Computers in Human Behavior 55 (2016) 1030–1038

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Computers in Human Behavior

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/comphumbeh

Research report

The relationship between character identification and flow state

within video games
Alistair Raymond Bryce Soutter∗, Michael Hitchens
Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Flow is a concept used to describe the pleasurable immersion that individuals experience, often in recre-
Received 14 July 2015 ational activities such as video games. A key component in many video games is the player’s avatar;
Received in revised form 4 November 2015
through which the player experiences the game world and game play. Past theory suggests that flow
Accepted 10 November 2015
and the identification of a player with their avatar are vital aspects of video games and it is this that
Available online 21 November 2015
differentiates them from other forms of media. However, research on the relationship between flow and
Keywords: avatar/character identification is in its infancy. This study aimed to further examine these two concepts
Flow and their relationship within video games. This study consisted of 306 participants, who completed a
Immersion series of self-report questionnaires online. As hypothesised, it was found that character identification was
Video games strongly and positively related to flow. It was also found that only the video game specific characteristics
Personality of similarity to character and customisation were negatively and positively related to flow respectively.
Character identification
Furthermore, similarity but not customisation was related to character identification, and that similarity
Big 5
was strongly and positively related to character identification. Other findings include Openness to Ex-
perience being positively related to character identification, and Extraversion being negatively related to
character identification.
© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Video games form a large and growing segment of the enter-
tainment industry, with estimates placing total revenue for the
games industry in 2013 at $21.5 billion USD in the US (ESA, 2014)
and €5.8 billion in the UK (Statista, 2014). This places the video
game industry at least on par with other entertainment forms,
such as music, books, and movies. Participation in this entertain-
ment medium is high, at least in developed countries, with 67% of
US households playing video games (ESRB, 2015), with similar fig-
ures in comparable markets. Furthermore, this study demonstrated
that the average gamer plays for 10 h a week (ESRB, 2015). Playing
a video game as a form of entertainment is a choice on the part
of players, requiring a willing engagement with the game in pref-
erence of other potential choices. It therefore seems reasonable to
assume that video games are seen by their players as an attractive
and rewarding pastime. Games are interactive and require consid-
erable attention from their players; this, combined with extensive
∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: Alistair.Soutter@students.mq.edu.au (A.R.B.
Michael.Hitchens@mq.edu.au (M. Hitchens).
playing times, indicates that gaming can be an activity that can be
pleasurable and engaging for players.
That an activity can capture and hold the attention of the per-
son undertaking that activity is well-understood. One concept that
is used to understand pleasurable engagement with an activity is
flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Flow not only captures a rewarding
experience, but one where the active party’s attention is focussed
on the activity to the exclusion of the outside world. This concept
is very relevant to games and has been studied within this medium
(Chen, 2007; Cowley, Charles, Black, & Hickey, 2008; Jin, 2012). In
the words of Cowley et al. (2008) “Flow is a well-established con-
struct for examining experience in any setting and its application
to game-play is intuitive.” While this concept is recognised, what
inhibits or promotes that state while playing video games is not so
well understood.
Many video games focus the players’ interaction with the game
world through a main character or avatar (Lin & Wang, 2014),
which forms the focus of the players’ attention. The avatar is
constantly present, and in some games, such as third person ac-
tion games, in view in the centre of the screen. Even in games
where the avatar is not constantly displayed, such as a first per-
Soutter), son shooter, the player uses the avatar to interact with and af-
fect the game world. When a player is presented with an avatar

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.11.012
0747-5632/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 A.R.B. Soutter, M. Hitchens / Computers in Human Behavior 55 (2016) 1030–1038
it may be perceived as similar or different to the player. This can
be affected by the player’s choices, such as if the player is allowed
to customise the avatar. Research has been conducted into vari-
ous aspects of avatar customisation. For example, players’ motiva-
tion in customising their avatars (Lin & Wang, 2014), their use for
self-expression (Sung, Moon, Kang, & Lin, 2011), and their effect
on player enjoyment of a game (Trepte & Reinecke, 2010). Further-
more, customisation has been found to increase feelings of pres-
ence and immersion (Bailey, Wise, & Bolls, 2009). Customisation of
the avatar and perceived similarity between player and avatar may
have an effect on whether the player identifies with the avatar. Au-
dience identification with fictional characters transports the audi-
ence into the position of that character and immerses them in the
world the character inhabits (Cohen, 2001). While there has been
research into avatar identification, limited work has been done on
the relationship between identification and immersion in the con-
text of video games.
