RECENT ADVANCES IN DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF

PAVEMENT INFRASTRUCTURE

Anand J. Puppala1 and Surya S. C. Congress 2

1Distinguished University Professor and 2Doctoral Student

Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Texas at Arlington

Arlington, Texas 76019, USA

ABSTRACT
Transportation infrastructure will be an important part of the Nation and hence
safeguarding this asset and managing it will be crucial for transportation agencies as proactive
maintenance and useful in reducing the damages and premature failures. There are many advances
in infrastructure materials, stabilization methods and construction practices in recent years. There
are also advancements in the pavement management system technologies and some of the new
technologies that are providing cost effective ways of managing the pavement infrastructure,
which could save annual maintenance costs. This keynote paper describes key advances in
materials, stabilization methods, field construction practices as well as pavement management
practices using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV). Advances in each of these fields are described
and how these advancements can be used to improve infrastructure design and construction and
proactive maintenance procedures. Few research directions in UAV technologies are discussed.

Introduction
The main focus of this keynote paper is to provide recent innovations in transportation
infrastructure related material with focus on stabilization designs for treating the problematic
subsoils, introducing intelligent compaction methods for compacting subsoils that provide much
more comprehensive field data information and then introducing new pavement management
technologies with a focus on unmanned autonomous systems using advanced photogrammetry
technologies (Chen, 1988; Puppala et al. 2013; Chittoori et al. 2013). All these topics would be
helpful in the better design and construction as well as maintenance of pavement infrastructure
that will have low distress during service life period.
This paper first gives a comprehensive overview of soil stabilization practices and
durability assessments practiced in the current state of practice. The first part of the paper focuses
on two prominent chemical additives, followed by the stabilization mix designs followed in the
laboratory. This design also accounts for both durability and leachability studies typically used to
address durability of the stabilization. Importance of clay mineralogy of the problematic expansive
soils and how they should be accounted for in the mix design are explained (Chittoori et al. 2013).
The next section describes the use of intelligent compaction method for compacting
subsoils and pavement layers. This approach has been receiving increasing attention as it has many
practical benefits. Details of this method along with benefits and future research needs are
described. The final section covers a new pavement infrastructure management technology using
unmanned autonomous vehicles for collecting the images of transportation infrastructure. This
imaging can then be analysed and evaluate the pavement characteristics that would be useful in
the pavement management strategies.

