Technologies

Technologies
This section contains further research on:

• Ignitions and plugs

• Starters and alternators

Ignitions and plugs

This section contains further research on:

• Glow plugs
• Ignitions
• Spark plugs

Glow plugs
Defining the elements

In its simplest form, a glow plug is a heating element of known resistance introduced into either the pre-chamber or the combustion chamber, so that the element comes into contact with the fuel/air mixture. When the plug
receives a current from the electrical system, the element heats up. As the initial charge of fuel pumped into a cold engine by the fuel injection system comes into contact with the glow plug, the temperature of the mixture is
increased, enabling the engine to achieve compression-ignition.

Like the spark plug, a glow plug consists of a number of distinct parts, including:

• zinc coated shell and terminal

• rubber seal
• magnesium oxide coil insulation
• nickel regulating coil
• nickel-chromium alloy sheath
• heating coil

According to Bosch, unlike gasoline engines which use a spark plug to ignite an air/fuel mixture, diesel engines rely on the heat of highly compressed air to ignite a precise amount of fuel to initiate combustion. Heating the air
to a minimum starting temperature of 850°C is critical for diesel engine start-up.

Bosch adds that the complete glow plug system incorporates not only the glow plugs themselves but also a switching element for the high electrical currents and a unit for controlling this switch. In addition, the system
features an indicator lamp (also controlled by the control unit) for signalling when the system is ready for engine start. In the past, simple bimetallic switches were used, but nowadays glow plug systems have electronic control
units. On more basic vehicles, independent glow plug control units which handle all control and display functions are used. On modern engines, these functions are controlled by the central engine management system.

Innovations
In a bid to meet the forthcoming stricter emission regulations in Europe, manufacturers are working on developing ceramic glow plugs. The temperature of such plugs rises much faster up to about 200ºC – hotter than the
maximum temperature possible with steel glow plugs. In addition to the more efficient cold-start function of these glow plugs, engine designers expect product solutions providing the required heat energy when the engine

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would otherwise generate high exhaust emissions due to running too cold. "Ceramic plugs are starting to gain a major foothold. From our viewpoint, there is a lot of OE development that we will see coming to fruition in the
next 12-18 months," said Philip Jeynes, marketing manager for NGK UK, in an interview with AIC.

Another auto executive also told AIC: "Although we are seeing some major OEMs increasingly sourcing ceramic glow plugs, not everything is going down the ceramic route. There are certainly a lot of applications which are
using metal glow plugs. The big advantage of ceramic is the fact that they can heat up more quickly and reach higher temperatures has a significant impact on emission and engine performance generally. That helps diesel
engines feel more like gasoline engines."

Beru's glow plugs

Beru has developed a glow plug system incorporating an electronic control unit, which allows instant starting of diesel engines, without the usual five-second wait for the plug to heat the cylinder even in extreme weather
conditions. BMW was the first OEM to use Beru’s diesel instant start system (ISS). This means that diesel engines can start just as fast as gasoline ones. The glow plugs are made from steel, but the control unit is mounted on
a ceramic substrate, fitted directly onto the engine, thus reducing the length of cables running to the glow plugs and reducing losses due to resistance. The ceramic-mounted control unit can withstand temperatures in the
range of -40-125ºC, and vibrations of up to 40g, and the complete system allows starting of the engine without a delay at temperatures as low as -25°C. Beru’s third-generation ISS is now on the market.

Bosch DuraSpeed

Diesel engines with low compression ratios allow an increase in performance for the same peak combustion pressure (downsizing), as well as reduced soot and NOx emissions. Their cold-start and cold-idling behaviour is,
however, problematic. Low exhaust gas opacity values and very quiet engine running demand glow plug temperatures exceeding 1,150º C and several minutes’ post glow during the cold-running phases. With these issues in
mind, Bosch’s engineers have developed a new ceramic glow plug system, dubbed DuraSpeed. The system features ceramic-type sheathed-element glow plugs, an electronic glow control unit and a glow function software
module integrated into the engine management ECU.

The electronic control adapts the optimal glow temperature for the demands of the engine in the preheating range, the starting-glow range, the post-heating range and the intermediate-glow range. Claimed advantages include
high-speed heating, the controlled suppression of voltage dips in the vehicle electrical system, and the capabilities for on-board diagnosis in line with European and US regulations. The glow elements are made of temperature
resistant material. Because of their resistance to oxidation and thermal shock, they permit immediate starting, glow temperatures of 1,400º C and minutes of post and intermediate glow at 1,300º C.

Beru's ceramic glow plugs

BMW is installing new ceramic glow plugs from BorgWarner Beru Systems in its 1- and 3-Series diesel models. To reduce emissions and fuel consumption, both vehicles feature an auto start-stop function, which turns off the
engine each time the car comes to a complete halt and restarts the engine automatically. However, due to frequent starts, the function also places extreme demands on glow plugs. BorgWarner’s new ceramic glow plugs are
designed to work under these heavy load conditions.

"The latest generation compression-ignition engines are designed to cope with the trade-off between consumption and exhaust gas emission. The low compression ratios in these engines require glow plugs that can achieve
maximum temperatures of up to 1,250 degrees Celsius and glow much longer and hotter to support different optimised combustion processes," said Dr Olaf Toedter, vice president, engineering at BorgWarner Beru Systems.
"The heating element in the BorgWarner glow plug, which is installed in symmetrical rotation, consists of an electrically conductive solid ceramic which glows only at the tip and surface of the ceramic pin. Due to this, the
ceramic glow plug heats up very fast."

The shape of the heating rod is produced in what is known as a co-extrusion process. "This standard procedure, already known in the plastics processing sector, is one of the core processes of our ceramic glow plug
production, which is ideally suited for manufacturing the ceramic cable. It is born from a great deal of experience and expertise at BorgWarner Beru Systems," added Toedter.

Technical trends
The main influences on the design of glow plugs centre on the design of the diesel engine itself. Over the last ten years, there has been a trend toward smaller and longer glow plugs which have come about from the technology
change from the indirect injection diesel engine to the direct injection common rail diesel engine. But this trend is maturing.

"As diesel engines continue to develop, it’s clear that glow plugs will have to endure higher and higher in-cylinder pressures and this will undoubtedly influence technical specifications," said Mark Whitehead, product marketing
director engine and sealing, EMEA, Federal-Mogul. "And, as diesel engines downsize, it is clear that glow-plugs will have to also. Cylinder head packaging is a real issue in smaller engines.

"The big difference will be in the energy-efficiency of powertrain components. Lower-voltage designs that place less demand on the vehicle’s electrical system and battery will contribute to fuel savings. There has been some
talk in the industry of integrating glow plugs’ control units into the powertrain management system more closely, but the benefits are relatively slim. Consequently, optimising the mass and the friction between moving parts in
the engine is a higher priority for powertrain component suppliers.