Presence and immersion are concepts that have been exten-
sively investigated and their relationship to flow has been noted
(Nacke & Lindley, 2008). Given the relationship between presence,
immersion, and flow and between presence, immersion, and iden-
tification with fictional characters, it appears reasonable to hypoth-
esise a relationship between avatars and the flow state. Players
may identify with their avatar (Van Looy, Courtois, De Vocht, & De
Marez, 2012), and a heightened identification may then enhance
the degree to which a player’s attention is captured by the game,
which could then result in a heightened experience of the flow
state.
In a video game, the identification of a player with their avatar
and the control of the player over the visual depiction of the avatar
are good candidates to examine possible effects on the flow state
within games. Identification with the avatar may be influenced
by the perceived similarity between player and avatar and the
level of customisation available. This study will examine the re-
lationships between player/avatar identification, avatar customisa-
tion, perceived similarity between avatar and player, and the abil-
ity to enter a flow state while playing a video game.
This paper is structured as follows. Section 2 is a review of the
literature on immersion, presence, and flow generally and within
the context of video games. Section 3 presents the aims of and hy-
potheses of this study, with section 4 detailing the method for an-
swering these aims and hypotheses. Results are presented in sec-
tion 5 and discussed in section 6.
2. Literature review
2.1. Immersion, presence, and flow
Originally conceived by Csikszentmihalyi in the 1970s, the con-
cept of flow was created to account for the pleasurable immer-
sion reported by individuals in everyday activities (Sherry, 2004).
Csikszentmihalyi described it as an experience so rewarding that
individuals participated in the activity for its own sake with lit-
tle thought for what external or other reward they would get for
the task (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Flow consists of 8 components:
1) clear goals, 2) a high degree of concentration, 3) a loss of self-
reflection, 4) time distortion, 5) direct and immediate feedback, 6)
sense of personal control, 7) intrinsically rewarding, and lastly 8) a
balance between ability level and challenge (Jennett et al., 2008).
In the past flow has been studied using self-report questionnaires
designed to capture these dimensions (Jackson & Eklund, 2004; de
Manzano, Theorell, Harmat, & Ullén, 2010; Ullén et al., 2012). Phys-
iological measures of flow have begun to be developed (Nacke &
Lindley, 2008); however, some argue that these are not yet able
to fully describe the flow experience (Weibel, Wissmath, Habegger,
Steiner, & Groner, 2008). It has been found that one’s ability to
1031
enter the flow state has been linked to a number of concepts in-
cluding life-satisfaction, enjoyment, psychological well-being, and
personality (Ullén et al., 2012).
There are a number of concepts which are used to describe
the experiences connected with attention being concentrated on
the current task. Such terms include presence, immersion, and
flow, which have been given various definitions in the literature
(Brockmyer et al., 2009). Presence has been described as a “multi-
dimensional concept” (Bulu, 2012; Decock, Van Looy, Bleumers, &
Bekaert, 2014), the primary dimensions being physical (or spatial)
presence and social presence. Physical presence (which in this pa-
per, for simplicity, we will hereafter refer to simply as presence)
is defined as “the experience of being or existing in one environ-
ment even when one is physically situated in another” (Witmer
& Singer, 1998). Immersion has been described by many authors,
but the definitions they give are often in conflict. For example,
Brockmyer et al. (2009) described immersion as “the experience of
being engaged while retaining some awareness of one’s surround-
ings”. In contrast, immersion has also been described as “the sense
of being wholly absorbed in an activity to the complete loss of
awareness of the real world” (Cairns, Cox, Day, Martin, & Perry-
man, 2013). Cairns et al. (2013) further say that immersion is char-
acterised by not only the loss of one’s surroundings, but also a
distorted sense of time, total involvement, and a strong sense of
control. This is problematic as this later description is very similar
to experiences of flow. However, research on immersion has con-
sistently found that immersion exists on a continuum (Brown &
Cairns, 2004; Jennett et al., 2008). In light of this, it appears that
these authors may simply be describing different levels of immer-
sion rather than having conflicting definitions. This is supported by
studies that consider immersion as consisting of multiple levels or
a continuum. As described by Jennett et al. (2008) the first level,
engagement, occurs when the player overcomes the initial barriers
of the game (e.g., controls and instructions), which requires time,
effort, and attention. The second level, engrossment, occurs when
an individual overcomes the barrier of game construction, in that
the features of the game need to merge with the player so that the
player becomes less self-aware and less aware of their surround-
ings. It is this second level that appears to match the definition
of immersion given by Brockmyer et al. (2009). The next and final
level is total immersion, in which the player is completely cut-off
from reality. This final level is rare and fleeting, whereas the other
two levels occur more frequently. It is this last level that closely
matches the description of Cairns et al. (2013). In light of this re-
search, this study will describe immersion as a continuum that in-
creases in involvement as one becomes more immersed.
