Particle Swarm Optimization Based Task Scheduling
for Multi-core Systems Under Aging Effect
Jinbin Tu Tianhao Yang
School of Computer Science and School of Computer Science and
Engineering Engineering
Nanjing University of Science Nanjing University of Science
and Technology and Technology
Nanjing, China Nanjing, China
116106000707@njust.edu.cn 116106000706@njust.edu.cn
Abstract—As the size of the transistor continues to shrink, a
number of reliability issues have emerged in network-on-chip (NoC)
design. Taking into account the performance degradation induced
by Negative Bias Temperature Instability (NBTI) aging effect, this
paper proposes an aging-aware task scheduling framework for NoC-
based multi-core systems. This framework relies on a NBTI aging
model to evaluate the degradation of core’s operating frequency to
establish the task scheduling model under aging effect. Then, we
develop a particle swarm optimization (PSO)-based heuristic to solve
the scheduling problem with an optimization objective of total task
completion time, and finally obtain a scheduling result with higher
efficiency compared with traditional scheduling algorithms without
considering of NBTI aging effect. Experiments show that the
proposed aging-aware task-scheduling algorithm achieves not only
shorter makespan and higher throughput, but also better reliability
over non-aging-aware ones.
Keywords—network-on-chip, negative bias temperature
instability, task scheduling, particle swarm optimization
I. INTRODUCTION
With the rapid growth of the number of IP cores integrated
on a single chip, the on-chip system based on shared bus
architecture is faced with bottlenecks that are difficult to control,
poor communication efficiency and poor scalability. Therefore,
the researchers proposed a network-based and routing-based
network-on-chip (NoC) architecture, so that IP core can
communicate through the network interconnect structure,
implementing the separation of communication and computing
operations[1]. NoC has become an effective solution for future
multi-core system design. On the other hand, As device feature
sizes continue to shrink, long-term reliability or permanent fault
such as Negative Bias Temperature Instability (NBTI) affects
system life-span, and leads to the low yield and short mean-time-
to-failure (MTTF) in multi-core systems[2, 3]. Therefore, it is
increasingly important to take into the consideration of NBTI
aging effect in almost every aspect of NoC design, including
task scheduling, workload balancing, and power management,
etc.
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of
China (NSFC) under Grant Nos. 61502234 and 71501096, the Natural Science
Foundation of Jiangsu Province of China under Grant Nos. BK20150785 and
BK20161072, the Project funded by China Postdoctoral Science Foundation
under Grant No. 2015M581801, and the Fundamental Research Funds for the
Central Universities under Grant No. 30916011325.
978-1-5386-1978-0/17/$31.00 ©2017 IEEE