Expansive Soil Stabilization

Soil stabilization is the process of improving engineering behaviour of soils by altering one or
more properties of the soil (Sherwood, 1993). In essence, it is the alteration or preservation of one
or more soil strength, stiffness or volume change properties to improve the engineering
characteristics and thus will lead to improved performance of a soil in supporting pavement
infrastructure. Pavements are designed based on the assumption that specified levels of properties
will be achieved for each soil layer in the pavement system. Each layer must resist shearing within
the layer, avoid fatigue cracking within the layer, and prevent excessive permanent deformation
or rutting under repetitive loading (Sherwood, 1993). Generally, the soil property improvements
through stabilization include; reduction of plasticity index or swelling potential and increase in
durability and strength.
Lime has been used to treat soils to varying degrees, depending upon the objectives of the
stabilization for a specific construction project. Lime treatment produces a working platform for
construction or temporary roads. The highest amount of lime used to improve the soil strength
and moduli properties for supporting civil structures (Sherwood, 1993). Cement additive has been
used to stabilize a wide variety of soils, including coarse granular materials to fine subsoils
including silts and clays. These materials are used in pavement base, subbase, and subgrade
construction (Little et al., 2000). It is generally more effective and economical to use it with
granular soils due to the ease of pulverization and mixing and the smaller quantities of cement
required. Fine-grained soils of low to medium plasticity are also stabilized with cement. If the PI
exceeds about 30, cement becomes difficult to mix with the soil. Cement stabilization develops
from the cementitious links between the calcium silicate and aluminate hydration products and the
soil particles. Addition of cement to fine grained soils reduces the liquid limit, plasticity index
and swelling potential and increases shear strength and moduli (Nelson and Miller, 1992).
The procedures to select the adequate stabilizer percentage will depend on soil plasticity
properties. One limitation of this approach is that plasticity index or PI of the soil do not always
address the long-term durability of the chemical stabilization very well. Two soils of different clay
mineralogy can have same PI values and thus they both will be treated with the same additive and
its dosage. Such approach can be problematic, as soils with high Montmorillonite clay minerals
are not effectively treated and will lead to premature failure of one of the subsoils. For example,
two subgrades with the same plasticity indices (PIs) react differently to the same stabilizer and this
variation is attributed to the dominant clay type found in the fines of the soil. Hence, better and
more reliable strategies are needed for screening of clay mineralogy in a soil for successful design
and use of a stabilizer for a given soil type. To study this, Chittoori and Puppala (2011) studied
several clayey soils with distinct clay mineralogies for stabilization design.
Two series of moisture conditioning studies comprising of leachate and durability studies
were conducted on several clayey soils to address the permanency and leachability of the chemical
treatments. The first method explored the leaching problems associated with rainfall moisture
infiltration and the second method addressed the volumetric and strength changes of the soils
subjected to alternate wetting and drying cycles simulating seasonal changes. Effects of clay
mineralogy are addressed in the analyses of test results.
Leachate tests were conducted on soil specimens cured for seven days. Leachate samples
collected were tested for ‘pH’ and the presence of ‘calcium ions’ that may have leached out. There
is a decrease in the calcium ion concentration after fourteen cycles of leaching in all soil samples,
but the decrease in terms of percent loss of lime stabilizer is rather small and insignificant. The
changes in pH were also small and insignificant. There was no considerable strength loss in any
of the soil specimens tested after fourteen (14) cycles of leaching and low strength decrease was
attributed to the low number of leaching cycles (14) studied in this research, which represents a
shorter duration of leaching in the real field conditions. Nevertheless, leachate studies of this
research indicate that leaching in clay occurs, however the leach rate is low and may not be
problematic for time periods close to five years following the chemical stabilization.
 Wetting/Drying (W/D) durability studies simulating swell and shrinkage field conditions were
conducted on 7-day cured soil specimens. Results from one clay soil from Paris district in Texas,
USA showed that untreated soils lasted for one (1) W/D cycle while treated soils lasted for seven
(7) cycles. Another clay from El Paso showed that the untreated soils lasted for one W/D cycle
while treated soils lasted for all twenty one (21) cycles. The main reason for this diverse behaviour
is attributed to the dominance of the clay mineral present in the soils. The dominating clay mineral
in Paris clay is Montmorillonite and the same in El Paso clay is Illite. Overall, it is concluded that
the stabilized soils with Montmorillonite as a dominant mineral are more susceptible to durability
problems as these soils undergo swell and shrink related volume changes, which eventually result
in strength property losses.

a)

b)