Flow is related to presence and immersion and at times the
word ‘immersion’ has been used in describing the flow state
(Sherry, 2004). In the discussion of the levels of immersion in
Jennett et al. (2008) the final level (total immersion) is very similar
to the commonly accepted definitions of flow. Flow occurs when a
participant is so immersed within the task that they enter the flow
state; because of this, flow has been characterised as the extreme
highest point of immersion (Cairns et al., 2013). Furthermore, it
has been stated that an individual’s experience in a task can range
from presence to flow (Brockmyer et al., 2009). It is clear from the
literature that the three concepts (presence, immersion, and flow)
are closely related. It could be that flow represents one end of a
continuum, which captures the most intense experiences. The cur-
rent study will examine factors contributing to this state.
2.2. Flow in video games
Video games differ from traditional media, such as movies, in
that individuals are not simply a passive audience, instead individ-
uals are active participants (Qin, Rau, & Salvendy, 2009). A num-
1032 A.R.B. Soutter, M. Hitchens / Computers in Human Behavior 55 (2016) 1030–1038
ber of researchers have stated that what makes a game popular
and enjoyable is its ability to draw in its players, absorbing them
into the virtual world, in other words its ability to induce flow
(Brockmyer et al., 2009; Christou, 2014; Dickey, 2005; Hitchens,
Drachen, & Richards, 2012).
Flow appears quite similar to those experiences reported by
gamers when playing (Brockmyer et al., 2009), and it has been sug-
gested that video games have several characteristics for the cre-
ation and maintenance of flow (Jin, 2011). Research into the psy-
chological experience reported by video gamers has been found to
be consistent with Csikszentmihalyi’s flow theory (Weibel et al.,
2008). Video games are designed to require interactive involve-
ment, and provide feedback to players while also manually and
automatically managing a balance between challenge and skill
(Weibel et al., 2008).
The flow concept could have been developed to capture the ex-
perience of players in video games, despite the pastime not ex-
isting when the concept was first proposed (Sherry, 2004). Video
games encompass many of the characteristics of flow in that they
1) have concrete rules and goals that are explained within the
game, 2) easily provide a balance between skill and challenge ei-
ther manually or automatically, 3) provide immediate and con-
sistent feedback through a number of different ways, and 4) as-
sist players in ignoring the real world and increase concentra-
tion on the game through visual, auditory, and occasionally tac-
tile stimuli (Sherry, 2004). These characteristics make video games
ideal for creating and maintaining flow (Sherry, 2004). Further-
more, time distortion, an element of flow, is commonly reported
by players of video games (Brockmyer et al., 2009; Sherry, 2004).
In summary, research has shown that video games not only pro-
vide the foundations for flow, but also assist in its creation and
maintenance. Therefore, it is clear that video games are not only
ideal for studying flow, but that the notion has theoretical merit
(Jin, 2012).
Past research into other forms of media has found that read-
ers/viewers become absorbed in the plot and identify with charac-
ters within the book/movie/show (Van Looy et al., 2012). Despite
this and the importance of character identification in other forms
of media, there has been little research conducted into character
identification in video games (Van Looy et al., 2012). This is inter-
esting as individuals play a character or characters in the majority
of games, and thus they are a prominent aspect of video games
(Hitchens et al., 2012). Furthermore, it has often been argued that
what distinguishes a video game from other forms of media is the
relation between player and character (Van Looy et al., 2012).
2.3. Character/avatar customisation
A current trend is for games to provide players with more de-
tailed levels of avatar customisation (Dunn & Guadagno, 2012; Lin
& Wang, 2014). Customisation varies dramatically across games, of-
fering different levels of customisation from simple high-level fea-
tures (e.g., gender) to full customisation of a character’s aesthetic
and background (Ducheneaut, Wen, Yee, & Wadley, 2009; Turkay
& Kinzer, 2014). Researchers have suggested that players attempt
to create characters that are realistic and represent characteristics
that are integral to their own sense of identity (Schroeder, 2002).
