Tension Members

Tension members are structural elements that are subjected to axial tensile forces. Tension members are found in most
steel structures, e.g., bridges, roof trusses, transmission towers and wind bracing systems in multistory buildings.
Structural Shapes as Tension Members
Failure Modes in Tension Member
1. Yielding on gross area (Ag)
2. Rupture on effective net area (Ae)
3. Block Shear Rupture

CROSS-SECTIONAL AREAS
The design tensile strength of a structural steel member
depends on the appropriate cross-sectional area.

1- The gross area Ag, the total area of the cross section, with no deductions for holes.
 2-The net area An ,the gross area minus the area of the holes provided in the bolted connection, the width of a hole
is taken as 1.6mm greater than its specified dimension, for design purposes to be 3mm, greater than the diameter of the
bolt

dh= db+ 3mm

- Path A-B An = Ag – n.t dh
- Path A-C (for a zigzag line) staggered holes

An = Ag –n.dh.t + (s2/4g).t
All possible failure paths passes shall be examined. The path that yields the smallest area governs.
Where
t = section thickness; n = number of bolts; p = bolt pitch or spacing along bolt line;
s = bolt spacing parallel to the tensile force (usually s = p /2); g = gage distance (perpendicular to the tensile force)
dh = hole diameter = db + 3 mm; db - nominal bolt diameter.
The net area of an angle that has bolt holes staggered in its legs. The angel is assumed to be flattened out into a single
plate as shown in Fig.
3- The effective net area Ae

When the tension load is transmitted through some not all of the cross-sectional elements of the member (other than a
flat plate or bar), a reduced effective net area is used instead, the unconnected part is not fully stressed (shear lag
affects).
The AISC recommends the effective net area to be computed as follows:
For bolted member: Ae = U. An
For welded member: Ae = U. Ag
U- Shear lag factor = reduction factor due to shear lag
a) For bolted members

When all elements of the section are connected, U = 1.0.

L = Length of the longest connection in the direction of loading. L is measured from the center of the bolt at one
end to the center of the bolt at the other end.

𝑥̅ = connection eccentricity (distance from centroid of element being connected to plane of load transfer)

Lengthening the connection region will reduce this effect

 ̅ for different shapes.
Values of 𝒙
If the member has two symmetrically located planes of connection, 𝑥̅ is measured from the centroid of the nearest
half of the area.
 We can see that the smaller the value of x and the larger the value of L, the larger will be the value of U, and thus
the larger will be the effective area of the member.
Or
Connections with at least three bolts per line
W, S shapes and T cut from them connected in flange with
bf 2
 U=0.9
d 3
with web connected with 4 or more fasteners in the direction of loading U=0.7
Connections with only two bolts per line
U=0.75
Single angles with 4 or more fasteners per line in direction of loading U=0.7
Single angles with 2 or 3 fasteners per line in direction of loading U=0.6
b) For welded members
(1) Load transmitted to a member other than a plate by longitudinal welds, or by longitudinal welds in combination
with transverse welds

Ae = U. Ag

(2) Load transmitted only by transverse welds

Ae = U. Acon = Acon
U=1
Where Acon -area of directly connected elements.
(3) Load transmitted to a plate by longitudinal welds along both sides of the plate spaced apart such that L ≥w
Ae = U. Ag

where L = length of the longest weld, mm.

w =distance between longitudinal welds (i.e., plate width)
U = 1.00 For L > 2w
= 0.87 For 2w > L ≥ l.5w
= 0.75 For l.5w > L ≥w
Plate with transverse welds all around U = 1.00
Example 1: Determine the net area of a 10 x 200 mm plate joined with two 6 x 200 mm plates as shown in
Figure. The plates are connected to each other with two lines of 20 mm rivets.
Example2: Determine the minimum net area of plate shown in Figure where the location of 20 mm diameter fasteners
is also indicated.
Example3: Determine the net area An for the angle given in Figure 1 if 18 mm diameter bolts are used.

Solution:
After opening the section, a single plate is obtained as shown in Figure 2. Calculations for net area can now be made for
various failure planes like AC, ABC and ABD, etc., and minimum value can be selected as the final answer.
 Block Shear Rupture
This third mode of failure is limited to thin plates. This failure is a combination of tearing (shear rupture) and of
tensile yielding. It is uncommon, but the code provides on extra limit state of (LRFD J 4.3).
It is usually checked after design is completed.
The failure of a
member may occur along a path involving tension on one plane and shear on a perpendicular plane as shown in Fig
 Design of Tension Members
The specifications for tension member design are provided in Section D1 through D3 of the AISC Specification for Structural Steel
Buildings (hereafter called the Specification).

The design must satisfy the following basic LRFD formula in the Specification for Structural Steel Buildings

t Pn ≥ Pu
Design strength ≥ Required strength
Design Strength t Pn of tension member shall be lower value obtained based on the following strength limit states.
Strength limit states
1. Yielding on Ag

t=0.9
Pn=Fy . Ag
Ри = t Fy. Ag = 0.9 Fy. Ag (LRFD Equation J4-1)

2. Rupture on Ae

t=0.75
Pn=Fu . Ae
Ри = t Fu . Ae =0.75 Fu . Ae
(LRFD Equation J4-2)

t, = resistance factor for tension; Pn = nominal axial strength (kN) ; Fy = specified (ASTM) minimum yield stress
(Mpa); Fu = specified (ASTM) minimum tensile strength (Mpa).
3. Block Shear Rupture: consider tension and shear rapture simultaneously. Failure happens by a combination of shear
and tension.