Figure 1: Durability Testing a) Wetting b) Drying

 The current approach of plasticity index (PI) based chemical stabilizer has not provided
any insights into the chemical stabilization and its permanency. The research study conducted by
Chittoori and Puppala (2013) showed the importance of clay mineralogy in the effective treatment
of soils in real field conditions and hence recommends the inclusion of clay mineralogy in the PI
based stabilizer design guidelines. Such approach will not only provide better answers to the
permanency of the stabilizer but can also result in effective treatment of expansive soils by
reducing volume changes. A new design chart is hence introduced in which the soils and their clay
mineralogies from experimental studies are incorporated into the design of chemical stabilizers for
expansive soils. The design chart was based on tests conducted on a limited number of soils. More
number of soil types with different clay mineralogy and PI properties will further refine these
design methodologies. Figure 2 illustrates the flowchart of the accelerated stabilization design
procedure incorporating clay mineralogy procedures.
Other Stabilization Methods
Other improvements in soil stabilization materials are the use of stabilizers that can enhance the
use of greener products in the chemical stabilization. Sustainability in geotechnical engineering
focuses on many areas and one prominent topic is soil stabilization where novel and
environmentally friendly ‘greener’ materials are used to stabilized waste to reclaimed asphalt
materials. Proper design of stabilization of the waste materials and using them in infrastructure
will enhance sustainable benefits of a project. Correia et al. (2016) reported natural to sustainable
ground improvement methods and addressed their benefits in terms of energy and carbon footprint
benefits. In general, practitioners often design and select multiple stabilizer materials or methods
for a given construction project. Later, they will conduct a comprehensive analysis to address
carbon footprint, life cycle cost and energy consumption of each of the stabilizer material or
method. Depending on the project and owner’s requirements, the most sustainable ground
improvement solution will be selected for the project.
Puppala et al. (2009) proposed the use of alternate materials for soil stabilization including
the use of recycled materials in infrastructure construction projects. Several examples of ground
treatments include addition of fly ash with cement treatment of reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP)
materials, chemical treatments of recycled asphalt shingles, treated quarry fines and others. All
these treated materials are typically used as a base or subbase of a pavement system or as a fill
material of retaining infrastructures. Other materials such as Geopolymers have been extensively
studied as they can enhance the sustainability related components such as low carbon footprint in
a project. More research studies and results on these topic areas will be forthcoming in the
literature.

Figure 2: Modified Stabilization Design Procedure Accounting for Clay Mineralogy

Intelligent Compaction or IC Methods

Intelligent compaction (IC) is also referred to as ‘Continuous Compaction Control’ (CCC) or
‘Roller Integrated Measurement Systems’ (RIMS) in the literature and this method is of high
interest to pavement construction community. Intelligent compaction (IC) is an innovative
technology, which combines electronics and conventional compaction equipment for better quality
control of pavement layers including subgrades. Intelligent compaction technology (ICT) has been
in use for the past two decades in European countries and its use in the United States is gaining
momentum with several state and federal agencies are currently incorporating this technology for
quality control measures in construction. Many research studies that have been in progress are
studying to address these methods for field implementation. The initial research on the ICT dates
back to 1974 in Sweden, where a vibratory roller was instrumented with accelerometers to assess
the level of compaction and the stiffness of the soil (Mooney and Adam, 2007). Based on this
theory with certain modifications, several compactometers and their relative roller measurement
values were developed by different manufacturers.
State of Texas highway agency (TxDOT) has been involved in a study with FHWA to
demonstrate the capability of intelligent compaction technique in the field (Petersen, 2005). The
main goals of this study were to demonstrate IC technology to TxDOT personnel, contractors, and
the highway community at large; and help TxDOT accelerate the development of IC quality
control (QC) specifications for subgrade soils, aggregate bases, and HMA pavement materials;
This study has proved the capability of IC technology for quality control specifications.

Pavement Infrastructure Management Practices

Traditional surveying methods have been used for pavement forensic surveys but these methods
can be labor intensive, costly, and often time-consuming. However, under most conditions,
particularly for a large area, a combination of remote sensing, using satellites and unmanned aerial
vehicle systems (UAVs), and photogrammetric techniques has proven to be an inexpensive and
viable alternative to conventional land surveying techniques (Siebert and Teizer, 2014). Remote
sensing techniques, such as synthetic aperture radar (SAR), interferometric synthetic aperture radar
(InSAR), satellite thermal imagery, light detection and ranging (LIDAR), and unmanned airborne
vehicles (UAVs) are used to collect sophisticated data on various infrastructures (Tripolitsiotis et
al., 2014). This data can be analyzed to assess the health condition and performance of the civil
infrastructure.
The utilization of UAVs is gaining momentum as they can offer many benefits over the
traditional surveys as they can be performed with minimum traffic control and higher safety
elements and hence will be able to collect different types of pavement characteristics. Other
advantages of UAS technology over traditional surveying techniques are its capabilities to capture
direct, rapid, and detailed images of the construction site.
Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Systems (UAVs)
In the United States, the initial development of UAS took place during the early nineties with
special interest in using them for long-term reconnaissance videos to assist with target designations
and attacks in war. Since then, it has proved to be immensely helpful in eliminating pilot risk along
with several other benefits (Haulman 2003). Following pioneering research and development in
the military by researchers and various agencies worldwide, the last decade or so has experienced
a rapid growth and demand for UASs owing to its capabilities and potential applications in
numerous missions with high social benefits (Pereira et al. 2009)
Small Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (sUAVs) are classified into two types namely: Fixed
Wing and Rotary Wing depending upon the mechanism used for attaining the lift required to
become airborne (Australian UAV Web Site). Fixed Winged UAVs, shown in the Figure 3a, are
classified into high, mid, and low wing basing upon the wing configuration (QuestUAV). Rotary
Winged UAVs are classified into helicopter, tricopter, quadcopter, hexacopter (shown in the
Figure 3b), and octocopter depending upon the number of rotors present on the UAV (QuestUAV
Web Site).