One study found that players will identify more with avatars that
physically resemble the player (Williams, 2010). Other research has
suggested that players tend to choose characters that are similar
to themselves in regards to gender but enhance certain aesthetic
qualities (Sung et al., 2011). Despite this aesthetic experimentation
players are reluctant to create personalities for their character that
do not match their own (Ducheneaut et al., 2009). A study found
that players who have a high satisfaction with life tend to create
characters that are more similar to themselves than those with a
low satisfaction with life (Trepte & Reinecke, 2010). Furthermore,
it was found that the competitiveness of the game mediated this
effect. Research has found that gender effects whether a player
creates a character similar to themselves, finding that men com-
pared to women create less similar characters (Guadagno, Mus-
canell, Okdie, Burke, & Ward, 2011).
A study by Dunn and Guadagno (2012) examined the effect
of personality on character customisation and the impact of gen-
der. Through their examination of the Big Five these researchers
found a number of relationships (Dunn & Guadagno, 2012). In re-
gards to Openness, they found that the higher the participant’s re-
ported Openness the more likely they were to report their char-
acters as having a more similar personality and feeling more con-
nected to their character even after controlling for gender. In re-
gards to Conscientiousness, Dun and Guadagno found those who
reported being high in Conscientiousness rated their characters as
more similar to themselves when compared to those with low
Conscientiousness. It was also found that introverts compared to
extraverts created more attractive characters relative to their own
attraction; this was found even after controlling for gender (Dunn
& Guadagno, 2012). Agreeableness had a similar influence as Con-
scientiousness, with highly agreeable players rating their charac-
ter as resembling themselves more when compared to those with
low Agreeableness (Dunn & Guadagno, 2012). Lastly, it was found
that Neuroticism and gender interacted to create a relationship
between character and player’s attractiveness (Dunn & Guadagno,
2012). This evidence suggests that personality plays an important
role in character creation.
After character creation players appraise their creation, this ap-
praisal is suggested to result in character identification, which
makes players feel connected to their character (Trepte & Reinecke,
2010). This identification with one’s character is stronger if one’s
character is similar to themselves (Trepte & Reinecke, 2010). Char-
acter creation allows players to alter their characters to be more
similar to themselves, which in turn enhances character identifica-
tion.
2.4. Character identification within video games
Users of media, such as novels or films, often become absorbed
within the plot and begin to identify with characters portrayed
within the story (Van Looy et al., 2012). Identification differs to
spectatorship in that identification provides a mechanism which
allows users to experience and interpret events from within the
text as if they were present (Cohen, 2001). Within media the pro-
cess of identification allows the user to replace their identity with
that of the character causing individuals to lose their sense of self-
awareness and become the character temporarily (Cohen, 2001;
Hefner, Klimmt, & Vorderer, 2007). Studies of media have iden-
tified character identification as having an important role in the
effects of media on individuals, in particular aggression (Cohen,
2001; Gentile, Saleem, & Anderson, 2007).
Video games are unique in that characters are not distinct so-
cial entities, instead they are directly controlled by the player. This
allows players to merge their sense of self with the game char-
acters while playing (Klimmt, Hefner, & Vorderer, 2009). A study
demonstrated that the interactive element of video games facili-
tates character identification, finding that active players identified
with their character more than individuals who simply watched
the game (Klimmt et al., 2009). While playing, players experience
how it feels to take on the role of the character, for example, play-
ers of a military video game internalise the role and reactions of
a soldier on a battlefield (Klimmt, Hefner, Vorderer, Roth, & Blake,
2010). Identification is not merely whether a user is similar to their
 A.R.B. Soutter, M. Hitchens / Computers in Human Behavior 55 (2016) 1030–1038
character, but rather it describes the merging of player with the
character (Trepte & Reinecke, 2010). Character identification is only
relevant within games where players control a character. However,
it is possible that character identification may manifest differently
within these games, with the player taking on the role of an invis-
ible managerial role (Van Looy et al., 2012).
There are a number of factors that influence character iden-
tification. Firstly, similarity assists individuals in imagining them-
selves as the character portrayed; however, this similarity is based
on a number of factors beyond simple demographics, such as per-
sonality and experiences (Cohen, 2001). Furthermore, it is influ-
enced by life-satisfaction and the requirements of the game. Play-
ers identify with similar characters only if their life satisfaction is
high and the game requires or allows for a similar character. How-
ever, if one’s life satisfaction is low or the game requires a dis-
similar character players will identify with a dissimilar character
(Trepte & Reinecke, 2010).