Yi Zhang Jin Sun
School of Computer Science and School of Computer Science and
Engineering Engineering
Nanjing University of Science Nanjing University of Science
and Technology and Technology
Nanjing, China Nanjing, China
yzhang@njust.edu.cn sunj@njust.edu.cn
In this multi-core era, task scheduling problem has become
an important research focus, which determines how to map the
tasks of an realistic application onto IP cores to achieve optimal
system performance and efficiency. In general, scheduling
algorithm can be divided into static scheduling and dynamic
scheduling[4]. Static task scheduling is usually done at
compilation time, e.g. list-based algorithm [5, 6], Clustering
Algorithm [7-9] and duplication based algorithms [7, 8]. In
contrast, depending on the dynamic situation of NoC system,
dynamic task scheduling is performed when mapping the tasks
onto corresponding processing elements in real time for
satisfying system requirements. This category of scheduling
methods generally uses heuristic or meta-heuristic strategies to
search for best schedules, such as genetic algorithm (GA) [10]
and ant colony optimization (ACO) [11, 12], dynamic
scheduling algorithm based on task pool [13], particle swarm
optimization (PSO) [14] and dynamic scheduling algorithm
based on real-time constraints[4, 15]. In many scenarios, task
scheduling is proved to be an NP-complete problem. More
importantly, most of existing methods fail to take into account
device aging induced by NBTI effect, and therefore may lead to
considerable degradation in system performance and reliability.
It can be predicted that the aging phenomenon caused by
NBTI effect will become more and more serious as the
integration of chip increases, resulting in a significant difference
in the performance of NoC devices, within the nano-scale NoC
design research in the future, and brings a huge challenge for the
reliability design of the NoC system. If there is no systematic
and effective method to accurately describe and predict
differences in device performance degradation and to design an
effective task scheduling algorithm, it will lead to serious
reliability problems and reduce the operational efficiency of
NoC system. This paper proposes incorporating the NBTI-
induced device performance degradation into the task
scheduling framework, and determines the best mapping
relationships between tasks and aged cores. This aging-aware
scheduling framework relies on a NBTI aging model to evaluate
the degradation of core’s operating frequency to establish the
task scheduling model under aging effect. Then, we develop a
particle swarm optimization (PSO)-based heuristic to solve the
scheduling problem with an optimization objective of total task
completion time, and finally obtain a scheduling result with
higher efficiency compared with traditional scheduling
algorithms without considering of NBTI aging effect.
Experiments show that the proposed aging-aware task
scheduling algorithm achieves not only shorter makespan and
higher throughput, but also better reliability over non-aging-
aware ones.
II. NBTI AGING EFFECT ON NOC DEVICES
As the size of the process continues to decrease, further
refinement of the semiconductor process, NBTI effect has
gradually become the primary factor affecting the reliability of
the chip life [16]. It is generally considered that the NBTI effect
is a gradual process with partial recovery[17]. The reason for the
NBTI effect is mainly due to the change of the trap charge and
the oxide layer in the silicon-oxide interface [18]. The NBTI
effect occurs when the gate terminal of a PMOS device is
negatively biased. In this situation, the drain current and the
transconductance decrease continuously, and the absolute value
of the threshold voltage Vth increases accordingly, resulting in
an increase in circuit’s propagation delay. In addition, the Vth
increase in dependent on several factors, e.g. circuit switching
activity and on-chip temperature, and changes over time. [19]
provides a compact model of time-dependent Vth degradation
where a number of modeling parameters are included.
The change in threshold voltage affects the logic gate delay
of a NoC device. To be specific, the dependency of gate delay
upon threshold voltage can be estimated as follows [20, 21]:
Vdd Leff
Dg v (1)
J (Vdd  Vth )D
where Dg represents the gate delay, Vdd and Leff represent the
voltage and transistor effective channel length, Į is a flow
parameter, usually 1.3, Ȗ is the mobility. Taking into account the
NBTI effect due to Vth increase, the gate delay function can be
expressed as:
Vdd Leff
Dg v (2)
J (Vdd  (Vth 0  'Vth ))D
Apparently from (2), Dg increases as Vth increases. In case
that the propagation delay exceeds its minimum clock period in
the circuit, timing errors will occur. Therefore, the operating
frequency of the circuit must be lowered to enlarge clock period,
for the purpose of eliminating timing errors. In other words, the
NBTI-induced Vth change leads to an increase in propagation
delay, and eventually results in the frequency aging and
performance degradation on IP core. Under aging effect, an IP
core can no longer operate at the nominal frequency, and its
processing speed must be slowed down. The work in [22]
develops a complete prediction scheme to quantify the
performance degradation caused by NBTI aging effect. An
aging factor ranging from 0.6 to 0.9 is observed. In this work,
we use the same aging prediction scheme and aging factor
reported in [22] to develop the proposed aging-aware scheduling
algorithm.
III. TASK SCHEDULING MODEL UNDER AGING EFFECT
The task allocation and scheduling of the NoC is mainly to
assign communication tasks to the appropriate processing unit,
and to sort the tasks as best as possible in the best possible way.
The task scheduling of this paper is mainly expressed by