(a) (b)
Figure 3 a) Fixed Wing UAV b) Rotary Wing Hexacopter (Source: QuestUAV)
Minimum landing and takeoff area, ability to operate in confined areas (example: Under-
Bridge inspection), and good camera control are some of the benefits of a rotary wing UAV over
a fixed wing UAV (Australian UAV).

Remote sensing can be termed as the method of collecting data without making any contact
with the object under inspection. Photogrammetry is a technique that utilizes this principle by
extracting data from the images collected by a sensor mounted on either a stationed or mobile
platform. American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ASPRS) referred it as the
art, science, and technology of obtaining reliable information about physical objects and the
surrounding environment through the process of recording, measuring and interpreting images and
patterns of electromagnetic radiant energy and other phenomena (Udin and Ahmad, 2014).
Adoption of UAVs for photogrammetry comes under the category of close range photogrammetry
(CRP) (Siebert and Teizer 2014). In this Paper, we term the methodology as UAV-CRP method.

Application of UAVs in Pavement Monitoring

Distress in pavement surfaces usually manifest in the form of surface cracking, roughness, rutting,
permanent deformation, or bumps and is caused by its interaction with vehicular traffic and
environment, thereby affecting the functional and structural performance of the pavement (Adu-
Gyamfi et al., 2014). Currently, various departments of transportation (DOTs) conceptualize
existing road conditions based on their own pavement distress databases, wherein data is gathered
either via physical inspection by engineers/expert technicians or by using road vehicles mounted
with optical sensors.
Such traditional methods are expensive, collect only localized data, have poor repeatability
due to surveys conducted by different operators, can endanger the safety of personnel involved in
data collection, and may cause delays in processing data (Oh, 1998; Mustaffar et al., 2008). This
makes it difficult for the decision-makers to achieve cost-effective road maintenance plans while
staying within budgetary constraints (Shamsabadi et al., 2014). In addition, there is a growing need
to perform continuous health monitoring of complete road networks rather than doing repairs for
localized patches. Incorporation of accurate data regarding present pavement conditions, along
with models predicting the rate of deterioration within the management frameworks, identifies and
prioritizes future maintenance and improves the management plan for maintenance, rehabilitation,
and/or reconstruction (Adu-Gyamfi et al., 2014). AASHTO defines “physical failure
(deterioration)” as one of the major types of risks, reinforcing the importance of continuing health
monitoring (AASHTO 2011).

Recent developments in digital photogrammetric technology have provided low-cost and

nearly real-time geometrical imaging techniques that can be performed without physically
obstructing the traffic on the pavements. Mustaffar et al. (2008) used a digital photogrammetric
system, combined with an automated pavement imaging program (APIP), to measure pavement
distress, such as longitudinal, transverse, and alligator cracking. Accuracy was approximately 90
percent that of traditional methods.
 UAV-CRP method developed at UTA was used to capture the condition of the pavement.
Dense point cloud and orthophotos developed from these images are used to identify the distressed
areas on the pavement as shown in Figure 4a. Algorithms are then used to automatically identify
the cracked area on the pavements as shown in Figure 4b. These algorithms assist in calculating
the extent of various pavement distresses that contribute to the pavement serviceability index
(PSI), whose magnitude will be used as a threshold number for making decisions regarding
pavement rehabilitation.