Although many studies examining traditional media have em-
phasised the importance of character identification (Cohen, 2001),
character identification within video games has been the focus of
few studies (Jansz & Martis, 2007; Schneider, 2004; Van Looy et al.,
2012). Even less examined is the link between the identification of
player with character and the flow state in video games, on which
no research has been conducted on as of yet.
2.5. The present study
It is clear that there has been extensive literature on flow,
character identification, and character customisation. However, the
study of these concepts within the domain of video games is cur-
rently in its infancy (Jansz & Martis, 2007; Przybylski, Weinstein,
Murayama, Lynch, & Ryan, 2012). Preliminary studies have found
that flow does indeed occur within video games, and is facili-
tated by its design (Sherry, 2004). Furthermore, research into char-
acter identification has identified a number of factors facilitating
its occurrence (Cohen, 2001; Trepte & Reinecke, 2010), and once
achieved helps individuals transport themselves into the character
(Cohen, 2001). It is this transportation into a video game charac-
ter that this study focuses on, in particular how this might assist
flow.
To date there has been no research into how character identi-
fication might influence flow. This represents a gap in the litera-
ture as character identification transports individuals into a char-
acter, causing one to lose awareness of one’s surroundings and self
(Cohen, 2001). This would appear to assist flow in media, as a key
aspect of flow is loss of self-reflection (Jennett et al., 2008), which
as Cohen (2001) reports occurs when one identifies with a char-
acter. This study attempts to address this apparent connection and
how other factors might influence this relationship.
3. Aims and hypotheses
The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between
character identification and flow and how other factors can influ-
ence this relationship and identification with one’s character.
H1. An increase in a player’s identification with their video game
character will be related to an increase in one’s ability to enter a
flow state.
H2. An increase in a player’s customisation of their character
within the video game will be related to an increase in their iden-
tification with their character.
1033
H3. The more similar a video game character is to the player will
be related to player’s reporting they identify with their video game
character more.
4. Method
4.1. Participants
Participants were recruited from a first year psychology pool,
online forums (e.g., Whirlpool forums), research websites (e.g., Psy-
chological Research on the Net), social media (e.g., Facebook), and
community notice boards. Of an original 464 participants, 101 were
from the first year psychology pool while the remaining 363 were
recruited from online forums, research websites, social media, and
community notice boards. 158 participants were removed due to
lack of information or failure to follow instructions. Of the exclu-
sions, 6 were from the first year psychology pool and 152 from
the other sources mentioned above. The remaining 306 partici-
pants, after exclusions, consisted of 45.1% females, 52.9% males,
and 2% other. Ages ranged from 17 to 43, with a mean age of 23.25
(SD = 5.908), demonstrating a broad age range. However, the ma-
jority of participants were between 17 and 29, with 95.8% being
below the age of 35. This demonstrates that ages above the mid-
30s were not well represented in the data. The majority of partic-
ipants reported they had played games for over 10 years (60.5%).
This was followed by 3–4 years (7.2%), 9–10 years (6.9%), 5–6 years
(5.9%), 1–2 years (4.9%), 0–1 years (4.9%), 6–7 years (3.9%), 8–9
years (3.6%), and 7–8 years (2.3%). This demonstrates that although
the majority of individuals had played for over 10 years, there was
a range of individuals who had played for less than 10 years. Any
generalisation of the results of this study must take these distribu-
tions into account.
4.2. Measures
Participants were asked to complete a survey, which consisted
of 6 scales assessing the various constructs of interest, as well as
a number of questions on demographics and past gaming history.
During the survey participants were asked to nominate a game
they had played, on which they would answer questions related to
usage and their character. The only inclusion criteria involved was
that participants must choose a game that they play, this allowed
for a broad spectrum of games and game types to be examined,
and also allowed participant’s answers to be in relation to a game
they have played themselves. Furthermore, the scales of customi-
sation, similarity, flow, and character identification were answered
in respect to this chosen game. Unfortunately, no previous scales
existed to measure how much an individual customised their char-
acter or how similar a person thought their character was to them-
selves. Due to this, the present study used a simple measure for
each of these concepts, involving a single item for each one as de-
scribed below. While in some cases the instruments used different
scales (for example, in some cases 5-point and in another 7-point),
analysis of the results was only across like-sized scales.