directed acyclic graph (DAG) with node weight, bind n tasks
with a certain dependency to m available resources, so that the
makespan can be minimized. Table I lists the complete
parameter set related to the proposed aging-aware scheduling
problem:
TABLE I. RELEVANT PARAMETERS OF SCHEDULING FRAMEWORK
Parameter Meaning
DAG(V, E) DAG to represent the task flow
V = (T1, T2, ... Tn) a task set
E = eij the partial order relation of task i to task j
P = (P1, P2, ... Pn) a process set
Q = [Pi, Pj, ... Pn] a scheme of the scheduling problem
TP = tpij the execution time of task Ti on process Pj
ti the start time of task Ti
Įi the aging factor of process Pi
Now suppose the following three points:
x NBTI aging affect the task time executing of process
through the aging factor. Į is obey the normal distrution
with the interval [0.6,0.9].namely TP’=TP/Į
x The backward task in the task flow must wait to begin
execution until the forward task completes
namely ti  tpik d t j
x Assume that the task execution time is much larger than
the process of transmission time
V is a set of points in the DAG, E is a set of edges in the
DAG, t is a matrix of size 1u n , the size of n is the number of
tasks of the current ready task, and the values in the matrix
represent the start execution time of the corresponding task . Į
is a matrix of size 1u m , the size of m is the current number of
free processes, and the values in the matrix represent the aging
degree of the corresponding process.
Therefore, the decision variable for this problem is Q. Q is a
matrix of size 1u n and the size of n is the number of tasks for
the current ready task. Each column of the matrix corresponds
to a ready task, and the value of each column is the sequence
number of the process to which the task belongs. This matrix
represents the mapping between tasks and processes and is a
feasible solution to a scheduling problem.
The optimization goal of this problem is the makespan of a
task flow. TP is a matrix of size m u n , n is the current number
of idle processes, m is the number of tasks for the current ready
task. As shown in Fig. 1, the figure shows a DAG , an ideal Gantt
chart and a real Gantt chart. We can see there are 8 tasks and 4
processors. When not considering the aging effect, the
makespan of the scheduling scheme is:
tp04  tp24  tp64  tp78 (3)
However, the above situation is ideal. Under the real situation,
when there is an aging effect, the Gantt chart will be changed.
The total completion time at this time is:
 tp '04  tp '35  tp '55  tp '64  tp '78
after expansion:
tp04 / D4  tp35 / D5  tp55 / D5  tp64 / D4  tp78 / D8
It can be seen that with the addition of aging effects under
real conditions, the execution time of each core is lengthened to
different extents. The true total completion time does not scale
up according to (3) but becomes uncontrollable (4).Therefore, if
we do not consider the aging effect when we optimize the
scheduling problem, the scheduling solutions we get often have
more reasonable space. Optimizing the scheduling problem to
consider the aging effect can get a more reasonable scheduling
result.
7
(4) of all the tasks in the calculation of resources is minimized. In
this paper, the standard PSO algorithm is used to solve the model.
The basic idea of the original particle swarm algorithm is to
(5) initialize a population of particles whose particles have velocity
and position, and each particle is considered as a feasible
solution for the optimization problem. Each particle is evaluated
with a fitness function set according to the optimization
objective. If the current position of a particle is better than the
optimal position of the particle to the current position, the
position is updated to the optimal position of the current particle
The optimal position of the whole particle group is updated if
the optimal position of each particle is compared with the
optimal position of the whole particle swarm so far, and if the
evaluation is better according to the fitness function. And then
the particle velocity and position are updated according to the
new population optimal position and the particle optimal

Idle Idle Idle Idle

7 7 7 C2 T1 T4 C2 T1 T4

Idle Idle
7 7
C4 T0 T2 T6 C4 T0 T2 T6

Idle Idle Idle Idle

7
C5 T3 T5 C5 T3 T5

Idle Idle
C8 T7 C8 T7
7

Time Time

tbegin t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 tend tbegin t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 tend

t'1 t'2 t'3 t'4 t'5 t'end
$QH[DPSOHRI'$* 1RPLQDO*DQWWFKDUWZLWKRXWDJLQJ 5HDO*DQWWFKDUWXQGHUDJLQJHIIHFW

Fig. 1. A DAG and Gantt charts
In the task DAG, the task of one side of the back-end needs
to wait until the front-end task is completed to start execution. If
eij exists, the start time tj of task j must be after task i is completed,
ti  tpik d t j .The case that ti  tpik  t j is the complete time of
the front-end task of task j on the process which task j is on is
later than the complete time of task i. Therefore, the value of tj
should be the latest completion time of the forward task in the
DAG and the forward task in the process.
In summary, the problem can be described as finding a
scheduling solution Q that minimizes the total task completion
time under the influence of adding time-related aging effects, so
that the total task completion time is minimal. The formula is
described as:
find Q ^ i=1 `
arg min max ^ti  tpij / D j ` , Pj , emn  E
N
position. Iterates, it checks whether there is a condition that
meets the end, and if so, iterates, otherwise it continues until the
number of iterations is reached.
The standard PSO algorithm coordinates the global and local
search ability of the PSO algorithm by the inertia weight Ȧ, and
if the inertia weight is too large, it is beneficial to the global
optimization, if the Ȧ is too small, it is beneficial to the local
optimization. Choosing a suitable inertia weight Ȧ facilitates the
PSO algorithm to balance its search capabilities. After a large
number of previous research experiments, the literature [24]
suggested that the use of linear regression from 0.9 to 0.4
strategy, the formula is as follows[14]:
Zs  Ze
Z Zs  ut (7)
T
Where ¹e = 0.4, ¹s = 0.9, T is the maximum number of

