TYPES OF SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE: DIRECT AND INDIRECT
Indirect social work practice (also referred
Direct social work practice (also referred to
as a micro practice) involves professional
interventions to bring about personal or
interpersonal change through:
 work with clients, such as intake,
assessments, counselling, psycho-
education, providing emotional support, or
coaching; and
 work on behalf of clients, which can include
making referrals, or acting as a broker,
mediator, or advocate on a client’s behalf.
to as mezzo or macro practice) focuses on
systemic changes in an organization,
community, or a larger social systems. It may
include:
 work with clients that will benefit both the
clients and others, which could include
facilitating patient councils, outreach to
form a community coalition, or lobbying
with clients for new or improved services;
and
 work with non-clients on behalf of all clients
in a similar situation, which could include
research, fund-raising, policy analyses or
development, advocacy, grant-writing,
event planning, or social administration.
 Approaches in Working with Individuals, Groups and
Communities for individuals, groups and communities

For Individuals and Families

 Direct Provision Model

According to Schneiderman, is the enhancement of client

social functioning through the direct provision of material aid
useful in eliminating or reducing situational deficiencies.
Other refer to this as Resource Provision where “resources
may be mobilized, created, directly furnished; the client may
be advised and counseled in making optimal use of them”.
 Direct Provision Model Cont.

Involves the direct administration of existing programs of

material aid which, in turn, involve any one or all of the
following activities:
Case by case involvement of the client in the study and
evaluation process ( determination of need and of forms of
need-meeting);
Determination of eligibility
within the administering agency’s
terms of reference;
 Direct Provision Model Cont.

A judgment that the provision of the service or benefit will promote the
client’s best interest ( that it will not have counter-productive
consequences which could be overlooked by the untrained observer);
Recruiting, selecting, training, supporting, collaborating, with
personnel offering direct care (homemakers, foster parents, adoptive
parents, health personnel, trainers, day care workers, etc.).
Examples of material aid: temporary financial assistance, employment,
shelter, medical care, skills training, and others.
 Intercession-Mediation Model

The process of negotiating the “ service jungle “for clients, whether

singly or in groups. The worker here “ connects” the client to need
services in the system until he has availed of them.
The utilization of non-consensual strategies such as direct confrontation,
administrative appeal. And the use of judicial and political systems, as
appropriate.”
 Intercession-Mediation Model Cont.

Worker plays a variety of roles in the client’s behalf –

helper, interpreter, facilitator, escort, negotiator, broker,
etc. to ensure rapid service delivery.
 Intercession-Mediation Model Cont.

Worker plays a variety of roles in the client’s behalf –

helper, interpreter, facilitator, escort, negotiator, broker,
etc. to ensure rapid service delivery.
 Crisis Intervention Approach

Crisis theory- based on the idea that there is no such

thing as “problem-free” state and life is a series of
recurring developmental crisis.
 Crisis Intervention Approach Cont.

Crisis Intervention
Is a process for actively influencing the psycho-social functioning of
individuals and groups, during a period of acute disequilibrium. It
involves crisis-oriented, time-limited work, usually two to six weeks in
duration. It is a mode of brief treatment that can be used in any social
work setting and with any target population under stress. To be really
effective, crisis intervention should be available within 24 to 72 hours
after application or referral for assistance.
 Task-Centered Model

The task-centered model is a technology for alleviating specific target

problems perceived by clients, that is, particular problems that clients
recognize, understand, acknowledge and want to attend to.
TASK
is what
– the client is to do to alleviate the problem which makes
the task both an immediate goal and at the same time the means of
achieving the goal of alleviating the problem.
 Task-Centered Model Cont.

Characteristics:
 It is brief and time-limited;
Its
 interventions are concentrated on alleviating specific problems
which the client and practitioner expressly contract to work on;
Work
 on the client’s problem is organized around tasks or problem -
solving actions the client agrees to carry out.
 Task-Centered Model Cont.

