Fakulteti i Mjekesise

Dega Mjekesi e pergjithshme - Viti I

Lenda: English Language
L. 6 – Nervous system

Lecture 6. – Nervous system

The nervous system is a complex network of nerves and cells that carry messages to and
from the brain and spinal cord to various parts of the body. The nerves themselves do not
form one single system, but several which are interrelated. Some of these are physically
separate while others are different from one another in function only. The nervous system is
the body's information gatherer, storage center and control system. Its primary function is to
collect information about the external conditions in relation to the body's external state, to
analyze this information, and to initiate appropriate responses to satisfy certain needs; the
most significant of these needs is survival. The nervous system can be divided into several
connected systems that function together. Let's start with a simple division:

The nervous system includes both the Central nervous system and Peripheral nervous
system. The Central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord and The
Peripheral nervous system is made up of the Somatic and the Autonomic nervous systems.

I. Central Nervous System

The central nervous system is divided into two parts: the brain and the spinal cord. The
average adult human brain weighs 1.3 to 1.4 kg. The brain contains about 100 billion nerve
cells (neurons) and trillons of "support cells". The spinal cord is about 43 cm long in adult
women and 45 cm long in adult men and weighs about 35-40 grams. The vertebral column,
the collection of bones that houses the spinal cord, is about 70 cm long. Therefore, the
spinal cord is much shorter than the vertebral column.

 The brain

The brain lies within the skull and is shaped like a mushroom. There are two types of
matter in the brain: grey matter and white matter. Grey matter receives and stores
impulses. Cell bodies of neurons and neuroglia are in the grey matter. White matter in the
brain carries impulses to and from grey matter. It consists of the nerve fibers (axons).

Brain Structures:

1. Cerebral Cortex has the following functions:

 Thought
 Voluntary movement
 Language
 Reasoning
 Perception

The word "cortex" comes from the Latin word for "bark" (of a tree). This is because the
cortex is a sheet of tissue that makes up the outer layer of the brain. The thickness of the
cerebral cortex varies from 2 to 6 mm.
 Fakulteti i Mjekesise
Dega Mjekesi e pergjithshme - Viti I
Lenda: English Language
L. 6 – Nervous system

2. Cerebellum has the following functions:

 Movement
 Balance
 Posture

The word "cerebellum" comes from the Latin word for "little brain." The cerebellum is
located behind the brain stem. In some ways, the cerebellum is similar to the cerebral
cortex: the cerebellum is divided into hemispheres and has a cortex that surrounds these
hemispheres. The hemispheres are further divided into four lobes:

 Frontal lobe
 Temporal lobes
 Parietal lobe
 Occipital lobe

3. Hypothalamus has the following functions:

 Body Temperature
 Emotions
 Hunger
 Thirst
 Circadian Rhythms

The hypothalamus is composed of several different areas and is located at the base of the
brain. Although it is the size of only a pea (about 1/300 of the total brain weight), the
hypothalamus is responsible for some very important functions. The hypothalamus acts as a
"thermostat" by sensing changes in body temperature and then sending signals to adjust the
temperature. For example, if you are too hot, the hypothalamus detects this and then sends a
signal to expand the capillaries in your skin. This causes blood to be cooled faster. The
hypothalamus also controls the pituitary.

4. Thalamus has the following functions:

 Sensory processing
 Movement

The thalamus receives sensory information and relays this information to the cerebral
cortex. The cerebral cortex also sends information to the thalamus which then transmits this
information to other areas of the brain and spinal cord.

5. Limbic System has the following functions:

 Emotions
 Memory
 Fakulteti i Mjekesise
Dega Mjekesi e pergjithshme - Viti I
Lenda: English Language
L. 6 – Nervous system

6. Hippocampus has the following functions:

 Learning
 Memory

The hippocampus is one part of the limbic system that is important for memory and
learning.