(6)
iterations, t is the current number of iterations.
The standard particle swarm algorithm formula is TableĊ
s.t. tm  tpmj d tn
Because the decision variables of this model are integer vari TABLE II. RELEVANT PSO PARAMETERS
ables, the scheduling problem can be attributed to a classical tra
veling salesman problem, which is known to NP-hard [23]. In o Variable Meaning
rder to be able to solve effectively, this paper makes the PSO so N Number of particles
lve this aging-aware task scheduling problem. D Particle dimension
v  [v , v
d
i ,t
d
min
d
max ] Particle velocity vector
IV. AGING-AWARE SCHEDULING ALGORITHM BASED ON PSO
x [ x , x
d d d
] Particle position vector
According to the description of Chapter 3, it is necessary to i ,t min max
d
find a suitable task resource matching team Q, so that makespan p i ,t Individual position of individual particles


 pgd ,t Particle global optimal position The algorithmic flow of fitness function evaluation is
described by the pseudocodes of Algorithm I:
 Particle position and velocity update formula:
Algorithm I. Fitness Evaluation
vid,t 1 Zvid,t  c1 u rand u ( pid,t  xid,t )  Input: a scheduling plan Q;
(8) Output: makespan;
c2 u rand u ( Pgd,t  xid,t ) 1. TasksOnProcessors m Split Q to each processor;
2. for each process Pi;
xid,t 1 xid,t  vid,t 1 (9) 3. for each task on process Tj
The rand in (8) is rand () / (double) RAND _ MAX in C lang 4. find the task Tk which ekj ;
uage. 5. find the process Pn which Tk is on;
6. find the task Tm before Tj on the process;
The number of particles N is set manually, indicating the siz 7. Set t j m max{tk  tpkn / D n , tm  tpmi / Di } ;
e of a group, generally N is 20, and the value of the particle dim
ension D is the current number of ready tasks. Both the velocity 8. end for
vector and the position vector are 1u D size matrices. t is the n 9. end for
umber of iterations. 10. find the index i which ti is the max in t;
11. find the process Pj which Ti is on;
The NoC scheduling model for NBTI aging is established as 12. makespan m ti  tpij / D j ;
follows:
13. return makespan;
NBTI Aging factor
Fitness is the standard to judge whether the solution is good
or bad. Given a feasible solution Q, split Q into each process
Noc first, using a two-dimensional array TasksOnProcessors to
represent the two-dimensional array size m u n , m is the current
s s s

rni rni rni

Core Core Core number of idle processes, n is the current ready task Number,
s s s
Array Median TasksOnProcessors [i] [j] Represents the task
Task DAG SPSO
rni rni rni number assigned to process i. Then traverse all the tasks,
Core Core Core
calculate the start of each task execution time. The start of each
s s s task execution time for the current task all the predecessor
rni rni rni nodes and the task currently in the process of a task the latest
Core Core Core
execution time. makespan is the completion time of the task
corresponding to the maximum value in matrix t.
The algorithmic flow the proposed aging-aware scheduling
Fig. 2. NoC[25] scheduling model for NBTI aging. is described as follows:
According to the idea of the algorithm, each feasible solution Algorithm II. Aging-Aware Scheduling Based on PSO
Q can be regarded as a particle, the dimension of the particle is Input: a DAG task flow;
equal to the number of all tasks, the value of each dimension is Output: a scheduling plan;
the idle process number, so the particle represents the mapping 1. get the number of tasks and the number of free processors;
between the task and the resource. Through the algorithm, and 2. for each particle
finally find the best position (process) of each particle (task). 3. Initialize particle;
4. end for
In the complete algorithm, the two most important parts are: 5. Do
the mapping from particle to scheduling scheme mapping, and 6. for each particle
the construction of fitness function. During the search 7. calculate fitness value;
procedure of PSO algorithm, the position of particles is 8. if the fitness value  Pi ;
continuous, taking the value of all real numbers in the range. As
for the scheduling problem, the number of processes projected 9. Pi m fitness;
by each task are natural numbers. Therefore, an approximate 10. end if
operation needs to be done to project the position of the 11. end
particles from the continuous field onto the discrete field. 12. Pg m min all particle Pi;
For the optimization goal of model (6), it is very important 13. for each particle
to construct the corresponding fitness function because the 14. calculate particle v ;
fitness function is used as the criterion for judging whether 15. Update particle x;
particles are good or bad. The fitness function in this paper 16. end
should input a scheduling scheme and output the total
completion time corresponding to this scheme, considering the V. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
aging effect. Through the experimental simulation, the relevant
performance parameters were compared to make the