Target:
 Family and interpersonal relations;
 Social role performance;
 Effecting social transitions;
 Securing resources; and
 Emotional distress reactive to situation factors.
 Task-Centered Model Cont.
FEATURES

ASSESSMENT this
– consists of finding out the problem. The
practitioner also identifies the influential conditions in the
environment, the problem context and takes note of the
client’s special traits, talents, abilities and problem behaviors.
 Task-Centered Model Cont.
FEATURES

CASE PLANNING general

– strategy for case plan consists of
assessment and a problem-reduction program of action. The
focus is on client target problems. The practitioner constructs
a program by making judgments about what can be expected
to reduce the problem.
 Task-Centered Model Cont.
FEATURES

IMPLEMENTATION – a contract is made to shape and

organize the problem-solving work. Tasks state exactly what
the client and practitioner are to do.
 Task-Centered Model Cont.
FEATURES

TASKS – state what the client is to do. A task may state a

general direction for the client’s action, but general tasks are
broken down into more specific tasks.
 Psychosocial Approach

This is associated with the Freudian theory of personality and was often
referred to as the “organismic approach” and the “diagnostic school of
SYSTEM
thought”. This is essentially a THEORY APPROACH in social
work which can be applied to individuals and groups with actual or
potential problems in their psychosocial functioning.
 Psychosocial Approach Cont.

SYSTEM THEORY APPROACH concerned with both the inner realities

of human beings and the social context in which they live.
Treatment must be differentiated according to the client’s need ,
hence, the term “ Differential treatment approach” –this requires the
worker to understand the client’s need and to respond accordingly.
Help provided is a process which will enable change to occur in the
person or in the situation, or both.
 Functional Approach
3 characteristics:
Works
 from a “psychology of growth” and not from” psychology of
illness”;
Purpose
 of the agency guides the social worker’s overall purpose,
giving focus, direction & content to the worker’s practice; and
 Social Work is viewed as a helping process through which agency’s
an
service is made available, with SW method, having to do with initiating,
sustaining & terminating the relationships.
 Behavioral Modification

An approach
 intended to improve the social functioning of individuals,
families, groups and organizations by helping them learn new
behaviors & eliminating problematic ways of behaving. This is based
on behavioral theory – that people repeat behaviors that are
rewarded and abandon those that are not rewarded.
 Behavioral Modification Cont.

The 3 elements of social learning are essential in the practice of

behavioral modification: a) target behavior
the– focus of intervention
b) antecedent behavior – behavior & events that occur prior to
problem solving; c) consequent behavior –behavior & events that
occur after the problem behavior.
 Family Intervention

2 forms of family intervention:

a) Family Therapy designed
– to change or modify elements of family
relationship systems that interfere with the management of life tasks of
the family and its members.
b) Family-focused work with an individual client
– referred to as “family
casework” is undertaken with focus on a family member, with the family
members being involved in the helping process.
Approaches in Working with Individuals, Groups and
Communities

For Groups
 Developmental Approach

Developmental Approach by Emmanuel Tropp

Development
causing
– something to unfold, grow, change for the better,
to be realized, etc. This approach explains that people are not seen as
being sick or healthy, but on a scale ranging from socially functional
(adequate) to dysfunctional (inadequate) to eufunctional (good
functioning)…. continually able to move up this scale in a life -long
developmental process of self-realization.
 Interactionist Approach

A group work theory developed by William Schwarts believes that the

job assignment of social work in society for which it is being held
accountable is to mediate the process through which the individual &
society reach out to each other through a mutual need for self-fulfillment.
The mediating function of social work is the key concept in this
approach.
Approaches in Working with Individuals, Groups and
Communities

For Communities
 Community Development Model

Community change may be pursued optimally through the broad

participation of a wide spectrum of people at the local community level in
goal determination and action. Themes emphasized in locality
development include democratic procedures, voluntary cooperation,
self- help, development of indigenous leadership and education.
 Social Planning Model

Emphasizes a technical process of problem- solving with regard to

substantive social problems such as delinquency, housing and mental
health. Rational, deliberately planned, and controlled change has a
central place in this model.
 Social Action Model

