase goods and services for their
personal use, enjoyment, or household needs.

 Their buying decisions are often influenced by personal preferences, tastes, lifestyle,
and needs.

 Personal consumers are the end-users of products and make purchases based on
factors such as quality, price, brand, convenience, and emotional appeal.

2. Organizational Consumer:

 Organizational consumers refer to businesses, institutions, government agencies,

and other entities that purchase goods and services to support their operations or
for further production or resale.

 Their buying decisions are based on factors like cost-effectiveness, efficiency, quality,
supplier relationships, and alignment with organizational goals and requirements.

 Organizational consumers often engage in a more structured purchasing process

involving multiple decision-makers and procurement procedures.

A latent need refers to a potential requirement or desire that a consumer may have but is not
consciously recognized or expressed. It represents an unspoken or unacknowledged need that can
become significant when brought to the consumer's awareness or when circumstances change.
Latent needs often emerge when a new technology, product, or service addresses a previously
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unconsidered aspect of a person's life or when a problem is identified that the individual was not
consciously aware of before.

Key Points about Latent Needs:

1. Unconscious or Unexpressed: Latent needs are not clearly articulated or recognized by

individuals. Consumers might not be aware of these needs until they are exposed to a
product or service that addresses them.

2. Opportunity for Innovation: Identifying and fulfilling latent needs present significant
opportunities for innovation and product development. Creating solutions that cater to
unspoken needs can lead to successful products in the market.

3. Consumer Understanding: Successful companies invest in understanding their target

audience deeply to uncover latent needs. This involves research, observing consumer
behavior, and staying attuned to evolving societal trends and technologies.

4. Market Demand: Latent needs, when addressed effectively, can generate new market
demands and create a competitive edge. Products that tap into these needs often experience
high demand and acceptance.

5. Example Scenarios: Latent needs can range from convenience (e.g., smartphones addressing
the need for instant communication) to sustainability (e.g., eco-friendly products addressing
the need for environmental consciousness).

Understanding latent needs requires a holistic approach, involving comprehensive market research,
consumer behavior analysis, and a proactive mindset to identify emerging trends and potential
unmet needs. Successful businesses leverage these insights to design and market products that fulfill
both conscious and latent needs, ultimately enhancing customer satisfaction and driving business
success.

Marketing Funnel
The marketing funnel, often referred to as the sales funnel, is a conceptual framework used in
marketing to illustrate the customer's journey from being aware of a product or service to making a
purchase. The concept is modeled after a funnel because, just like a funnel's shape, the number of
potential customers at each stage of the process decreases as they move closer to making a buying
decision.

Here are the typical stages of the marketing funnel:

1. Awareness: At the top of the funnel, the goal is to create awareness about your product or
service among a broad audience. This is where potential customers learn about your brand,
often through advertising, social media, content marketing, or other channels.

2. Interest: In this stage, consumers who became aware of your product or service express
interest. They may visit your website, sign up for newsletters, or follow your social media.
The aim is to engage them with compelling content and information that nurtures their
interest.

3. Consideration: As consumers move down the funnel, they start evaluating their options.
They compare features, prices, reviews, and other aspects to determine if your offering
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meets their needs. It's important to provide them with detailed information and possibly
offer demonstrations or free trials.

4. Action: The final stage is where potential customers decide to make a purchase. It could be a
sale, subscription, or any desired action that indicates a successful conversion. Ensuring a
smooth and persuasive transition from consideration to action is crucial at this point.

5. Retention and Advocacy: Some models extend the funnel to include post-purchase stages.
After a customer makes a purchase, it's essential to ensure their satisfaction, encourage
repeat purchases, and prompt them to become advocates for your brand.

The marketing funnel helps businesses understand customer behavior, tailor their marketing
strategies to each stage, and optimize their efforts to guide potential customers smoothly through
the buying process.

Chapter Summary

In the realm of consumer behavior, understanding how individuals perceive and position products
and brands is paramount. Perception, the process through which people interpret sensory
information, plays a critical role. Various senses like sight, scent, touch, sound, and taste contribute
to this sensory input. Cultural influences also shape how consumers perceive these sensory cues. The
absolute and differential thresholds are important concepts within perception, representing the
minimum level at which stimuli are detected and the noticeable difference between stimuli,
respectively. Marketers leverage these thresholds to make product pricing and improvement
decisions, design logos and packaging, and even engage in subliminal perception, subtly influencing
consumer behavior.