"We are also seeing certain engines with low compression ratios requiring ceramic glow plugs. As ceramic glow plugs are more expensive than metal glow plugs, this technology will be applied to some engines only."

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In future, we expect to see additional functions such as sensors being integrated into the glow plug combustion chamber driven by the latest emission regulations. Indeed, manufacturers say stringent forthcoming exhaust
regulations will spur further demand for more environmentally-friendly automotive parts.

Ignitions
Defining the elements

All conventional gasoline engines require an ignition system. It is typically switched on/off through a lock switch, operated with a key or card.

In a vehicle’s engine cylinder, the spark plug generates sparks and ignites the air-fuel mixture. The engine ECU controls ignition timing based on engine conditions including revolution so that the pressure generated by the
combustion effectively pushes down the piston. The crank position and cam position sensors detect the engine revolution. Over the past few years, the engine compression ratio has been increased to improve fuel economy.
The increased compression ratio, however, easily causes spontaneous ignition, resulting in abnormal combustion (or knocking). To prevent this, the knock sensor detects the knocking and delays the ignition timing to prevent
the knocking from happening again.

Most ignition systems are incorporated as sub-systems of the engine management system, says Bosch. Separate ignition systems are only used in special applications, such as low-power engines. Coil ignition (inductive
ignition) with one dedicated ignition circuit per cylinder is the usual choice for vehicle ignition systems. Also used, but to a lesser extent, are high-voltage capacitor ignition systems (capacitive ignition), or other special designs,
such as solenoid ignition for low-power engines.

The ignition circuit of a coil ignition system consists of the following:

• an ignition coil with a primary and secondary winding;

• an ignition driver stage to control current in the primary winding (incorporated in the engine control unit or the ignition coil);
• a spark plug, which is connected to the high-voltage connection of the secondary winding.

An ignition coil is the stimulus that begins the combustion process. It uses the voltage from the battery to create an electromagnetic field within the coil and sends a surge of electricity to the spark plugs to create an arc that
ignites the air/fuel mixture in the cylinder. More specifically, the ignition coil is mainly an energy-charged high-voltage source similar in structure to a transformer, says Bosch. Energy is supplied by the vehicle electrical system
during the dwell period or charging time. At the moment of ignition, which also marks the end of the charging time, the energy is released at the required high voltage and spark energy levels to the spark plug. The ignition coil
itself consists of two windings coupled magnetically by means of an iron core. This iron core may contain a permanent magnet for energy optimisation.

There are several types of ignition coil that are distinguishable by their various features, says Bosch. In addition to the individual coils, which normally sit directly on the spark plug, several ignition coils can be grouped together
in a single housing as a module or rail. They are then mounted directly on the spark plugs or located nearby. In addition to ignition coils with just one high-voltage output (single-spark ignition coil), there are also ignition coils
that use both ends of the secondary winding as an output (dual-spark ignition coil). Ignition coils are also distinguishable by their basic design. For example, there is the conventional compact ignition coil body and core
magnetic circuit. The coil body sits in the engine above the spark plug well. Another type is the pencil coil whose coil body projects into the spark-plug well.

Ignition cables transfer high-voltage energy from distributors/coils to spark plugs. It consists of:

• core: conductive centre that can be metallic, resistive or inductive.

• insulation: non-conductive materials that can be organic or inorganic.
• inner braid or pet non-woven mesh: serves as a strength member to enhance mechanical properties for terminal retention and overall cable durability.
• outer jacket: provides protection from engine fluids, temperature extremes and abrasion.

Ignition terminals provide the mechanical and electrical connections between the cable core and the spark plugs, distributors, or coils. “Strip and Fold” is the method used for terminal application. This process removes
insulation (“strip”) to expose a short length of core which is “folded” back over the outer jacket. The crimping of the terminal traps the core between the terminal and the cable.

Other key ignition parts include:

• Heat shields – these are metallic/ceramic outer shields that provide additional temperature protection for spark plug boots.
• Clips, channels, conduits and other fasteners – help maintain harness routings to keep assemblies away from moving parts, sources of heat and areas of potential abrasion.

During an interview with Gian Maria Olivetti, vice president for Technology and Innovation, Powertrain Division, Federal-Mogul. “Electronic content [in ignition coils] is continuing to increase. The majority of spark plugs are now
electronically controlled and more and more applications require electronic content embedded in the coil to support the control of the increasingly complex ignition strategy and to enable diagnostic features.”

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Aftermarket trends
In terms of technology trends in the ignition system aftermarket, Claver Joseph, IAM vehicle electronics product manager, Delphi, sees the ignition system as a key component in today’s engine management system. He told
AIC: “As the transition from traditional mechanical technology is replaced by electronic systems, there is a natural growth and demand for these products. This inevitably means that the marketplace has now become
competitive. Some aftermarket suppliers provide lower quality products that can lead to ongoing problems and unreliable repairs. Delphi is recognised for delivering high-quality OE products to its OEM’s and aftermarket
customers."

Shin Nishioka, spark plug engineer, Denso Europe BV, business unit aftermarket, believes that there are a number of other trends and influences on ignition systems in the aftermarket at present, including the introduction of
fine-wire, non-precious metal spark plugs, a rise in demand for super ignition spark plugs and precious metal spark plugs. He told AIC that the number of vehicles manufactured with, or converted to, LPG operation has
increased in Europe in recent years; a system that creates particular demands on the ignition system.

“As a result of these combustion characteristics, not only does the spark plug have to deal with the higher temperature inside LPG engines, but spark plug corrosion also occurs more quickly. The spark plugs used in LPG
vehicles must, therefore, be specifically suitable for LPG engines. Fit a conventional spark plug in a vehicle that runs on LPG, and a variety of problems may arise. The spark plug may not spark, causing misfiring.

“Voltage will also be generated in the ignition coil and if this is too high, irreparable damage will be caused to the ignition coil. Faults may also arise in the LPG controller. The solution is to change from standard spark plugs to
fine-wire, precious metal spark plugs with a different heat range.

“Denso’s advanced iridium tough spark plugs provide the optimal solution for gas operated engines, making the conversion and servicing not only easier, but also more reliable."

During an interview with AIC, Gian Maria Olivetti, vice president for Technology and Innovation, Powertrain Division, Federal-Mogul said: "The aftermarket is continuing to track the trends in the original equipment markets and
so the wire set aftermarket is no longer growing. Most engines now have one coil per cylinders to provide optimum control and to allow the engine management system to deactivate individual cylinders in the event of a
problem. The main change is that drivers and workshops understand the importance of fitting OE-quality replacement parts to modern powertrains."

Future technology
During the course of our research, we asked Winfried Menge, director of marketing electronics, Hella KGaA Hueck & Co if electronic ignition means that the traditional ignition cylinder is no longer necessary. More specifically,
could we see the conventional ignition cylinder gradually phase-out?