Presupposes a disadvantaged segment of the population that needs to

be organized , in alliance with others in order to make adequate
demands on the larger community for increased resources or treatment
more in accordance with justice or democracy. Its practitioners aim at
basic changes in major institutions or community practices. They seek
retribution of power, resources, or decision making in the community or
changes in basic policies in formal organizations.
Indirect Models of Intervention
 Working with the Elite

Includes specific activities, i.e. info giver, interpreter, resource person,

consultant, negotiator, coordinator, lobbyist, organizer & mobilizer. “elite”
comprised
– of individuals & groups who are usually in a position to
provide the resources the worker needs in her work with clients (.e.g
policy makers, leaders, volunteers, business owners).
 Documentation/Social Criticism

Worker is employed by the agency to translate policies into services to

clients; study/analyze practice experience and share with others;
understand agency policies/programs, analyze data, to be able to
recommend new programs.
 Advocacy

Worker is involved in efforts to change/modify policies/programs on

behalf of some sectors in the community (e.g. professional
association can influence policy; worker writing an appeal or
pronouncements for a cause).
Components of SW Practice
 Problem

Casework addresses itself to the solution of problems that block or

minimize the effectiveness of the individual in various roles. The
multifaceted and dynamic nature of the client’s problem makes
necessary the selection by caseworker and client some part of it as
the unit for work.
 Problem Cont.
Problems can be categorized as follows (Grace Mathew):
 Problems related to illness and disabilities
 Problems due to lack of material resources
 School related problems
 Problems related to institutionalization
 Behavior problems
 Problems of marital discord
 Problem situations needing a follow-up service
 Needs related to rehabilitation of people
 Place

The social agency is an organization fashioned to express the will of

a society or of some group in that society as to social welfare. Each
social agency develops a program by which to meet the particular
areas of need with which it sets out to deal. It depends on factors
like money, knowledge and competence of the agency staff, the
interest, resources available and support of the community.
 Place Cont.

The social agency has a structure by which it organizes and

delegates its responsibilities and tasks, and governing policies and
procedures Hierarchy–roles and responsibilities clear, designated
and delegated–collaboration procedures and policies, understand
the usefulness by which it stabilizes and systematizes its
operations– among workers.
 Place Cont.
Every staff member in an agency speaks and acts for some part of
the agency’s function, and the case worker represents the agency in
its individualized problem solving help.
 caseworker not an independent professional practitioner
 caseworker speaks and acts for the agency
 psychologically identified with its purpose and policies
case
 worker while representing his agency is first and foremost a
representative of his profession. He/she must know and be
committed with feeling to the philosophy that guides the practice
of the social work profession.
 Process
In order to understand what casework must include in its problem-
solving process, it is necessary to consider first the kinds of
challenges and blockings which occur in people’s normal problem -
solving efforts.
If necessary tangible means and resources are not available to
the person.
 Out of ignorance or misapprehension about the facts of the
problem or the facts of existing ways of meeting it.
 Process Cont.
PROCESS – consists of the following operations:
The problem must be identified by the person (i.e. be recognized, named and
placed in the center of attention)
Person’s subjective experience of the problem must be identified (how it is
felt, seen, interpreted, what it does, and what it is being done with).
The search for possible means and modes of solution must be initiated and
considered, and alternatives must be weighed and tried out in the exchange of
ideas and reactions that precede action.
Some choice or decision must be made as a result of thinking and feeling
through, what means seem most likely to affect the problem or the person’s
relation to it.
THE HELPING/ PROBLEM SOLVING PROCESS
IN SOCIAL WORK
 Problem-Solving Process
(Helen Harris Perlman as the originator of this framework)

each phase or stage of

the process requires the
Problem-solving is a with the goal of application and use of
series of planned achieving an necessary knowledge
activity in sequential effective solution and skills to effectively
stages to a problem
Programmer assist the clients in
their respective
difficulty or problems.