Perceptual selection further delves into how consumers filter and process stimuli based on their
personal expectations and motivations. This affects what consumers pay attention to and what they
ignore. Perceptual organization explores how the brain arranges and interprets stimuli, including
figure and ground relationships and closure. Interpretation follows, revealing how consumers make
sense of stimuli using cues like integral and external indicators, often leading to stereotyping and the
halo effect. Physical appearance, descriptive terms, and first impressions are all components of this
interpretation process.

Moreover, consumer imagery and perceived value are integral in shaping brand image. Consumers
associate perceived quality and the price-quality relationship with a brand, which influences their
perception. Managing risk perception is another crucial aspect, and marketers employ strategies to
reduce perceived risk, such as providing information, building brand loyalty, emphasizing store
image, and manipulating the price-quality relationship. Positioning and repositioning strategies are
then utilized to carve out a unique brand image and perception in consumers' minds. Strategies like
umbrella positioning, premier positioning, positioning against competition, and focusing on key
attributes are all deployed based on consumer perceptions and preferences.

To understand how consumers perceive competing brands, perceptual mapping is employed. This
technique visually represents how consumers perceive different brands based on relevant attributes,
guiding marketers to make informed decisions on brand positioning, repositioning, and identifying
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unexplored market opportunities. Overall, understanding consumer perception and strategically

positioning products and brands accordingly are fundamental in the ever-evolving landscape of
consumer behavior and marketing.
Muhammad Ali Suhail

Possessions and the Extended Self

Introduction:

 When we talk about "possessions," we mean the things we own, like our clothes, house, or
even relationships with others.

 The research aims to study how these possessions are a big part of who we are as
individuals. Essentially, what we own reflects our identity and what we stand for.

 The study also looks at how our behavior as consumers (what we buy and use) is connected
to our larger existence as human beings.

Evidences:

 The research presents proof that our belongings are closely tied to how we see ourselves.

 The writings of William James, a prominent figure in psychology, suggest that what we own is
a fundamental aspect of defining ourselves.

 The "extended self" goes beyond just physical objects; it includes people, places, and even
groups we identify with, forming a complete sense of self.

Functions of the Extended Self:

 The article talks about three important aspects of our lives: having things, doing things, and
being ourselves.

 Possessions play a key role in how we grow and change throughout our lives.

 They help us understand who we are by distinguishing us from our surroundings and others.
As we grow older, our possessions help us maintain a sense of who we are and where we
come from.

Processes of Self-Extension:

 This part delves into how we include objects as part of ourselves.

 There are specific processes, like contamination (both good and bad aspects of things being
attached to us), that make us see objects as extensions of ourselves.

 We also consider our family, city, or even our nation as part of us, indicating how broad this
idea of "extended self" can be.

Special Categories of Possessions:

 The research highlights certain special kinds of things that we tend to see as a fundamental
part of ourselves.

 These include collections, money, pets, other people we are close to, and even parts of our
own bodies.

 The research shows that we treat these categories differently because we perceive them as a
vital part of who we are.

Implications for Consumer Research:

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 The concept of the "extended self" has significant implications for how businesses and
researchers understand consumer behavior.

 It affects how we give and receive gifts, take care of our belongings, decide what to do with
products we no longer need, and even how we find meaning and purpose in our lives
beyond just the things we buy.

 Loss of Possessions and Identity:

 Possessions are viewed as part of oneself.

 Unintentional loss of possessions equates to a loss or diminishment of self.

 Effects of Institutionalization on Identity:

 Institutions like mental hospitals, prisons, etc., standardize individuals, stripping

them of personal possessions and unique identity.

 The substitution of unique possessions with standardized ones results in a loss of

uniqueness and individual identity.

 Loss Due to Theft or Casualty:

 Loss of possessions due to theft or casualty can lead to feelings of violation and grief,
similar to mourning a loved one.

 Examples provided include burglary victims and victims of natural disasters

experiencing a sense of loss of self due to the loss of their possessions.

 Loss of Control and Shared Identity:

 Involuntary loss of possessions can lead to a diminished sense of self, especially

when control over the situation is lacking.

 The new standardized possessions may restore some sense of self, but the new self
is often less unique and more aligned with a shared group identity.

 Loss of Possessions and Attachment to Home and Neighborhood:

 Loss of possessions to theft or casualty can affect one's attachment to home and
neighborhood.