Pu= Pn = (0.6Fu.Anv + Ubs Fu.Ant ) ≤ (0.6Fy.Agv + Ubs Fu.Ant ) (LRFD Equation J4-5)
Where
Agv = gross area acted upon by shear (mm2)
Anv = net area acted upon by shear (mm2)
Ant= net area acted upon by tension (mm2)

 = 0.75 for the fracture limit state

 Ubs =reduction coefficient = 1.0 when tensile stress is uniform 0.5 when tensile stress is nonuniform . Ubs =1 for
angles, gusset plates and most coped beams

Serviceability limit state

According to AISC–D1, there is no maximum slenderness limit for design of members in tension.

Slenderness ratio limit:

kl/r ≤ 300
 The reason for the code limitation is to assure that the member has enough stiffness to prevent lateral movement
or vibration. Tension members that are too long may sag excessively due to their own weight. They may vibrate when subjected to wind forces
as in an open truss or when supporting vibrating equipment such as fans or compressors
 This limitation does not apply to tension rods and cables.

Where,
k=length factor for tension member =1

l = the laterally unsupported length of the tension member, mm

 𝐼
𝑟 =√ the minimum radius of gyration of the tension member cross-section, mm
𝐴

I = the minimum moment of inertia of the tension member cross-section, mm4

A = the cross-sectional area of the tension member, mm2
Example4: Determine the design strength of an ASTM A992 W200 x 35.9 with four lines if 20 mm diameter bolts in
standard holes, two per flange, as shown in the Figure below. Assume the holes are located at the member end & the
connection length is 225 mm. Also calculate at what length this tension member would cease to satisfy the slenderness
limitation in LRFD specification.

For ASTM A992 material: Fy = 344 MPa; & Fu = 448 MPa

For the W200 x 35.9:
2
Ag = 4570 mm d = 201 mm.
tw = 6.2 mm. bf = 165 mm.
tf = 10.2 mm. ry = 40.9 mm.
Yielding design strength = t Pn = t Ag Fy = 0.9 x 4570 x 344x10-3 = 1414.9 kN
 Net section fracture strength = t Pn = t Ae Fu = 0.75 x Ae x 448
Ae = U An - for bolted connection
An = Ag – (no. of holes) x (diameter of hole) x (thickness of flange)
An = 4570 – 4 x (20+3) x 10.2.
2
An = 3623 mm

x 17.7
U  1  1  0.922
L 225
But, U ≤ 0.9. Therefore, assume U = 0.90

Rupture strength = t Ae Fu = 0.75 x 0.9 x 3623 x 448 x10-3 = 1095.6 kN

The design strength of the member is controlled by net section fracture = 1095.6 kN
According to LRFD specification, the maximum unsupported length of the member is limited to

300 ry = 300 x 40.9 = 12270 mm = 12.27 m.

Example 5: Using LRFD procedure, investigate the shear rupture failure mode for the angle L 102 x 102 x 6.4 attached
with three 20 mm diameter bolts to a 10 mm gusset plate, as shown in the Figure. The material is A36 steel.
Hence, block shear failure is the governing limit state and factored capacity of the member is reduced from
271.29kN to 187.68kN due to it.
 Steps for Design of Tension Members
The design of a tension member involves finding the lightest steel section
The engineer can first select the tension member based on the tabulated gross yielding & net section fracture strengths,
& then check the net section fracture strength & the block shear strength using the actual connection details.
 Steps for design
 Calculate the load
 Decide whether your connection will be welded or bolted
 Assume U factor of 0.75
𝑙
 Determine the gross area of the element Ag ; and min r ≥
300
 Assume An = 0.75 Ag


 Pu
Ag  

 0.9 Fy
 Pu Pu
Ag   for bolted for welded
 0.45 Fu 0.45 Fu
  Choose the lightest section with area little larger than Ag
 Calculate, Ag, An, U and Ae for the chosen section

0.9 Ag Fy
 Check Pu  
0.75 Ae Fu

RODS AND BARS

The area required can be calculated from the following expression:

𝑃𝑢
min Ad ≥ with 𝛟𝑡 = 0.75
𝛟𝑡 .𝟎.𝟕𝟓𝐹𝑢
the LRFD Specification (Part 6, Section J 1.7) states that the factored load Pu„ used for connection design may not be
less than 44.48 (45) kN (4.5 ton) except for lacing, sag rods, or girts.
(When rods and bars are used as tension members they may be simply welded at their ends, or they may be threaded
and held in place with nuts)
 Design of Tension Members / Bolted Connections
Steel structures are connected by welding or bolting. An inadequate connection, which can be the "weak
link" in a structure, has been the cause of numerous failures. The AISC Specification deals with
connections in Chapter J, "Design of Connections," where bolts and welds are covered. Below is a typical
bolt and the terms given to the parts of a bolt:

Bolts used in structural steel fasteners fall within 2 categories

1) Carbon steel bolts ASTM A307 - 16mm to 38mm They are used in light structures subjected to static loads and for
secondary members (such as purlins, girts, bracing, platforms, small trusses, and so forth).
2) High-strength bolts ASTM A325and A490 - 13mm-38mm These bolts are used for high-load connections and
obtain their total strength from the shear strength across the diameter of the bolt PLUS the friction, these bolts are
tensioned to 70% of the ultimate tensile strength. High-strength bolts are used for all types of structures.