“Yes. The mechanical ignition cylinder could disappear in future, but the mechanical key as an emergency and back up option will be maintained for the reasons you’ve mentioned for a couple of years. From a system point of
view, if a general electrical or electronic failure prevents cranking, starting the engine or activating the transmission system – why should we need a mechanical backup for the key? It would be useless. Either we trust the
electronic or we don’t. Consumers have to get used to technical progress and we, the automotive industry, have to prove that our innovations are not just gimmicks but meaningful products which provide a visible and valuable
benefit.”

If the standard ignition lock and key arrangement go away, do we revert to 1950s-style push buttons? Menge added: “Yes, but markets and segments penetration times and take rates will differ significantly as, for example,
system requirements, money spending behaviour, etc of the respective car buyers are not the same worldwide and depend on the vehicle segment.”

Indeed, for some time remote keyless entry systems have become commonplace in Europe with the American market following close behind.

Paul Martindale, active safety product line architect for Delphi expects today’s ignition locks to be replaced with a system involving no buttons at all. “The vehicle and key fob will recognise each other when they are in close
proximity, allowing drivers vehicle access through synchronisation of highly secure encrypted communication. Drivers will not need to push a button or physically contact the vehicle in any way.”

And then there are other biometric recognition systems, such as face recognition, retinal scans, iris recognition, palm scans and voice recognition. “While the technology is feasible, we have not seen a great demand for this
type of recognition to date,” added Martindale.

When it comes to radical technology such as passive entry, could the technology backfire and pose serious threats to individual security? Martindale concluded: “To date, this technology has been embraced by consumers
and market research forecasts growth.”

Meanwhile, Continental’s interior division is supplying the access control systems on the Ford Focus and C-MAX. Continental has been mass-producing its so-called Passive Entry & Passive Start (PEPS) since the late 1990s,
while Ford was one of the world’s first manufacturers to include such systems in its compact cars. PEPS allows the driver to unlock the car by touching the door handle and to start the car by pushing a button, all without the
need for a key. The system includes signal receivers and antennas for the authorisation systems.

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Innovations
Beru's pencil-type ignition coils

BorgWarner Beru works with a number of carmakers to develop novel ignition coils. For example, the supplier has developed especially for the Maybach pencil-type ignition coils that are tightly packed in groups in 12 in
electronic ignition rails with diagnostic functions.

Beru has also developed pencil-type ignition modules with integrated electronics for the Porsche Cayenne V8 engine. This module is lighter and provides 25 per cent greater spark energy and combustion duration compared to
other sports car ignition coils. It is also used in the V10 engine of the Porsche Carrera GT.

Beru’s engineers are working on the further development of plug-top and pencil ignition coils, as demand for single-ignition coils is expected to increase over the next few years.

Bosch's DI Motronic system

Bosch has developed a system based concept for gasoline engines that combines direct injection and turbocharging benefits. The system makes use of a general advantage of direct injection: the intake valves pump fresh air
into the cylinder instead of a combustion mix as in the case of port fuel injection. Fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber, immediately before ignition at which point in time the valves are already shut again. In the
Bosch concept, intake and exhaust valves stay open for a longer period during the intake phase, thus a greater volume of fresh air enters the cylinder.

Contrary to port injection, direct injection prevents unburned fuel from getting into the exhaust pipes, which might increase fuel consumption and exhaust emissions. With a lower counter pressure, more air rushes into the
combustion chamber to form the combustion mix.

Bosch engineers are also working on optimising the combustion timing: the moment of ignition is defined by the “knock limit”, ie the point of unintended self-ignition. The Bosch DI Motronic system cools the combustion air
with the fuel directly injected into the cylinder – which reduces the knocking tendency.

In October 2011, Bosch manufactured its 250 millionth electronic engine control unit at its location in Salzgitter, Germany. In diesel and gasoline engines, the digital control this unit provides ensures that the right amount of
fuel is injected into the cylinder at the right time. Bosch launched the first generation of this engine management system in 1979, in the six-cylinder BMW 732i. Known as Motronic, this system is still the technological basis for
all present and future generations of Bosch engine control units.

Valeo's smart car key

While today’s car keys enable the driver to remotely control functions such as locking and unlocking the doors and activating the position lamps, tomorrow’s car keys will also be able to receive information from the vehicle. In
an electric car, says Valeo, this extended function offers the driver information on the car’s status. Is it connected to the charging point? What is the battery level? What is its current estimated range or its range within a given
time?

Valeo’s smart car key provides this information via a colour display of a modular size chosen by the automaker. Communication between the driver and the vehicle can also be reinforced by a beep or buzzer. To do this, the
smart car key uses a bi-directional radio channel that is more powerful than current remote controls.

The smart car key can also display current cabin temperature and reset it remotely shortly before departure. This offers the occupants cabin comfort from the beginning of the trip and extends the range of the car, especially if
it has a heat storage system.

The key can also provide additional information according to the specific demands of the automakers, such as tyre pressure and the remaining mileage before maintenance. The driver can also check whether the windows are
closed properly.

The key also serves as a USB memory stick that lets the driver transfer files such as music or video from a computer to the car.

However, USB keys are not a new concept. Mazda used the 2005 Frankfurt motor show to unveil a concept car that uses a USB drive as its ignition key. The USB feature is part of the Sassou concept, a small hatchback aimed
at the youth market. The Sassou uses a USB “key” and interface port that will allow drivers programme and load files onto the car’s hard drive. And as just-auto reported way back in 2005, "such a feature may take years to
appear on showroom floors, if at all." Its time has come.

Beru's ignition coil technology for Fiat

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BorgWarner Beru Systems is supplying Fiat's 0.9-litre TwinAir gasoline engine with compact plug top ignition coils. BorgWarner's smaller, modular ignition coils are designed to accommodate the tight spacing available in
today's downsized engines while providing more power and more reliable starts. New synthetic materials and innovative, secure component connection technology inside the body of the ignition coil improves reliability and
durability, says the German supplier.

In November 2012, BorgWarner Beru Systems revealed that it is developing a new dual-coil ignition system. Similar to a plug top ignition coil, BorgWarner's latest technology consists of two ignition coils inside a single housing,
connected directly to the spark plug in each cylinder. Currently, under test, the supplier claims its new ignition system will reduce ignition delays, allow more accurate ignition timing at different engine speeds and loads, and
offer the flexibility of single- or multi-spark modes. BorgWarner intends to offer the new ignition technology in 12-volt or 40- to 50-volt versions.

Continuous current ignition system from Continental

In order to achieve ambitious climate change prevention objectives and to reduce fleet consumption and thus CO2 emissions in coming years, "the automotive industry will increasingly have to opt for direct injection gasoline
engines and lean combustion", said Gerhard Böhm, Head of the Engine Systems Business Unit in Continental's powertrain division during the Vienna Engine Symposium.