 Home and neighborhood are strong sources of personal identity, and their loss or
damage can lead to a diminished sense of self.

 Effects of Forced Disposition of Possessions:

 Forced disposition of possessions due to economic circumstances or other reasons

can bring sorrow and resentment.

 It may lead to a feeling of selling one's life away, highlighting the emotional
attachment people have to their possessions.

 Loss of Possessions and Creativity:

 Loss of possessions can trigger attempts at self-restoration through creativity, seen

as an extension of the self in new ways to restore a sense of wholeness after loss.
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 Investing Self in Objects:

 People tend to invest their sense of self in objects they create or alter, either
physically or symbolically.

 Psychic energy invested in an object through effort, time, and attention is seen as a
part of the self because it has emerged from the self.

 Association of People and Possessions:

 People across various cultures associate themselves with possessions or symbols,

indicating a strong link between possessions and self-identity.

 This includes practices like burying possessions with the dead.

 Modern Examples of Possession Attachment:

 The text provides modern examples of the strong emotional attachment people can
have to possessions like cars, especially for males.

 Relevant Perspectives and Domains:

 A wide range of literature and fields can contribute to understanding the concept of
the extended self.

 Historical and cultural variations in the conceptualization of the self are

acknowledged

 Having, Doing, and Being:

 Possessions extend the self in terms of having, doing, and being.

 Possessions allow us to do things we couldn't do otherwise and symbolically

influence our sense of being.

 Tools and Weapons:

 Possessions like tools or weapons extend our capabilities, allowing us to do things

we wouldn't be capable of without them.

 Symbolic Representation:

 Possessions symbolically extend the self, portraying a different version of ourselves

(e.g., uniform, trophy).

 Relationship with Handguns:

 Handguns can symbolically represent power (Tanay) or offer real power (Kates and
Varzos), contributing to a sense of being.

 Existential View (Sartre):

 Having possessions enlarges our sense of self, and observing what we have helps us
understand who we are (Being and Nothingness).

 Parent-Child Relationship and Ownership:

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 The infant's first ownership experiences are tied to caregiving and oral experiences
(nursing), establishing the sense of having.

 Competence and Mastery:

 Possessions aid in achieving a sense of mastery and competence by allowing us to

control and do things in our environment.

 Self-Definition in Adolescence and Adulthood:

 Adolescents may seek identity through accumulating consumption objects, while

adults may define themselves by what they have (preretirement).

 Old Age and Memories:

 Possessions like photographs, trophies, and mementos are treasured by the elderly,
symbolizing memories and experiences from the past.

 Value of Possessions in Recalling Memories:

 Possessions such as furniture, art, and photographs are valued for the memories and
relationships they evoke, contributing to a sense of the past and self.

 Antiques and Heirlooms:

 Antiques and heirlooms may serve as status symbols, connecting us to a desirable

past and incorporating the extended self of valued others.

 Nostalgia and the Golden Age:

 Possessing items from a past perceived as a golden age can evoke nostalgia and help
maintain values and an idealized self-identity.

 Sartre's Three Ways of Incorporating Objects:

o Sartre suggests three primary ways to view an object as part of oneself:

appropriating or controlling, overcoming or mastering, and giving possessions to
others.

 Control and Mastery:

o One way to extend the self is by appropriating or controlling an object for personal
use, giving a sense of power and control.

 Creation:

o Creating an object, whether material or abstract, allows the creator to retain an

identity in the object, making it a part of their extended self.

 Knowledge and Desire:

o Knowing an object, person, or thing passionately is another way to incorporate it

into the extended self, driven by a desire to possess and have a carnal relationship
with the object.

 Contamination:
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o Contamination is a way of incorporating traits of another person through symbolic

acts like cannibalism or rape, though this concept also extends to more metaphorical
aspects like possession of intimate items.

 Levels of Self and Group Identity:

o Individuals possess multiple levels of self, including the individual, family,

community, and group levels.

o Possessions and consumption symbols are used to express and define group identity,
creating a sense of belonging to a specific group.

 Ownership of Space and Land:

o Ownership of land, especially for farmers, is deeply internalized and represents self-
sufficiency and a link to family heritage.

 Territorial Markers:

o Territorial markers, both within homes and neighborhoods, can signal attachment to
a community and group identity.