7. Midbrain has the following functions:

 Vision
 Audition
 Eye Movement
 Body Movement

 The spinal cord

The spinal cord is along tube like structure which extends from the brain and is about the
diameter of a human finger. From the brain the spinal cord descends down the middle of the
back and is surrounded and protected by the bony vertebral column. The anatomy of the
spinal cord itself, consists of millions of nerve fibres which transmit electrical information
to and from the limbs, trunk and organs of the body, back to and from the brain. The spinal
cord is surrounded by a clear fluid called Cerebral Spinal Fluid (CSF), that acts as a cushion
to protect the delicate nerve tissues against damage from banging against the inside of the
vertebrae. It protects and nourishes the brain and spinal cord as well. The spinal cord is
composed of a series of 31 segments. A pair of spinal nerves comes out of each segment.
The region of the spinal cord from which a pair of spinal nerves originates is called the
spinal segment. Both motor and sensory nerves are located in the spinal cord. The spinal
cord is about 43 cm long in adult women and 45 cm long in adult men and weighs about 35-
40 grams. It lies within the vertebral column, the collection of bones (back bone).

Other parts of the central nervous system are the meninges, three layers or membranes that
cover the brain and the spinal cord. The meninges offer protection to the brain and the spinal
cord by acting as a barrier against bacteria and other microorganisms.

II. Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system is divided into two major parts: the somatic nervous system
and the autonomic nervous system.

1. Somatic Nervous System

The somatic nervous system consists of peripheral nerve fibers that pick up sensory
information or sensations from the peripheral or distant organs (those away from the brain
like limbs) and carry them to the central nervous system. These also consist of motor nerve
fibers that come out of the brain and take the messages for movement and necessary action
 Fakulteti i Mjekesise
Dega Mjekesi e pergjithshme - Viti I
Lenda: English Language
L. 6 – Nervous system

to the skeletal muscles. For example, on touching a hot object the sensory nerves carry
information about the heat to the brain, which in turn, via the motor nerves, tells the muscles
of the hand to withdraw it immediately. The whole process takes less than a second to
happen. The cell body of the neuron that carries the information often lies within
the brain or spinal cord and projects directly to a skeletal muscle.

2. Autonomic Nervous System

This nervous system controls the nerves of the inner organs of the body on which humans
have no conscious control. This includes the heartbeat, digestion, breathing (except
conscious breathing) etc. The nerves of the autonomic nervous system enervate the smooth
involuntary muscles of the (internal organs) and glands and cause them to function and
secrete their enzymes etc.

The autonomic nervous system is divided into three parts:

 the sympathetic nervous system

 the parasympathetic nervous system

 the enteric nervous system

The sympathetic nervous system starts from the spinal column running towards the
middle part of spinal cord in the lateral horn. It originates at the spinal cord’s first thoracic
segment and extends to third lumbar segment. The primary function of this nervous system
is mobilization of the body’s nervous system due to fight or flight response. This is done by
mediating hormonal and neuronal stress response. This nervous system is continuously
active to maintain stability, temperature, and pH of the body. Primarily, this nervous system
counteracts parasympathetic nervous system. This system also helps in controlling the
internal organs of the body such as eyes, heart, lungs, blood vessels, sweat glands, digestive
system, kidney etc. It also helps in feeling sensations like cold, heat, and pain.

Sometimes called the rest and digest system, the parasympathetic system conserves
energy as it slows the heart rate, increases intestinal and gland activity, and relaxes the
muscles in the gastrointestinal tract. It is responsible for regulation of internal organs and
glands, which occurs unconsciously. To be specific, the parasympathetic system is
responsible for stimulation of "rest-and-digest" or "feed and breed" activities that occur
when the body is at rest, including sexual
arousal, salivation, lacrimation (tears), urination, digestion, and defecation. Its action is
described as being complementary to that of one of the the sympathetic nervous system,
which is responsible for stimulating activities associated with the fight-or-flight response.

The enteric nervous system is the third part of the autonomic nervous system. The enteric
nervous system is a complex network of nerve fibers that innervate the organs within the
abdomen like the gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, gall bladder etc. It contains nearly 100
million nerves.