What is meiosis?

Meiosis, on the other hand, is used for just one

purpose in the human body: the production of
gametes – sex cells, or sperm and eggs. Its
goal is to make daughter cells with exactly half
as many chromosomes as the starting cell.
 Meiosis

This type of cell division reduces the number of

sets of chromosomes from two to one in the
gametes, counterbalancing the doubling that
occurs at fertilization.
 Meiosis

To put that another way, meiosis in humans is a

division process that takes us from a diploid
cell – one with two sets of chromosomes – to
haploid cells – ones with a single set of
chromosomes.
 Meiosis

▪ As a result of meiosis, each human sperm and

egg is haploid (n = 23).
▪ Fertilization restores the diploid condition by
combining two sets of chromosomes, and the
human life cycle is repeated, generation after
generation
Phases of meiosis: Meiosis I

Before entering meiosis I, a cell must first go

through interphase. As in mitosis, the cell grows
during G1 phase, copies all of its chromosomes
during S phase, and prepares for division during G2
phase.
Phases of meiosis: Meiosis I

Centrosome movement, spindle

formation, and nuclear envelope
breakdown occur as in mitosis.
Chromosomes condense
progressively throughout prophase I.
Phases of meiosis: Meiosis I
During early prophase I, each
chromosome pairs with its homolog,
aligned gene by gene, and crossing
over occurs: The DNA molecules of
nonsister chromatids are broken (by
proteins) and are rejoined to each
other.
Phases of meiosis: Meiosis I

Each homologous pair has one or

more X-shaped regions called
chiasmata (singular, chiasma), where
crossovers have occurred.
Phases of meiosis: Meiosis I

Later in prophase I, microtubules from

one pole or the other attach to the
kinetochores, one at the centromere
of each homolog. Microtubules move
the homologous pairs toward the
metaphase plate.
Phases of meiosis: Meiosis I

Later in prophase I, microtubules from

one pole or the other attach to the
kinetochores, one at the centromere
of each homolog. Microtubules move
the homologous pairs toward the
metaphase plate.
Crossing over

This process, in which

homologous chromosomes
trade parts, is called crossing
over.
Crossing over
As a consequence of the
independent assortment of
chromosomes during meiosis, each
of us produces a collection of
gametes differing greatly in their
combinations of the chromosomes
we inherited from our two parents.
Crossing over

Crossing over produces

chromosomes with new
combinations of maternal and
paternal alleles.
Crossing over

Crossing over produces

chromosomes with new
combinations of maternal and
paternal alleles.
Phases of meiosis: Meiosis I

Pairs of homologous chromosomes

are now arranged at the metaphase
plate, with one chromosome of each
pair facing each pole.
Phases of meiosis: Meiosis I

Both chromatids of one homolog are

attached to kinetochore microtubules
from one pole; the chromatids of the
other homolog are attached to
microtubules from the opposite pole.
Phases of meiosis: Meiosis I

Breakdown of proteins that are

responsible for sister chromatid
cohesion along chromatid arms allows
homologs to separate.
Phases of meiosis: Meiosis I

The homologs move toward opposite

poles, guided by the spindle
apparatus.
Phases of meiosis: Meiosis I

Sister chromatid cohesion persists at

the centromere, causing chromatids to
move as a unit toward the same pole.
Phases of meiosis: Meiosis I
When telophase I begins, each half of the
cell has a complete haploid set of
duplicated chromosomes. Each
chromosome is composed of two sister
chromatids; one or both chromatids
include regions of nonsister chromatid
DNA.
Phases of meiosis: Meiosis I

Cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm)

usually occurs simultaneously with
telophase I, forming two haploid
daughter cells.
Phases of meiosis: Meiosis I

In animal cells like these, a cleavage

furrow forms. (In plant cells, a cell
plate forms.)
Phases of meiosis: Meiosis I

In some species, chromosomes

decondense and nuclear envelopes
form.
Phases of meiosis: Meiosis I

No chromosome duplication occurs

between meiosis I and meiosis II.
Phases of meiosis: Meiosis II

Prophase II
▪ A spindle apparatus forms.
▪ In late prophase II , chromosomes, each still
composed of two chromatids associated at the
centromere, are moved by microtubules toward the
metaphase II plate.
Phases of meiosis: Meiosis II

Metaphase II
▪ The chromosomes are positioned at the metaphase
plate as in mitosis.
▪ Because of crossing over in meiosis I, the two sister
chromatids of each chromosome are not genetically
identical.
Phases of meiosis: Meiosis II

Metaphase II
▪ The kinetochores of sister chromatids are attached to
microtubules extending from opposite poles.
Phases of meiosis: Meiosis II

Anaphase II
▪ Breakdown of proteins holding the sister chromatids
together at the centromere allows the chromatids to
separate. The chromatids move toward opposite poles
as individual chromosomes.
Phases of meiosis: Meiosis II

Telophase II and Cytokinesis

▪ Nuclei form, the chromosomes begin decondensing,
and cytokinesis occurs.
Phases of meiosis: Meiosis II

Telophase II and Cytokinesis

▪ The meiotic division of one parent cell produces four
daughter cells, each with a haploid set of
(unduplicated) chromosomes.
Phases of meiosis: Meiosis II

Telophase II and Cytokinesis

▪ The four daughter cells are genetically distinct from
one another and from the parent cell.