These lean concept engines in conjunction with exhaust gas regeneration systems can sometimes give rise to areas of the non-homogeneous mixture in the combustion chamber, requiring greater ignition energy in order to
ensure that the mixture is reliably ignited. Filling up with high ethanol content fuel also requires energy levels which rapidly push classical single spark ignition systems to the limits of their capability.

Continental claims that its continuous current ignition (CCI) system offers the possibility of precisely controlling the spark duration and the ignition energy. The spark duration is set by the engine management system, says
Continental, which can also re-energise the ignition sparks once ignition has begun to take place in the cylinder, thus eliminating any interruption to the ignition plasma; CCI can also reduce the amount of wear to the spark plug
electrode compared with multi-spark ignition systems. Spark duration and ignition energy are set by the control unit so that under critical conditions – cold-starting fuel with a high ethanol content, for example – reliable
ignition and optimised combustion processes are assured.

Federal-Mogul's Advanced Corona Ignition System

Federal-Mogul has developed a new ignition system that can outperform conventional spark-ignition systems. Described by the supplier as a breakthrough”, its so-called Advanced Corona Ignition System (ACIS) creates a
larger high-intensity plasma ignition source, spread throughout the combustion chamber, when compared to conventional spark ignition systems. It uses a high-energy, high frequency electrical field to produce repeatable,
controlled ionisation, creating multiple streams of ions to ignite the fuel mixture throughout the combustion chamber, whereas conventional spark ignition creates only a small arc in the gap between the electrodes of a spark
plug. This technology also allows for optimised timing of the start of combustion versus conventional ignition systems.

"We have already recorded fuel consumption improvements of up to 10 per cent on a 1.6-litre turbocharged gasoline direct injection engine, and there is potential for further improvements," said Kristapher Mixell, Federal-
Mogul's director, advanced corona ignition system development, Powertrain Energy. "Our Advanced Corona Ignition System is a game-changing technology that also makes other combustion improvements possible.

"The technology enables powertrain engineers to more efficiently develop combustion strategies, such as stratified charge, lean burn and high levels of EGR, to reduce fuel consumption exhaust emissions," Mixell added.

The company's ACIS is being developed at its technical centres in the US, Europe and Asia.

OE trends
“In the past, the sole purpose of an ignition system was to ignite a combustible mixture in the combustion chamber,” said Peter Weyand, engineering manager ignition, Europe, Delphi, “A simple task that just had to take into
account boundary conditions for packaging, size, weight and, of course, cost. Today, the most important factor that drives the design of an ignition system is the combustion system. Some of the advanced combustion
methods like homogeneous or stratified direct injection, or highly dilute (lean and/or high EGR) combustion have requirements that cannot be addressed any more with comparably simple ignition systems.

“Smart ignition systems have thus been developed. The first step to a smart ignition was an improved self-diagnostics and feedback of ignition current and voltage waveforms to the ECU. These offer information regarding the
combustion event. Especially for combustion methods that have a less predictable cycle to cycle behaviour, like GDI [gasoline direct injection], this immediate insight helps the ECU control strategy.

“The most advanced systems are using this combustion information to adjust the actual ignition algorithm 'on the fly'. These systems are usually MultiCharge Ignition systems or their derivatives that fire several times to
increase the probability to even ignite mixtures under severe air/fuel ratio conditions. Ion sensing capable ignition systems or quasi-alternating current systems are addressing certain problems that are not or barely resolvable
with a standard single spark system.”

In terms of ignition system design and technical specifications, there are some regional differences too. The differences result directly from the combustion methods used, says Weyand. “The US and the varying fuel quality
will not allow stratified DI in the near future. Also, fuel cost and vehicle size do not help the downsizing, at least not to the extent as we are experiencing this in Europe. This, of course, has a direct influence on the specifications
since lower mean effective pressure and MPFI engines do not require the high European voltage and energy demands. Of course, all OEMs are working on downsizing, and it is clear that engine manufacturers building “world
engines” have common specifications already, regardless of the sales market.”

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Another trend is toward increasing energy requirements. For example, the trend toward direct injection gasoline applications is driving the need for higher levels of ignition energy. As a result, those levels of ignition energy can
only be delivered by coil and plug type applications. Indeed, with the constant demands for increasingly fuel-efficient engines it naturally means that we are looking to ignite ever weaker fuel/air mixtures this has resulted in
increasing ignition energy requirements. GDI does not in itself necessitate higher energy levels, but since direct injection is being used as a tool to improve fuel economy and meet increasingly stringent emission regulations
than of necessity we are seeing a trend of increased ignition energy going hand in hand with the development of GDI.

In terms of ignition coil performance itself, carmakers continue to demand reliable, smaller units. Multi-valve engines in particular place even greater size limitations on coil design. The European trend towards down-sizing
gasoline engines is prompting the need for smaller, narrower and longer spark plugs. Spark plugs must last longer, too. Ignition coils are also becoming smaller and lighter despite the requirement for increased energy content.
This has led to more use of so-called plug top ignition coils which typically have higher energy content compared to pencil coils..

Spark plugs
Defining the elements

Gasoline engines obtain power by compressing a fuel-air mixture of air and gasoline, then exploding this mixture by ignition. Spark plugs serve to ignite this fuel-air mixture. With the battery as the power source, the spark plug
converts the electrical energy that comes through the ignition coil and distributor into a spark which ignites the air-fuel mixture. In other words, without the spark plug, the engine doesn’t run. The spark plug is an important part
because its performance influences the overall performance of the engine.

The spark plug is the last step in the ignition circuit. It introduces the ignition energy generated by the ignition coil into the combustion chamber, says Bosch. The high voltage applied creates an electric spark between the spark
plug electrodes, which ignites the compressed air-fuel mixture. As this function must also be guaranteed under extreme conditions (cold start, wide-open throttle), the spark plug plays a decisive role in the optimised
performance and reliable operation of a spark-ignition engine. These requirements remain the same over the entire service life of the spark plug.

The spark plug must satisfy a variety of complex performance demands. It is exposed to the varying periodic processes within the combustion chamber, as well as external climatic conditions. An essential electrical
requirement is the ability to function at ignition voltages in excess of 30,000V with insulation remaining unimpaired at a temperature in the 1,000ºC range.

Because the spark plug is subjected to mechanical stresses in the form of exposure to periodic pressure peaks within the combustion chamber, the materials must demonstrate extreme resistance to thermal loads and
continuous vibratory stress.

Another vital factor for reliable spark plug performance is efficient thermal conductivity. Because it is subjected to rapid variations between the heat of the combustion gases and the cool air/fuel mixture, the ceramic insulator
must display high resistance to thermal stresses.

To form a perfect seal in the combustion chamber, each spark plug must exactly match the dimensional characteristics of the cylinder head. It is designed to fit in two ways: thread diameter and reach.