 Shared Consumption Symbols:

o Shared symbols, such as landmarks, places, leaders, or public monuments, are

significant in defining group identity and expressing pride in the group's extended
self.

 Acts of Civic Responsibility:

o Acts of apparent altruism and civic responsibility can be seen as extending the self to
a broader community or group, contributing to a sense of immortal identity.

 John Donne's Quote:

o Donne's quote emphasizes the interconnectedness of humanity, suggesting that the

loss or gain of any individual affects the collective extended self of mankind.

 Collections:

 Purposeful act of self-definition through assembling non-necessities.

 Initiated by gifts or unintentional acquisitions.

 Provides a sense of control and uniqueness within self-prescribed boundaries.

 Represents self-enhancement and completion.

 Money and Extension of Self:

 Money can be seen as an abstract extension of self for some individuals.

 Endows a sense of power, success, and identity.

 People often use money to acquire tangible extensions of self.

 Extreme obsession with money can lead to unhealthy behaviors and dysfunctional
relationships with possessions.
Muhammad Ali Suhail

 Pets as Extended Self:

 Pets become integral parts of a person's extended self, often treated as family
members.

 Provide companionship and attachment, serving as transition objects or security

blankets for adults.

 Emotional investment in pets, but can sometimes lead to possessive or controlling

behaviors.

 Other People:

 Close relationships with family, children, and friends can be seen as extensions of the
self.

 Well-being and experiences of loved ones are intertwined with one's own sense of
self.

 Loss or injury to a loved one is deeply felt as a violation of one's self.

 Body Parts:

 Body parts are fundamental components charged with emotional energy.

 Concept of cathexis: emotional investment in body parts reflecting self-acceptance.

 Losing a body part can be traumatic, perceived as a loss of identity and self.

 Body parts are central to self-conception, and their loss impacts one's sense of self
and well-being.

 Enrichment of Consumer Behavior Domain:

 The extended self formulation enriches and enlarges the domain of consumer
behavior.

 Research is needed into specific areas such as vicarious consumption, gift-giving,

care of possessions, organ donation, product disposition, and the role of extended
self in generating meaning in life.

 Vicarious Consumption:

 Individuals vicariously consume through family members, enhancing their extended

selves.

 Consumption that enhances a family member's extended self enhances the

individual's own extended self.

 Gift-Giving:

 Explains apparently altruistic acts of generosity and kindness towards family

members or loved ones.

 Giving to those incorporated into one's extended self is more self-gratifying.

 Reciprocal giving may not be necessary when the recipient is part of the giver's
extended self.
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 Care of Possessions:

 The level of care and maintenance of possessions is related to their incorporation

into one's extended self.

 More care and attention are given to possessions deeply integrated into one's
extended self.

 Organ Donation:

 Willingness to donate body organs is affected by cathexis (emotional investment) in

specific body parts.

 The willingness to donate organs may be influenced by the perceived centrality of

the organs to one's extended self.

 Product Disposition and Disuse:

 There's a need for research into the disposition and disuse of possessions that are
part of the extended self.

 Possessions may be retained or discarded based on their fit with the individual's
ideal self-image or personal history.

 Extended Self and Meaning in Life:

 Possessions integrated into the extended self act as objective manifestations and
personal archives, aiding reflection on personal history and growth.

 The extended self provides a sense of permanence and a place in the world,
contributing to an individual's meaning in life.

 Consumption and possessions can play a positive role in constructing identity and
meaning in life, though excessive materialism may have negative consequences.

Summary of Conclusions:

1. Possessions Shape Identity:

 Possessions are fundamental to consumer behavior, significantly contributing to an

individual's identity and sense of self.

2. Centrality of Possessions:

 Research indicates that possessions, after body parts and mind, are central to an
individual's sense of self.

3. Functions of Extended Self:

 Possessions play a crucial role in defining, expressing, and reminding us of our

identity through the extended self.

 The extended self operates at individual and collective levels, encompassing family,
group, subcultural, and national identities.

4. Development of Attachment:
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 Attachment to possessions begins early in life, as infants learn to distinguish

themselves from their environment and others through possessions.

5. Life Course and Possessions:

 The emphasis on material possessions may decrease with age but remains significant
throughout life as a means of self-expression, happiness, and memory preservation.

6. Self-Extension through Possessions:

 Self-extension occurs through mastery, creation, knowledge, and contamination via

proximity and habituation to possessions.