Marking for Bolts

Holes for Bolts

 Spacing and edge distances of bolts

Spacing and edge distance: In any direction, both in the line of force and transverse to the line of force,

i-Edge distance Le;

1-Minimum Edge Distance along Line of force:
min Le = 1.5-2 db ≥32mm db - diameter of a bolt- shank section

2- Maximum Edge Distance:

 max. edge distance = 12 t but < 150 mm... (AISC J 3.5)
ii-Spacing of Bolts s:

1-Minimum Spacing Bolts along line of Force:

2.67db ≤s ≤ 3db (AISC J3.3)
where,
s = spacing of bolt along force line,
2-Maximum spacing for Bolts:
for Painted members:
s ≤ 24 t but<300 mm
for unpainted members:
s ≤14 t but < 180 mm
t = thickness of the thinner connected plates.
 Types of Bolted Connections

1) Bearing-Type Connections: (snug-tight bolts) installed with electric wrenches or a spud wrench used by ironworkers
for erecting structural steel and tightening bolts. In a bearing-type connection, slip is acceptable, and shear and bearing
actually occur. Load is transferred by shearing and bearing on the bolt. Capacity in shear depends on whether shear
plane intersects the body of bolt or threaded portion.

2) Slip-Critical Connections: known as friction-type connection.

A slip-critical connection is one in which no slippage is permitted. Loads are transferred primarily by friction. A slip-
critical connection is one in which loosening due to vibration or load reversals are to be considered. Also, holes that are
oversize or slotted shall be designed as slip-critical connections. Bolts that are used in slip-critical connections must be
pre-tensioned per AISC Table J3.1 p. 16.1-103. Slip-critical connections may be designed either for service load
conditions as described in LRFD Specification J3.8a, or they may be designed for factored loads as described in LRFD
Appendix J3.8b.
 Failure of Joints

Case 1: Shear failure of rivets or bolts.

It occurs when the applied load exceeds the shear capacity through the bolt.

(a) Failure by single shearing of bolt

(b) Double shear failure of a butt joint.

The design strength is

Rn ≥Pu

 Rn=0.75 Fnv Ab
Where

 =the resistance reduction factor is = 0.75

Fnv = nominal shear stress (Mpa)
Ab= cross-sectional area of the unthreaded part of the bolt (mm2) (also known as the nominal bolt area or nominal body
area)
In shear connection, threads could be:-
A) Threads Not excluded from shear plane (N), or
B) Threads excluded from shear plane (X).

A325-SC—slip-critical or fully tensioned A325 bolts

A325-SC, A325-N, A325-X, A490-SC
Threads Not excluded from shear plane "N"
The nominal shear stress is taken as half of the ultimate tensile strength of the bolt. If the threads are in the plane of
shear, a reduced (or net) area should be used. The Specification accounts for this by using 80% of the nominal bolt area.
Instead of reducing the bolt area, a factor of 0.80 is applied to the nominal stress. the ultimate tensile strength of an
A325 bolt is 827MPa, so the nominal shear stress with the threads not in the shear plane is
Fnv = 0.5(827) = 413.5 MPa
If the threads are in the shear plane,
Fnv = 0.8(413.5) = 330.8 MPa
or Fnv=0.4.827=330.8
Case 2: Tension or Tearing failure of plates

 Rn = t Fy . Ag = 0.9 Fy . Ag
Case 3: Crushing failure of plate

 Rn = t Fu Ae =0.75 Fu .Ae
Ae = U.An

Case 4: Bearing failure of plate

This type of failure occurs when one of the plates is too thin or not strong enough for the applied loads.
Case 5: Shear failure of plates (Shearing out) (insufficient edge distance)
This occurs when the bolt is located too close to the edge of the plate in the direction of load.

Deformation Limit State (For standard, oversized, and short-slotted holes, or long slotted holes with slots parallel to
the direction of loading):-
Rn
= (0.6 Lc tFu )
2
Rn = (1.2 Lc tFu )

φRn = φ(1.2LctFu ) ≤φ(2.4.db .t.Fu )

Shearing or Tearing out limit ≤ Bearing limit

0.6Fu = shear fracture stress of the connected part

(1.2Lc tFu ) -shearing limitation

2.4dtFu -bearing limitation

The resistance factor is  = 0.75

t = thickness of the thinner connected plates.
Fu = Ultimate tensile strength of plate material.
Lc: the clear distances between the edges of holes and the edges of the adjacent holes or edges of the material in the
direction of the force