(a) (b)
Figure 4 a) Distressed Pavement captured by UAV b) Identified distress using algorithms

Application of UASs in Bridge Monitoring

Traditional method of using snooper truck or visual inspections to conduct the under bridge
inspection is not only hazardous to the inspectors but also results in loss of productive time of road
users caused by traffic restrictions needed for surveys. There is a high need to come up with a
methodology that helps in monitoring bridge with safety to working personnel and minimum
traffic restrictions.

Aibotix X6 hexacopter was used in an on-going research at University of Texas at

Arlington to monitor bridge site including challenging areas such as beneath the bridges and inside
confined spaces. Top and bottom gimbals on the hexacopter helped comprehensive inspection of
the bridge. Top bridge deck imagery was collected to identify the condition of the pavement decks
. Also, settlement of approach slabs, condition of the railings, condition of the bridge deck joints,
and other bridge features including conditions of bearings are additional bridge features collected
using UAV- CRP technology. Bridge inspection conducted in this research using Unmanned
Aerial Vehicle is shown in Figure 5.

During the under-bridge inspection, the live feed from the camera helped the bridge
inspectors to advise the UAV pilot to capture the areas of critical importance to assess the condition
of the bearings, beams, pile caps, other under-bridge features. Condition of all these bridge features
can then fed into the bridge condition assessment report to decide upon the state of the condition
of the bridge and the follow up repairs required for the bridge. The UAV-CRP technologies have
shown excellent capabilities to provide repeatable and reliable data on infrastructure conditions.

Current and on-going research is exploring new algorithms for processing of the UAV
based data so it can provide various infrastructure performance characteristics. Future usage and
implementation at local to network levels of pavement management would help agencies for
allocating proper resources for rehabilitating the distressed structures into service in a quick
turnaround time. This will also enhance asset management plans of an agency where health of an
infrastructure from UAV surveys along with available resources will be important contributors.

Figure 5. Monitoring Bridge with Unmanned Aerial Vehicle equipped with camera
Summary and Conclusions

This keynote paper highlights three major advances that are essential in the development of
pavement infrastructure construction on the problematic soils. Several countries that deal with
pavement construction on expansive soils and many engineers report extensive damages and
repairs from these distressed pavement infrastructure. The first section of the paper describes a
more practical approach of stabilizing expansive soils by addressing the clay mineralogy details.
A flow chart of stabilization showing a more practical pavement design approach is introduced
and presented.
Also, a novel construction technology using intelligent compaction or IC used by agencies
for compacting subsoils has been discussed. This technology provides a comprehensive quality
control of the field construction. IC vibratory rollers are instrumented with a high precision global
positioning system (GPS), infrared temperature sensors, an accelerometer-based measurement
system, and an onboard color-coded display that provides level of compaction achieved in the
subgrade for each pass. This technology provides a complete electronic record of the compaction
of the subsoils of every location, which is a significant improvement over older traditional
compaction methods where quality control studies are done at select point locations.
Last, the advent of unmanned aerial vehicles and photogrammetry are providing
infrastructure performance assessment, which are in agreement with traditional survey methods.
These methods provide repeatable and reliable measurements and offer many advantages including
safe field operations and limited and no traffic controls during data collection and others. This data
will provide valuable information on the state of pavements and hence can be useful in appropriate
pavement asset management rehabilitation strategies.

Acknowledgements
This work was partially supported by many research grants from the Texas Department of
Transportation (TxDOT). Authors would like to acknowledge the support provided by Mr. Joe
Adams (RTI Manager) and others for providing guidance on UAV works. Authors also would like
to thank Richard Williammee of Fort Worth TxDOT district for his involvement in IC projects and
soil stabilization topics.
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