The spark plug itself is made up of a number of different parts, including:

• Insulator – insulates the terminal, centre shaft and centre electrode from the housing, preventing an escape of high voltage from the electrodes.
• Terminal – connected to a high tension cord through which high-voltage current from the ignition system flows.
• Ring and packing washer – makes the insulator and the housing fit tightly to each other and maintains the air-tightness.
• Centre shaft (stem) – connects the terminal and the centre electrode. This shaft is made of steel and has the role of allowing high-voltage current to flow from the terminal to the centre electrode without loss.
• Housing – forms an outer shell that surrounds and supports the insulator, and installs the spark plug in the engine.
• Gasket – makes the housing and the engine fit tightly to each other and maintains the air-tightness of the combustion chamber.
• Electrode with copper – special nickel alloy is used for the centre electrode to reduce electrode wear. Copper is sealed into the centre section to improve thermal conductivity.

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Innovations
Despite the fact that spark plugs have featured in vehicles for more than a century, manufacturers are still pushing back the technical boundaries.

Even though spark plug technology is improving, can it really catch-up with engine life – that is, is a 'life of engine' spark plug a possibility? An auto
executive told AIC: “I have heard a lot of stories from inventors saying that they have it but I haven’t been able to duplicate that in a lab. While I think
that a 150,000-mile spark plug is possible, there will always be a need for people to change their spark plugs.”

A team of researchers from Japan’s National Institute for Natural Sciences have developed the first multi-beam laser system small enough to screw
into an engine's cylinder head. The new laser system is made from ceramics and could, says the research team, be produced inexpensively in large
volumes.

The researchers point out that using lasers to ignite the air-fuel mixture with concentrated optical energy can improve efficiency. Conventional spark
plugs sit on top of the cylinder and only ignite the air-fuel mixture close to them. The relatively cold metal of nearby electrodes and cylinder walls
absorbs heat from the explosion, quenching the flame front just as it starts to expand.

Lasers, on the other hand, can focus their beams directly into the centre of the mixture. Without quenching, the flame front expands more
symmetrically and up to three times faster than those produced by spark plugs. Lasers can also inject their energy within nanoseconds, compared
with milliseconds for spark plugs.

The researchers are said to be in talks with Denso about taking the innovation to the next stage. This work is supported by the Japan Science and Technical Agency.

Beru develops spark plugs for Peugeots

Beru is supplying platinum-tipped spark plugs for the Peugeot 207 and 307. Beru’s so-called bi-hex spark plug for these applications operate in the four-cylinder gasoline engines with piston capacities of 1.4- and 1.6-litres,
66kW and 84kW output intake manifold injection and Valvetronic system. Beru’s spark plugs feature a longer internal thread of 26.5mm yet offer the same ignition reliability as standard plugs.

To meet Peugeot’s spark plug life-cycle requirements, Beru fitted the ground electrode and copper-core centre electrode with high-temperature resistant platinum reinforcements. The spark plugs are being produced at Beru’s
facility in Chazelles-sur-Lyon, France where the company has introduced a number of machines. The spark plug bodies, for example, are produced on a new cold forming machine at a rate of 180 parts per minute. The ground
electrode is welded and bent on a new cam-controlled linear transfer machine system. Pressing and grinding of the insulators takes place on a column press with downstream grinding machine.

Federal-Mogul's SureFire Plus spark plug

Federal-Mogul is offering a high-performance spark plug ceramic to address increasing thermal and voltage demands of high-output gasoline engines. Called SureFire Plus, the company claims that the spark plug ceramic
technology delivers higher voltages, extends plug life and packages efficiently into the crowded cylinder heads of multi-valve downsized engines. SureFire Plus is also said to be a step-change technology, derived from the
company's SureFire plug launched in 2008. Advanced ceramic insulator materials enable SureFire Plus plugs to deliver voltages of 42kV or more, compared to 36kV previously. Higher spark voltages permit the use of leaner
fuel mixtures, enabling increased engine performance and/or better fuel economy while reducing CO2 emissions. The improved ceramic performance also enables a claimed reduction in the size of the spark plug, from 14mm
down to 12mm or 10mm, according to customer requirements.

Fuel-efficient spark plug from Denso

Denso is offering a spark plug in the Japanese market which, it claims improves fuel efficiency by 1.2 per cent, torque by 1.1 per cent and decreases carbon dioxide emissions by 0.8 per cent in comparison with the company's
conventional nickel spark plug.

The plug, which has been sold under the product name Twin Tip in North America and Europe, uses a tip shape for the ground electrode, in addition to the tip shape of the centre electrode for conventional spark plugs. This
structure, says Denso, results in improved ignition performance for a more powerful and fuel-efficient combustion.

The plug also uses nickel alloy for the ground and centre electrodes. This material enables the centre electrode to be made 40 per cent thinner than that of conventional nickel spark plugs, says Denso. When the spark
generated by a plug grows during combustion with the air-fuel mixture, it loses heat when it comes into contact with electrodes and ignition performance decreases. Thinner electrodes result in less obstruction of spark growth
(quenching), meaning better ignitability.

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Technical trends
The technical development of the spark plug has been quite marked over the last 30 years. Copper core electrodes became widespread during the 1980s. While NGK had developed such a product almost a quarter of a century
before, it was not until 1984 that Champion, under pressure from Bosch, launched its own copper core range. It followed this in 1988 with the introduction of double copper spark plugs with copper core centre and earth
electrodes. Platinum plugs were the next development, with Bosch launching its version in 1994. Ranges became more diverse with features such as V-grooves and multi-ground electrodes being introduced.

Today, the main technical drivers of spark plugs are long service life and functionality, protection of the catalytic converter and cold-start reliability. For its part, Federal-Mogul is developing high energy spark-plug technologies
and enabling advanced combustion concepts like stratified charge, lean burn and diluted charge; and the supplier sees significant opportunities in this area.

“Direct injection engine designs are requiring new designs to deal with the change in thermal cycle imposed on those spark plugs,” said Mark Whitehead, product marketing director engine and sealing, EMEA, Federal-Mogul.
“Direct injection and the general downsizing of the automotive engine have a side effect on all components on or within the engine. Engine size and weight reduction will continue to force the reduction in the size of spark
plugs. Most new engine designs are with M12 thread diameter, replacing the M14 of the last decade. We can expect M10 to supplant M12 in the not too distant future.”

Even though spark plug technology is improving, can it really catch-up with engine life? Whitehead points out that engine life has been a moving target for many years, and today’s engine has possibly twice the life of an engine
from 25 years ago before it would require major servicing. “Spark plugs of today can come very close to meeting this need, however, there is no consensus as to whether or not this is a good idea as other engine component
failure (such as a fuel injector) can adversely impact the function of the spark plug. Serviceability is still a major requirement for today’s designs. Ultimately, though, the spark plug needs to be part of the cylinder head design
for space and packaging efficiencies.”