Text Here Text Here

 Helping Process

The term ‘helping process ’ specifies distinctly the element

of relationship as the moving force in effective client-worker
problem-solving effort.
The helping process puts much emphasis on the client-
worker relationship and the importance of the latter in the
problem-solving efforts.
 Steps in the Social Work Helping Process

Beginning Phase
• Assessment
• Planning

Middle Phase
• Intervention or Plan
Implementation

• Evaluation
Ending Phase
• Termination
 ASSESSMENT

It is a process and a product of understanding on which

action is based. (Max Siporin)
 The process involves the collection of necessary
information and its analysis and interpretation in order to
reach an understanding of the client; the problem, and
the social context in which it exists
 The ultimate purpose is to provide understanding
necessary for appropriate planning
 ASSESSMENT CONT.

Social work task during this period:

 Information or data gathering
Problem
 definition based on an agreement between the
client and the worker as to the problem to be worked on,
or simply, the problem-for-work.
 It culminates in the worker’s writing of an assessment
statement or a problem definition
 ASSESSMENT CONT.

Information/Data-gathering
 Primary Source (Client –individual, group, community)
 Secondary Sources (Significant others – parents, siblings,
relatives, friends)
 Existing Data (records and reports i.e. census, teachers,
psychologists, and others)
 Worker’s own observation (e.g. physical condition, , facilities
and resources, person-to person and group interactions, etc)
 PRINCIPLES IN DATA GATHERING

 The client should be the main source of information.

Data to be gathered should directly relate to the identified problems.
 Data collection is continuous process, but it is the collection,
organization and synthesis of such data that is specially critical to the
definition of the problem.
The
 type of client and the general nature of the problem can guide the
worker on the type of data that should be collected and how much.
 INTAKE PROCESS AND THE
PRESENTING PROBLEM
Intake
 is the process by which a potential client achieves
the status of a client
 Presenting Problem – problem that is a threat to the
client’s or others welfare, and usually stated or
presented as it is being perceived or experienced.
 It may be stated as symptoms (anxiety or lack of
motivation) as behavioral configurations (marital
discord, poor school performance, unemployment) or
as needs (housing, money)
 THE INITIAL CONTACT (S) WITH
CLIENT/ INTAKE

 The client initiates the contact.

The client is referred to the worker or agency by some
interested or concerned party – a relative, neighbor,
teacher, etc.
The agency through the social worker reaches out to the
(potential) client and offers help.
 THE INTAKE PROCESS AND THE
PRESENTING THE PROBLEM

 Intake is the process by which a potential

client achieves the status of a client. Intake
may be accomplished in one session with
the client.
 Presenting problems may be stated as
symptoms, as behavioral configurations, or as
needs.
 DEFINING THE PROBLEM

Partialization
 - process of separating from so many
problems identified by the client and/or worker the
specific problem or problems which are to be addressed
first.
Prioritizing
 - problem taking precedence over other
problems because of its importance.
 WRITING AN
ASSESSMENT STATEMENT

Opening causal statement - requires the worker to

clearly indicate who has the problem, and why the
problem exists at this time.
Change potential statement - dependent on three
interdependent factors: problem, person and
environment.
Judgment about the seriousness or urgency of the
problem .
 CHARACTERISTICS OF ASSESSMENT

1. It is ongoing.
2. It focuses on understanding the client.
3. It is a mutual process.
4.There is movement within the assessment process.
5. Both horizontal and vertical explorations are important.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF ASSESSMENT CONT.