experimental results analysis, in this chapter. We describe three
experiments in order to illustrate the necessity of scheduling
problem considering the NBTI aging. We compared the
makespan, the throughput, and we carried out the ANOVA
variance analysis.
Fig. 3. Comparison of makespan with and without consideration of aging
effect
Fig. 3 presents the statistical results of task makespan based
on nine experimental groups. Each set of experiments consists
of 10 task flows with similar specifications. The makespan of
each group is represented by the average of the ten experiments
of the group. As can be seen from the figure, in the same
specification of the task flow and the same parameters of the
algorithm, the scheduling results considering the NBTI aging
effect have a smaller makespan. Take the fifth group for
example, the makespan achieved in ‘aging’ case is 5305 cycles,
at the same time the makespan achieved in ‘non-aging’ case is
6174 cycles, indicating a 14% improvement by considering
aging effect during task scheduling. On average, the proposed
aging-aware scheduling approach achieves a 12.3% reduction
of makespan for all nine group of task flows. This improvement
is due to the fact that we explicitly incorporate the degradation
of execution speed in the objective function of optimization
model (6).
Fig. 4. Comparison of throughput with and without cosideration of aging
effect.
Fig. 4 further provides the statistical results of NoC system
throughput based on the same experimental setup. Each set of
experiments consists of 10 task flows with similar
specifications, and the throughput of each group is represented
by the average of the ten experiments of the group. Similar
observations as in the makespan comparison can be made from

the figure, simply because system throughput is closely related
to the makespan of task execution. The scheduling results
considering NBTI aging effect produce a higher throughput.
Take the seventh group for example, the throughput in aging
case is 0.16, while the throughput in non-aging case is merely
0.09, indicating a 56% improvement of throughput by
considering aging effect during task scheduling. On average,
the proposed aging-aware scheduling approach achieves a 52.2%
reduction of throughput for all nine group of task flows.
Due to the similarity of the two strategy execution
algorithms, we are concerned about the significant difference
between the two strategies cannot be demonstrated. To further
validate the proposed aging-aware scheduling algorithm, we
perform an analysis of variance (ANOVA) procedure on both
‘aging’ and ‘non-aging’ cases. The makespan of the 180
experimental data of 9 experimental groups (90 of Aging and
90 Non-Aging) was normalized, and then ANOVA variance
analysis was performed on the normalized data. It can be
observed that, under the 95% confidence level, the scheduling
program considering the NBTI aging effect is significantly
better than Non-Aging. Fig. 5 shows that the mean REs of
Aging and Non-Aging are 0.493 and 0.197, respectively. This
observation indicates that the ‘aging’ case achieves good
effectiveness.
Fig. 5. ANOVA analysis with and without cosideration of aging effect.
CONCLUSIONS
In this work, a PSO-based task scheduling algorithm is
proposed for NoC-based multi-core systems. Relying on a
NBTI aging model to evaluate core’s frequency degradation,
this paper develops a particle swarm optimization (PSO)-based
heuristic to solve the scheduling problem for minimizing the
makespan of task execution. Experiments show that the
proposed aging-aware task scheduling algorithm improves
scheduling quality in terms of makespan and throughput
compared with non-aging-aware ones.
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