As far as the spark plug aftermarket is concerned, most manufacturers concede a shrinking market. Aftermarket volumes are declining mainly due to longer service intervals and the fact that fewer gasoline-powered vehicles
are being built in Europe. The same forces apply in North America.

Starters and alternators

The starter converts electricity into mechanical energy while the alternator turns mechanical energy into alternating-current electricity. In other words, it provides electricity for the vehicle and keeps the battery charged.
According to Bosch, the starter consists of the following assemblies: electric motor, pinion-engaging system, roller-type overrunning clutch, pinion, and reduction gear set. During the start, the starter pinion engages with the
ring gear by means of a solenoid switch. The starter is either coupled to the starter pinion directly or by means of a reduction gear set, which reduces the rotational speed of the DC motor. The starter pinion drives the internal
combustion engine via the engine flywheel ring gear until the engine can run at sustained operation, says Bosch.

Alternator output is directly related to frame size, or diameter. According to Bosch, the alternator must furnish the vehicle electrical system with a sufficient supply of current under all operating conditions in order to ensure that
the state of charge in the battery is always maintained at an adequate level. The aim is to achieve balanced charging, i.e. the characteristics for performance and speed-frequency response must be selected to ensure that the
amount of current generated by the alternator under actual operating conditions is at least equal to the consumption of all electrical equipment within the same period, says Bosch. The alternator actually produces alternating
current. The vehicle electrical system, on the other hand, requires direct current to recharge the battery and operate the electrical equipment. It is this direct current that must ultimately be supplied to the electrical system. A
bridge rectifier integrated in the alternator converts the three-phase alternating current.

Integrated starter-alternator systems aim to balance out irregularities in the running engine and in the drivetrain, providing more comfort. Clever electronics do the trick here. They help to control the starter-alternator operating
state, depending on the load and battery charge status. Features such as the stop-start1 function (which results in better fuel economy) will be a major attraction for potential car buyers. There are two main alternative design
concepts:

• Belt-driven ISG device: Shaped like an alternator, this electronically controlled machine replaces the starter motor and alternator, providing an instant stop-start function for fuel savings up to 5%. Various refinements
of this belt-driven device can boost economy further – such as brake energy regeneration and mild engine boost.
• In-line units: These are mounted directly on the crankshaft between the engine and gearbox. Although the in-line systems are more expensive, they offer more regenerative power from braking and even engine-assist
ability under heavy load. This integrated crankshaft-starter alternator (ICSA) effectively increases the efficiency of the electrical system, says Bosch. This electric motor is designed as a permanent-field synchronous
machine and is located between the internal combustion engine and transmission. When the vehicle is in operation, the ICSA generates electrical energy. The high efficiency of the starter alternator contributes to a
reduction in fuel consumption by about 0.5%. This potential for fuel savings can be increased to 4-6% if the ICSA is equipped to include a stop-start function.

For aftermarket applications, many rotating electric units are remanufactured. Motorcar Parts of America Inc provide some useful definitions here. A ‘used core’, says the company, is an alternator or starter which has been
used in the operation of a vehicle. Generally, the used core is an original equipment alternator or starter installed by the vehicle maker and subsequently removed for replacement. The company states: "Used cores contain
salvageable parts which are an important raw material in the remanufacturing process. We obtain most used cores by providing credits to our customers for used cores returned to us under our core exchange programme. Our
customers receive these used cores from consumers who deliver a used core to obtain credit from our customers upon the purchase of a newly remanufactured alternator or starter."

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Remanufacturing is a process through which used cores are disassembled into their sub-components, cleaned, inspected, combined with new subcomponents, reassembled into finished products and tested to original
equipment specifications. The use of remanufactured components for warranty and extended service repairs is common practice as OEMs have sought to reduce warranty and extended cover costs by using remanufactured
components. These components are said to offer the same degree of quality and reliability as OEM products at a lower cost.

Again, Motorcar Parts of America Inc provide some definitions in respect of remanufactured cores. They state: "The used core underlying an alternator or starter that has gone through the remanufacturing process and through
that process has become part of a newly remanufactured alternator or starter. The remanufacturing process takes a used core, breaks it down into its component parts, replaces those components that cannot be reused and
reassembles the salvageable components of the used core and additional new components into a remanufactured alternator or starter. Remanufactured cores are included in our on-hand finished goods inventory and in the
remanufactured finished good product held for sale at customer locations. Used Cores returned by consumers to our customers but not yet returned to us continue to be classified as remanufactured cores until we physically
receive these used cores."

1
Stop-start systems switch off the internal combustion engine when the vehicle is at a standstill such as in traffic jams or at red traffic lights. This helps effectively reduce fuel consumption and CO2emissions, particularly in
urban traffic.

Heavy-duty applications
This section contains further research on:

• Heavy-duty starter from Remy Inc

• Prestolite develops heavy-duty alternator with Antonov

Heavy-duty starter from Remy Inc

Remy's so-called Delco Remy 44MT creates 8.5 kW at 12 volts. The company points out that modern engines are harder to start and require more crank due to increased emission standards and anti-idling regulations. Remy
also says that these extreme engine conditions and frequent starts and stops require a starter that is more robust and durable. In addition, the company has developed a so-called Integrated Over Crank Protection (OCP). The
new OCP is a self-contained, one-wire design with no additional connections required thus eliminating the need for a vehicle wiring harness. The OCP unit has a built-in circuit breaker that protects the starter from thermal
damage and automatically resets at safe operating temperatures.

Prestolite develops heavy-duty alternator with Antonov

Prestolite has partnered with Antonov to develop a two-speed heavy-duty alternator for military vehicle applications. The alternator provides full electronic control of the speed change through an active clutch mechanism.

Stop-start applications
Start-stop is a technology applied to a standard gasoline-powered vehicle that automatically shuts the engine off during idle, reducing fuel use and emissions by 5 to 12 per cent, and restarts when the driver engages the clutch
or releases the brake pedal.

This feature is present in hybrid electric vehicles and has also appeared in vehicles which lack a hybrid electric powertrain. For non-electric vehicles (called micro-hybrids), fuel economy gains from this technology are in the
range of five to ten per cent.

Hybrid vehicles use stop-start systems. Such vehicles replace the separate alternator and starter motor with a combined motor/generator that performs both functions, cranking the internal combustion engine when starting,
providing additional mechanical power for accelerating, and charging a large storage battery when the vehicle is running at constant speed.

Since its first start-stop system went into series production in 2007, Bosch has sold more than 4m start-stop systems. In the first-generation start-stop system, the engine did not stop until the vehicle came to a halt. Bosch’s
enhanced start-stop system extends the scope of engine shutdown. For example, if a driver brakes for an approaching red light, the engine is stopped while the vehicle coasts to a halt. If the driver wants to move on and
presses the accelerator pedal, the motor restarts.