6. Assessment identifies needs in life situations,

defines problems and explains their meanings.
7. Assessment is individualized.
8. Judgment is important because decisions
have to be made.
9. No assessment is ever complete.
PLANNING
 TWO (2) MAJOR TASKS

Formulating goals
Defining specific actions
 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOALS

 Specific, concrete and measurable

 Feasible
 S.M.A.R.T. (Specific, Measurable,
Attainable, Realistic and Time-bounded)
 THE HELPING CONTRACT

It is
 an agreement between the worker
and the client on what needs to be done
and who should do it.
INTERVENTION
 INTERVENTIVE ROLES IN
DIRECT PRACTICE

Interventive
 roles refer to the composite of
activities or tasks that she is expected to undertake
in order to accomplish the goals agreed upon with
the client.
 INTERVENTION

Social
 work literature has many other terms for
intervention: action, plan implementation, treatment
concerned with the action that would solve the
client's problems. It focuses will be on the worker's
activity.
 RESOURCE PROVIDER

The role engages the worker in the direct provision

of material aid and other concrete resources that
will be useful in eliminating or reducing situational
deficiencies concrete resources are mobilized,
created and directly provided to the client who is
assisted in making optimal use of them.
 SOCIAL BROKER

It involves
 the process of negotiating the "service jungle"
for the clients, whether singly or in groups. Worker links or
connects the client to needed services in the community.
 MEDIATOR

He or she acts as an intermediary or conciliator

between two persons or sides.
 ADVOCATE

The worker has to take a partisan interest in the

client and his cause.
 ENABLER

Helps
 clients find the coping strengths and resource
within themselves.
 COUNSELOR/THERAPIST

Goal
 of worker is the restoration, maintenance, or
enhancement of the client's capacity to adapt or
adjust to his current reality.
 LIMITATIONS ON
WORKER ACTIVITY

1. Time
2. Skill
3. Ethics
4. Agency Function
 GOAL: AT THE END OF SIX (6) MONTHS, ALING NENA AND HIS FAMILY
WILL BE GIVEN ASSISTANCE TO IMPROVE THEIR PRESENT CONDITION.

Objectives Activity Time Frame Resources Expected Output

needed
To tap resources where Referral to Mayor’s office Within 2 days Referral letter The family was given burial
the family could access (Include date) assistance
for burial of her son
To provide Aling Nena for Skills training on Within 15 days Trainor for skills Aling Nena started her own small
possible loan assistance livelihood program (Include date) training business
for her small livelihood Approval of proposal Cash Loan
venture Granting of loan
assistance
To refer her husband for Referral to Hospital Within 5 days Referral letter to Provided medical assistance to
medical assistance Case study preparation (Include date) hospital and to PCSO Aling Nena’s husband so that he
Referral to PCSO would be able to go back to work
once clearance has been granted
by the doctor
To follow up family’s Home visit to Bgy Dilim, One day Transportation Now the situation of the family
condition Binondo, Manila Expenses and follow-up assistance provided
to them
EVALUATION
 EVALUATION
 It is defined as the “collection of data about
outcomes of a program of action relative to goals
and objectives set in advance of the
implementation of that program.”
Accountability
 means the demand which has
become more pronounced because of scarce
resources in our country.
 TWO ASPECTS OF
ACCOUNTABILITY

1.Effectiveness
2.Efficiency
 EVALUATION IN SOCIAL WORK
IS DONE ON TWO (2) LEVELS

1. Level of direct practice with

clients
2. Level of program implementation
 EVALUATION IS DIRECTED
TOWARD THE FOLLOWING:

1.Measuring the outcomes of programs

and specific interventions
2.Measuring the change processes
3.Utilizing a research design that will
permit you to attribute the outcome to
the change processes
 SUMMATIVE EVALUATION

 It is concerned with outcomes or

effectiveness.
 FORMATIVE EVALUATION

 It is concerned with looking at the

process of the social work.
TERMINATION
 TERMINATION

The Components of Termination:

1. Disengagement
2. Stabilization of Change
3. Evaluation
 MOST COMMON REASONS FOR TERMINATING THE
CLIENT – WORKER RELATIONSHIP

1. When the goals set by worker and the

client have been reached.
2. When after a reasonable period of time,
there has been very little movement toward
the attainment of the goals formulated, and
the prospect for any change in the situation is
held unlikely.
 MOST COMMON REASONS FOR TERMINATING
THE CLIENT – WORKER RELATIONSHIP