7. Various Types of Possessions:

 Collections, money, other people, pets, and body parts are types of possessions that
also influence an individual's sense of self.

8. Implications for Consumer Behavior:

 The concept of extended self sheds light on various consumer behaviors, including
gift-giving, vicarious consumption, care of possessions, organ donation, product
disposition, and disuse.

 It offers perspectives on previously unexplored areas of consumption, such as pets,

sharing, collective consumption, and collection of consumption objects.

9. Significance and Future Research:

 The extended self is a central construct that explains diverse consumer and human
behaviors, presenting a promising approach to understanding the symbolic
importance of consumption in our lives.

 Its neglect in consumer behavior research and its potential to illuminate important
issues in the field make it a valuable concept for further exploration and
understanding.
Muhammad Ali Suhail

The Extended Self: Possessions and Identity

Introduction

 Definition: "Possessions" encompass owned items, relationships, and more.

 Objective: Explore how possessions shape individual identity and consumer behavior.

 Connection to Identity: Our belongings reflect our identity and values.

Evidences

 William James's View: Belongings are fundamental in defining self.

 Extended Self: Extends beyond physical objects to include people, places, and groups.

Functions of the Extended Self

 Three Aspects: Having things, doing things, and being ourselves.

 Role in Growth: Possessions aid growth and self-understanding throughout life.

Processes of Self-Extension

 Incorporating Objects: Processes like contamination and emotional investment.

 Broader Notions: Family, community, and national identity also extend the self.

Special Categories of Possessions

 Distinctive Categories: Collections, money, pets, body parts, and close relationships.

 Perceived Importance: Treated differently due to their significant role in self-identity.

Implications for Consumer Research

 Wider Impact: Influences gift-giving, care of belongings, product disposition, and more.

 Understanding Behavior: Provides insights into consumption behaviors related to extended

self.

Loss of Possessions and Identity

 Involuntary Loss: Impact on self and sense of uniqueness.

 Effects of Institutionalization: Standardization and loss of individual identity.

 Loss Due to Theft or Casualty: Emotional impact and violation of self.

 Loss of Control and Shared Identity: Diminished uniqueness and alignment with group
identity.

 Attachment to Home and Neighborhood: Affects attachment and identity.

Enrichment of Consumer Behavior Domain

 Vicarious Consumption: Extending self through family members.

 Gift-Giving: Altruistic acts and gratification from extending self to loved ones.

 Care of Possessions: Relates to emotional attachment and incorporation into extended self.
Muhammad Ali Suhail

 Organ Donation: Influenced by emotional investment and perceived centrality to self.

 Product Disposition and Disuse: Decision-making based on alignment with self-image and
personal history.

 Extended Self and Meaning in Life: Role in constructing identity and finding meaning in life.

Summary of Conclusions

 Possessions and Identity: Possessions play a fundamental role in shaping an individual's

identity.

 Centrality of Possessions: After body parts and mind, possessions are central to an
individual's sense of self.

 Functions of Extended Self: Crucial in defining, expressing, and reminding us of our identity
through the extended self.

 Development of Attachment: Attachment to possessions begins early in life and remains

significant throughout life.

 Self-Extension through Possessions: Occurs through mastery, creation, knowledge, and

contamination.

 Various Types of Possessions: Collections, money, other people, pets, and body parts
influence an individual's sense of self.

 Implications for Consumer Behavior: Provides perspectives on diverse consumer behaviors

and unexplored areas of consumption.

 Significance and Future Research: A central construct offering promising approaches to

understanding the symbolic importance of consumption.

The Extended Self: Possessions and Identity

Introduction

Possessions are more than mere belongings; they encompass everything we own, from material
items like clothes and homes to intangible aspects like relationships with others. This study delves
into the profound connection between these possessions and our sense of self. Essentially, what we
own is a reflection of our identity and the values we stand for. Understanding this link is vital for
comprehending consumer behavior, as it involves what we choose to buy and use, intricately tied to
our larger existence as human beings.

Evidences

A significant figure in psychology, William James, emphasized the foundational role of belongings in
defining who we are. This forms a key basis for the study. Moreover, the concept of the "extended
self" takes this idea further, suggesting that our sense of self goes beyond just physical objects. It
encompasses people, places, and even groups we identify with, forming a complete sense of self that
impacts our behaviors as consumers.
Muhammad Ali Suhail

Functions of the Extended Self

The extended self operates in three fundamental aspects of our lives: having things, doing things,
and being ourselves. Possessions play a crucial role as they aid in our growth and understanding of
our identity throughout our lives. They help us define and distinguish ourselves from our
surroundings and others. As we grow older, our possessions play a crucial role in helping us maintain
a sense of who we are and where we come from.