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In June 2014, Continental Automotive’s plant in Budapest, Hungary produced its 1 millionth start-stop system component. These components have been manufactured in Hungary since the autumn of 2010, with 188
employees currently involved in the manufacturing process. Continental has invested EUR5.8m (US$7.91m) in the production of supply voltage stabiliser unit components in Hungary.

Johnson Controls predicts that 40 per cent of new cars around the world will be stop-start by 2018.

In 2012, Ford introduced start-stop technology across all its vehicles in North America. In Japan, Toyota and Honda have offered cars with start-stop technology for a number of years. In India, Mahindra & Mahindra was the
first to launch stop-start technology based on a micro-hybrid system.

In May 2015, Brose North America let it be known that it has developed a full electric oil pump, with the company also noting stop-start engine solutions are estimated to increase fuel economy by as much as 6 per cent. "Brose
has truly emerged as a leader in transmission electrification," said DTA North America customer team director, Richard Illingworth. "We used our product knowledge and grasp of market trends to create solutions that are
flexible and quick to meet evolving customer needs. "When combined with the eOP, the stop-start system shuts down the internal combustion engine when stopped in traffic, saving fuel while maintaining transmission oil
pressure. The eOP delivers a significant improvement in driveability compared to mechanical methods of maintaining oil pressure."

In March 2018, BorgWarner let it be known that it is supplying its Eco-Launch stop/start solenoid valve and hydraulic accumulator for Ford vehicles.

Some vehicles with start-stop technology include:

• BMW 1 Series
• BMW 3 Series
• BMW Mini
• Citroën C2
• Citroën C3
• Fiat 500
• Honda Jazz
• Hyundai i10 blue
• Hyundai i30 blue
• Jaguar XF
• Kia Cee’d ISG
• Kia Vanga
• Land Rover Freelander
• Mazda 3
• Mazda Axela
• Mercedes-Benz A Class
• Mercedes-Benz B Class
• Porsche Panamera
• Smart ForTwo
• Toyota Auris
• Toyota Auris Optimal Drive
• Toyota iQ Optimal Drive
• Toyota Urban Cruiser
• Volkswagen Passat BlueMotion
• Volvo S60
• Volvo S80
• Volvo V60
• Volvo V70

This section takes a closer look at stop-start technologies fitted to certain models.

Bosch's solution
Bosch has enhanced its start-stop system to make it a 'coasting assistant'. To achieve this, the supplier uses the navigation function as a sensor of the outside world. The navigation system can preview upcoming speed limits
and terrain, which in turn enables drivers to release the accelerator pedal well ahead of two limits or bends in the road. On highways, Bosch claims that this results in fuel savings of up to 15 per cent in real driving conditions.

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Continental's solution
Continental has developed a stop-start system for vans. At the heart of the design is a double-layer capacitor, also known as a supercap. These energy storage devices, which are new to the automotive sector, are claimed to
offer much faster charging and discharging rates than a conventional battery.

Continental’s engine start-stop control unit groups together all the relevant functions. It is based on the company’s basic function controller (introduced in May 2008) and makes it possible to switch off the engine
automatically even in cars that do not have elaborate engine control units or data networks.

To achieve this, says Continental, is the start-stop control unit itself, an intelligent battery sensor as well as a signal from the clutch and gearbox to ensure that the engine is only switched off when idling and is restarted in a
split second when the clutch pedal is pressed.

Daimler
Daimler’s Smart brand offers micro-hybrid drive (mhd) technology and enhanced equipment levels. Its 61hp and 71hp versions of the Smart ForTwo feature micro-hybrid drive as standard, which is an automatic stop-start start
function. The automaker claims that the Smart mhd models return fuel savings of up to 24 per cent and lower CO2 emissions to 10g/km.

In 2009, Valeo began fitting its StARS micro-hybrid system to the Mercedes-Benz A and B Class vehicle models. Valeo’s stop-start system is already equipped to the Citroën C2 and C3 and the Smart MHD (micro-hybrid drive).
The micro-hybrid StARS was launched in 2004 on the PSA Peugeot Citroën vehicles C2 and C3. The redesigned Citroën C3 was launched in Europe in 2010. The launch variants included an HDi 90 diesel emitting just 99g/km
CO2 – the first full production Citroën to emit less than 100g/km – which exempt owners in the UK from paying the Government-imposed vehicle excise duty.

Denso's solution
Denso claims that its Tandem Solenoid stop/start starter saves up to 1.5 seconds off the engine restart time compared to previous stop/start models. Designed specifically for stop/start systems, the starter uses the world's
first mechanism to separately control the forward shift of the pinion gear and the motor rotation. This allows the engine to restart before reaching zero rpm, shortening the waiting time when restarting and allowing for a
smoother engine feel at start-up.

Designed specifically for stop/start systems, the system uses a mechanism to separately control the forward shift of the pinion gear and the motor rotation which allows for a quick restart.

To start the engine, starters shift the pinion gear forward to mesh with the engine ring gear to transmit the rotational force of the starter motor through the pinion gear. The conventional stop/start system starter has a
mechanism that conjunctionally shifts the pinion gear and energises the motor for rotation, and is not capable of restarting when the engine is rotating - or while the engine is coasting after the vehicle is stopped.

With the new starter, if the engine is rotating fast, the motor is first energised to increase the pinion gear speed and then the pinion gear is shifted forward when the rotation of the ring gear and pinion gear are close. When the
engine is turning slowly enough for the two gears to be connected, the pinion gear is first moved forward, and then the motor is powered.

Fiat
Fiat presented its first model to feature a stop-start system in 2009 on the 500 model. The system is supplied by Bosch. Bosch also supplies the engine control unit for the 500, including the software used to analyse all the
relevant sensor data and to stop and start the engine. In addition, the battery sensor is supplied by Bosch. It computes the current state of battery charge and relays the information to the energy management system.

Next to the starter, control software and battery sensor, Bosch’s system includes a crankshaft sensor and the respective sensors at the pedals. Bosch claims that by using a high-efficiency alternator with a deep-cycle resistant
battery means that the amount of time the vehicle can remain stationary with the engine switched off is increased.

Alfa Romeo has also introduced the Bosch system in its Mito.

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Ford
Ford has standardised automatic start-stop across its entire line of EcoBoost 2017 F-150 pickups. The 2016 F-150 with the 2.7-litre EcoBoost engine already has the economy feature as standard and it was extended to
3.5-litre versions for 2017, including the new high-output version for the Raptor variants. Fitment will then reach 60 per cent of the truck line-up. Specially tuned for trucks, Auto Start-Stop shuts off the engine when the vehicle is
at a stop – except when towing or in four-wheel-drive mode. When the brake is released, the engine restarts quickly. Ford also offers Auto Start-Stop on some Focus, Fusion [Mondeo], Edge and Escape [Kuga] models in the US.