3.When the client thinks that the worker has

provided sufficient help so that it is now
possible for the client to pursue problem-
solving on his own.
4.When an agency does not have the
resources needed by the client or the worker
does not get her agency’s approval to provide
the services needed by the client.
 MOST COMMON REASONS FOR TERMINATING THE
CLIENT – WORKER RELATIONSHIP

5. When the systems outside the client make it difficult

for the client to continue with the helping relationship r
when these systems influence the client to discontinue
the relationship.
6. When for one reason or another, the worker must
leave the agency.
 COMMON REACTIONS THAT
HAVE BEEN IDENTIFIED

 Denial
 Emotional Reactions
 Bargaining
 Depression
 Acceptance
 FOLLOWING THAT INFLUENCES
CLIENT’S REACTION TO TERMINATION

 Length of Service
 Attainment of Client Goals
 Client – Worker Relationship
 Modality of Intervention
ELSA’S CASE
DEFINITION OF THE
PROBLEM/ASSESSMENT

Elsa has a history of material and emotional deprivation. This has

resulted in her distorted self-image and very low self-esteem which
explain her “problem behavior and failure in class”. Her quarrelsome
bullying, being engaged in destructive play, withdrawn behavior, etc. are
ways of getting attention and dealing with the rejection of her family,
classmates, attention and dealing with the rejection of her family,
classmates, and teachers, because she knows no other ways. In turn,
these behaviors provoke more rejection, other way. In turn, these
behaviors provoke more rejection leaving her alienated from the
significant people in her life.
 DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM/
ASSESSMENT

Elsa is of average intelligence and is aware that she has a problem. Her
willingness to be helped is manifested in her expresses interest in seeing the
worker regularly.
The mother has some strength (e.g. insight into her own behavior and its
effects on Elsa) and can be helped to learn how to perform her parenting role in
a way that responds to Elsa’s needs. Elsa’s sisters are an additional resource
who can be engaged in efforts to help change Elsa’s self -image.
 HELPING GOALS

A. For Elsa:
- Improve her self-image
- Help her cultivate satisfying relationships and identify with her
peers.
- Help her improve capacity for verbalization and self-expression;
- Help her do away with nervous mannerisms;
- Help her to curb her aggressive tendencies and channel these into
more acceptable outlets; and
- Improve her school performance
B. For Elsa’s Family
- Improve home situation economically and emotionally
HELPING PLANS

General :
Worker will include Elsa in a treatment group for seven
girls, ages 9-11, selected from referrals from teachers and
guidance counselors. All these girls are in Grade Two and
have behavior and “class performance problems”.
The group will meet weekly for two hours, at 3:00 p.m.
after the last class session.
 HELPING PLANS
Individual sessions with each group member, home
visits/school interviews with their “significant others” like family
members, will be undertaken. The worker will also coordinate
with the homeroom teacher and guidance counselor.
1. Play(worker) the role of an accepting and understanding
adult with whom Elsa can identify and relate freely;
 HELPING PLANS
2. Provide group activities that will promote peer interaction
as starting point for more satisfying relationship with
others;
3. Influence peers (classmates and siblings) to help Elsa
develop feelings of belonging and being liked;
4. Provide opportunities to encourage verbalization and
self-expression (in individual sessions with worker; in the
group, guided by worker; in the class with teacher’s
cooperation);
 HELPING PLANS
5. Help the child do away with mannerisms by providing a variety of
activities which will also channel aggressiveness and physical
energies;
6. Work closely with child’s family to improve relationships at home;
7. Fully explore family’s economic situation, focusing on the following
(a) maximizing the mother’s potential to earn a more decent income;
(b) mobilizing community resources to help the family economically;
and (c) tracing Mr. B’s whereabouts and exploring the possibility of
his supporting his family.
 SOURCES

 Mendoza, Thelma Lee, 3rd ed. Social Welfare and Social Work. Central Books: Quezon City. 2008
 Middleman, R. & Goldberg, G. (1989). The structural approach to social work practice. Columbia
University Press.