Processes of Self-Extension

Understanding how we incorporate objects as part of ourselves is a significant aspect of the

extended self. Processes like contamination, where both positive and negative traits of things
become attached to us, help us see objects as extensions of ourselves. Moreover, we extend the self
to include family, community, and even our nation, showcasing the broad spectrum of this idea of
the "extended self."

Special Categories of Possessions

Certain categories of possessions hold a distinct place in our sense of self. These include collections,
money, pets, other people we are close to, and even parts of our own bodies. These categories are
treated differently because we perceive them as a vital part of who we are.

Implications for Consumer Research

The concept of the "extended self" has significant implications for understanding consumer behavior.
It affects how we give and receive gifts, take care of our belongings, decide what to do with products
we no longer need, and even how we find meaning and purpose in our lives beyond just the things
we buy.

Loss of Possessions and Identity

The unintentional loss of possessions can equate to a loss or diminishment of self. Institutionalization
in places like mental hospitals or prisons, which strip individuals of personal possessions, results in a
loss of uniqueness and individual identity. Loss of possessions due to theft or casualty can lead to
feelings of violation and grief, akin to mourning a loved one. Involuntary loss of possessions can
diminish one's sense of self, especially when control over the situation is lacking. This loss may affect
attachment to home and neighborhood, which are strong sources of personal identity. Forced
disposition of possessions can bring sorrow and resentment, as people have emotional attachments
to their possessions.

Enrichment of Consumer Behavior Domain

Understanding the concept of the extended self enriches and enlarges the domain of consumer
behavior. It provides insights into diverse areas such as vicarious consumption, gift-giving, care of
possessions, organ donation, product disposition, and the role of extended self in generating
meaning in life. For instance, individuals may vicariously consume through family members,
enhancing their extended selves. The level of care and maintenance of possessions is related to their
incorporation into one's extended self. Research is needed to explore the disposition and disuse of
possessions that are part of the extended self. Additionally, consumption and possessions can play a
positive role in constructing identity and finding meaning in life, though excessive materialism may
have negative consequences.

Summary of Conclusions
Muhammad Ali Suhail

Possessions are fundamental in shaping individual identity and are central to consumer behavior. The
concept of the "extended self" provides a comprehensive framework for understanding how
possessions influence our sense of self and consequently our behaviors. Recognizing the functions
and processes of the extended self enriches our understanding of various consumer behaviors and
opens up new avenues for research in the field of consumer behavior.
Muhammad Ali Suhail

Extended self and the digital world

The article discusses the concept of the extended self in the context of the digital world, exploring
how the advent of the internet, social media, online games, and virtual realms has expanded the
ways we represent ourselves. The extended self originally encompassed a person's mind, body,
physical possessions, family, friends, and affiliation groups. However, in the digital age, new aspects
like dematerialization, re-embodiment, and co-construction of self have become significant.

1. Dematerialization: The shift from tangible artifacts to digital representations characterizes

dematerialization. Written communications, music, photos, and various data have
transformed into digital formats. While digital media provide convenience, users still
perceive digital possessions as less secure and meaningful than tangible ones. Certain
attachments to physical objects remain, as they acquire unique characteristics and a sense of
the past.

2. Re-embodiment: In the digital realm, users are disembodied during online interactions but
are re-embodied through avatars, photos, or videos. Despite the potential for representing
oneself accurately, there's a tendency to present an idealized version online. The concept of
the core self becomes less singular, and the physical body's importance diminishes as avatars
and visual re-embodiments take center stage. Gaming and virtual worlds allow for a deep
identification with avatars, resembling an extension of the self.

3. Co-construction of self: Charles Cooley's idea that we understand ourselves through others'
reactions finds modern relevance in the digital age. Feedback in the form of tagging,
comments, endorsements, and likes significantly shapes our self-image. The digital world
offers a platform for self-expression but also subject us to external influence, impacting our
self-concept and self-image.

In conclusion, the digital age has fundamentally changed how we perceive and extend our selves.
The dematerialization of possessions, the re-embodiment through avatars, and the co-construction
of self through digital interactions are crucial aspects of this transformation. Understanding these
changes is vital for comprehending the dynamics of the extended self in the contemporary digital
landscape. Future research should delve deeper into these shifts and their implications on consumer
behavior and identity.