In 2012, Ford introduced start-stop technology across all its vehicles in North America. The start-stop technology follows Ford's moves towards fuel-saving technology such as electric power steering and dual-clutch six-speed
transmissions.

Honda
Honda has been fitting stop-start technology to its models for some time, starting on its Insight sold in Japan way back in 1999.

Honda has made stop-start standard on 1.2-litre petrol-engine versions of its Jazz (known as the Fit in Japan) small car in Europe. The Jazz is built in Swindon, England, and exported to mainland Europe.

Jaguar
Jaguar’s XF model comes equipped with an ‘intelligent' start-stop system, halting the engine only when justified and restarting instantly. That, Jaguar says, is because it has a tandem-solenoid starter motor with secondary
battery, bi-directional crank sensor and fuel rail pressure holding system. The 'intelligent' bit is a 'change of mind' system; release the brakes before the engine stops and the injection system is refuelled and returns quickly to
idle speed which also brings CO2 emission reductions of 5-7 per cent.

Kia
The Kia Ceed ISG (idle stop and go) models that claimed to deliver up to a 15 per cent fuel economy improvement in city driving. A smart starter motor is linked to an upgraded ECU, which monitors the car’s status. When the
car comes to a stop, the ECU uses information from various other control systems around the vehicle to decide if switching the engine off is appropriate. A new alternator suppresses electric power demand during acceleration
and recharges the car’s battery during deceleration.

As a fail-safe, if the car’s battery power drops below 75 per cent of maximum for any reason, or there is insufficient energy available for the next start, the system will temporarily suspend stop and go. While the car is stationary,
if the clutch pedal is depressed, the engine is instantly restarted; the restart occurs in the time it takes the driver to select first gear, Kia said.

Denso is supplying the Kia Vanga with its stop-start system.

Land Rover
Land Rover began offering stop-start technology on the manual diesel Freelander models way back in 2009. A Land Rover spokesman said the control system was developed by the automaker’s engineering centre at Gaydon,
Warwickshire, while Bosch provided the engine management and Denso contributed an uprated starter motor. The system is available on all manual versions of the 2.2-litre diesel TD4 models.

Phil Wiffin, manager of stop-start systems at Land Rover, said that, on a typical 40-minute journey in London, a vehicle’s engine is only needed for about 19 minutes. “We’re saying this is the world’s first intelligent stop-start
SUV. Fuel consumption in these conditions is improved by 12 per cent which is a saving of GBP13 on a tank of diesel at today’s prices on a typical London test route,” he said.

Land Rover Freelander 2 TD4_e stop-start

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Toyota
Toyota added a 1.33-litre Dual VVT-i gasoline engine with stop-start technology to its Auris model in 2008. At the time, Toyota claimed that its
powertrain with stop-start technology resulted in 17 per cent lower CO2 emissions (135g/km) and a 19 per cent improvement in fuel consumption
(48.7mpg combined cycle) compared to the previous 1.4-litre VVT-i unit.

Auris was the first model in Europe to benefit from Toyota’s stop-start technology. Denso and Toyota jointly developed this new starter for idle-stop
systems.

Volvo adds stop-start

In 2011, Volvo launched four new models with automatic and start/stop thereby cutting CO2 emissions by 10g/km and reducing fuel consumption by
up to 3.6 miles per gallon. This new technology was made available as standard on the S60 and V60, V70 and S80.

Technology developments
This section contains further research on:

• Audi's Travolution system

• Continental's solutions
• Lightweight starter motor from Denso

Audi's Travolution system

In an attempt to streamline urban traffic and reduce CO2 emissions, Audi has developed a so-called Travolution system which aims to improve synchronisation and phasing of traffic light networks to reduce stopping times.
Audi says it could also reduce the number of actual stops needed by creating a communications link between cars and the traffic light network.

Communications modules built into each traffic light are able to send messages to cars in the vicinity, alerting them to the time remaining until their next green phase. The car’s onboard system is then able to calculate the
speed which the driver must maintain in order to pass through the light during this green phase, and displays this on the dash.

Continental's solutions
Continental is supplying a booster module to PSA Peugeot Citroën for its e-HDi start-stop systems. Given that it takes a lot of power to restart a diesel engine automatically – at traffic lights, for instance - Continental worked
with Maxwell Technologies to produce supercapacitors capable of providing enough charge to restart the engine in a split second. The micro-hybrid e-HDi technology uses a new 2.2 kW starter-generator, a 70 per cent increase
over first-generation systems.

Continental used the 2018 NAIAS to explain its compact belt starter generator with integrated power electronics. The system replaces a conventional starter pinion and is driven by a belt connected to the engine crankshaft.
Together with the lithium-ion, the belt-starter generator forms the heart of the electrified drivetrain, which is standard equipment in the new Audi A8. "We see 48-volt electrification as a key technology, which in terms of
improved comfort and fuel economy, offers promising potential in all vehicle classes and in all markets," said José Avila, member of the Executive Board of Continental and head of the Powertrain division. "Additionally, the
48-volt technology is capable of achieving up to double-digit percentage fuel savings and offers a low-cost way to reduce fleet fuel consumption." With a starter output of eight kilowatts and peak transient torque of up to 60
Newton meters, the asynchronous motor developed by Continental achieves new benchmarks. It has a continuous power rating in generator mode of up to 5 kW, with a peak output of up to 15 kW available for short periods.
This is made possible by a water-cooling system that protects the motor, and particularly the power electronics, from overheating. The coolant is supplied by the regular engine cooling system, eliminating the need for a
second, low-temperature cooling circuit. Continental has been producing the belt-starter-generator with integrated power electronics on highly automated production lines at its Nuremberg plant since 2017. The system is
based on a modular concept that can be adapted to meet the needs of all automakers. For example, Audi's emphasis on high performance has been met by increasing the length of the stator, which instead of windings
consists of welded copper rods. The collaboration with Audi was not just limited to the hardware.

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Lightweight starter motor from Denso

Denso has developed one of the world's lightest starters for small, compact vehicles. The new starter, which is about 40 per cent lighter than a conventional starter, found its first application in the Suzuki MR Wagon.

The traditional approach to reducing a starter's size and weight was to downsize the internal motor. The other parts such as the driving part - consisting of an integrated clutch and pinion which engages with the engine ring
gear - and the switch part - needing certain power to shift the driving part towards the ring gear - have not seen a significant reduction in size and weight.

For the new starter, Denso developed a pinion shift mechanism that separates the clutch and pinion so only the pinion needs to engage with the engine ring gear, whereas in conventional starters the integrated clutch and
pinion needed to be shifted toward the ring gear to engage. With this new mechanism, the switch part was made lighter and smaller because less power was needed to move the engaging part. As a result, Denso claims that
the overall product weight is approximately 40 per cent lighter compared to the conventional product.

The starter can be used for compact cars powered by gasoline engines of 660 to 1,200 cc displacement.

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Reproduced with permission of copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.