Concepts relating to Self

1. Consumer Self-Concept: The consumer self-concept is the perception an individual holds

about themselves as a consumer. It includes how they view their preferences, choices, and
interactions with products and brands. Understanding this helps marketers tailor products
and marketing strategies to align with consumer self-perception.

2. Self-Identity and Brand Association: Consumers often associate themselves with specific
brands. These associations become part of their self-identity, reflecting their values,
personality, and lifestyle choices. Effective branding aligns with the target audience's self-
concept, strengthening brand-consumer connections.
Muhammad Ali Suhail

3. Consumer Self-Esteem and Purchasing Behavior: A consumer's self-esteem influences their

purchasing behavior. Products and brands are sometimes chosen to enhance self-esteem or
reflect a desired self-image. Marketing strategies often appeal to consumers' aspirations and
self-worth.

4. Social Influences on Consumer Self: Consumers are socially influenced, and their self-
concept is shaped by societal and peer perceptions. Social media and online communities
play a crucial role in constructing and validating self-identity through likes, shares, and
comments. Marketers leverage these platforms to influence consumer self-perception.

5. Consumer Decision-Making and the Self: Consumer decisions are intricately linked to self-
identity. The process involves evaluating how a product or brand aligns with one's self-
concept. Marketers employ targeted messaging and advertisements to resonate with
consumers' self-perception and decision criteria
Muhammad Ali Suhail

Research Paper Summary

This research, titled "Compliant, Aggressive and Detached Types Differ in Generalized Purchasing
Involvement," delves into the relationship between personality types and generalized purchasing
involvement. The study employs Cohen's CAD method to categorize individuals into compliant,
aggressive, and detached personality types, exploring how these types differ in their engagement
with purchasing activities.

Generalized Purchasing Involvement

Generalized purchasing involvement refers to individual differences in how interested and engaged
individuals are in purchasing activities that extend beyond specific purchase situations. It
encompasses a broader perspective, considering a person's overall interest, relevance of purchase
information, bargain consciousness, time invested in shopping, and the importance of evaluating
various purchase alternatives.

Kassarjian's Consumer Types

Kassarjian's framework categorizes consumers into three types based on their level of involvement in
purchasing:

 High Involvement Consumers: Those who demonstrate a significant interest and

engagement in the consumer decision process, regardless of the product or situation.

 Low Involvement - Detached Type: Individuals who are detached from purchasing activities
due to other personal interests, such as career pursuits, resulting in minimal engagement
with the consumer decision process.

 Low Involvement - "Know Nothing" Consumers: Individuals who exhibit apathy and
disinterest in most aspects of purchasing, lacking engagement and involvement in the
consumer decision process.

This categorization forms the foundation for analyzing how different personality types relate to and
manifest in these distinct levels of purchasing involvement.

Methods and Results

 The study involved administering a questionnaire to undergraduate marketing students,

utilizing two essential scales: the Purchasing Involvement Scale and the CAD Scale.

 The Purchasing Involvement Scale comprised 33 items related to shopping interest,

relevance of purchase information, bargain consciousness, time spent shopping, and the
importance of evaluating various purchase alternatives. Respondents rated their agreement
using a Likert-type scale.

 The CAD Scale consisted of 35 items, measuring compliant, aggressive, and detached
personality dimensions. Respondents rated their responses on a six-point semantic
differential scale.

 The results of the study supported the hypothesis that detached individuals exhibit lower
levels of purchasing involvement compared to compliant or aggressive personality types.
This substantiates the link between personality types and their engagement with the
purchasing process.
Muhammad Ali Suhail

Discussion

 The research supports Kassaijian's theory linking consumer personality types to generalized
purchasing involvement.

 The study encourages further exploration of low involvement purchasers' behavior and its
relation to shopping patterns.

 It suggests investigating how generalized purchasing involvement affects retail outlet

selection and product-level evaluative criteria.

 The study raises broader questions about various forms of involvement in consumer
behavior and their interrelationships.

Conclusion

The study establishes a significant link between personality types (compliant, aggressive, detached)
and generalized purchasing involvement. Understanding this relationship contributes to a deeper
understanding of consumer behavior and involvement, which can aid marketers in crafting more
targeted strategies.