4.2.1. Satisfaction with Life Scale
The Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS; Diener, Emmons, Lasren,
& Griffin, 1985) was used to assess participants’ satisfaction with
life. This scale consisted of 5 statements (e.g., I am satisfied with
my life) rated on a 7-point Likert scale, from 1 (Strongly disagree) to
7 (Strongly agree). Scores were summed as per instructions of this
established scale. This scale has been used in a number of pub-
lished studies and has been found to have good internal consis-
tency, indicated by Cronbach’s alpha ranging from 0.790 to 0.890
1034 A.R.B. Soutter, M. Hitchens / Computers in Human Behavior 55 (2016) 1030–1038
(Pavot & Diener, 2008). This scale was found to have good internal
consistency (α = 0.863).
4.2.2. Personality scale
The M5-50 Questionnaire (McCord, 2002) was used to assess
participants’ personality. This scale consisted of 50 statements (e.g.
Panic easily) rated on a 5-point Likert scale, from 1 (inaccurate)
to 5 (accurate). This measure consisted of five subscales (Openness
to Experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and
Neuroticism). Each subscale score was calculated by averaging the
scores on their associated statements as per the instructions of this
established scale. This scale has been used in a number of pub-
lished studies and has been found to have good internal consis-
tency. Cronbach’s alphas of 0.863, 0.759, 0.849, 0.864, and 0.778
were reported for Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness,
Neuroticism, and Openness to Experience respectively (McCord,
2002). In the present study α = 0.895, 0.770, 0.863, 0.873, and
0.734, for Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroti-
cism, and Openness to Experience respectively, indicating good in-
ternal consistency.
4.2.3. Customisation scale
Customisation of one’s character was assessed by asking partic-
ipants how much they customised their character, rated on an 11-
point Likert Scale, from 0 (none) to 10 (completely). This scale con-
trolled for participants who chose a default character, as it asked
how they customised their character, rather than how much the
game potentially allowed them to customise their character. Fur-
thermore, this also allowed for personal customisation of an indi-
vidual’s character that is not necessarily done in game, but affects
play. For example, in The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim individuals can
customise their background a little, but some players might cus-
tomise their character as having a certain personality, that is por-
trayed through how an individual plays the game rather than any
physical customisation inside the game.
4.2.4. Similarity scale
Similarity to one’s character was assessed by asking participants
how similar their character was to them, considering both looks
and personality, rated on an 11-point Likert scale, from 0 (not at
all) to 10 (completely like me).
4.2.5. Character identification scale
Character identification was assessed using an established scale
(Van Looy et al., 2012) consisting of 17 statements (e.g., My char-
acter is an example of me), rated on a 5-point Likert scale, from
1(strongly disagree) to 5(strongly agree), how much they agreed
with the statements in relation to the character they played in
their chosen game. Scores were summed for a total character iden-
tification score, as previous factor analysis on this scale has shown
items cluster together (Van Looy et al., 2012). Past Cronbach’s al-
pha for this scale have had excellent internal consistency, ranging
from α = 0.950 to 0.960 (Van Looy et al., 2012). This scale had
excellent internal consistency (α = 0.947).
4.2.6. Flow scale
A flow scale (Chou & Ting, 2003) was used to assess partici-
pants flow state for the game they selected. As mentioned before
there are some physiological measures of flow, but they are in their
infancy. Furthermore, a self-report measure was used due to its ex-
tensive use in the past (Ullén et al., 2012), and thus has a stronger
reported reliability and validity than newer physiological measures.
Lastly, self-report was chosen as physiological measures are time-
consuming and thus restrict the number of participants. It would
also have the adverse effect of participants being forced to play a
specific game pre-loaded by the researchers. Participant’s choices
in deciding to play are important, as discussed above; and thus
forcing on participants a game which did not match their normal
leisure choices risks reduced the chances of flow occurring com-
pared to participants simply reporting on their own normal game
play. The questions were slightly modified to refer to the game
chosen by participants and to make more grammatical sense. This
scale consisted of 28 statements (e.g., I tend to lose track of time
when playing this game), assessed on a 7-point Likert scale, from
1 (Strongly disagree) to 7 (Strongly agree). A total flow score was
calculated by summing scores from all statements, as previous fac-
tor analysis on this scale has shown items cluster together (Chou &
Ting, 2003). Past Cronbach’s alphas for the unmodified scale have
been reported as α = 0.921, 0.937, 0.790, 0.870, and 0.914 for
the respective subscales of concentration, playfulness, distortion in
time perception, telepresence, and exploratory behaviour (Chou &
Ting, 2003). In the present study α = 0.910, 0.937, 0.832, 0.898,
and 0.910 for the respective subscales of concentration, playful-
ness, distortion in time perception, telepresence, and exploratory
behaviour. An overall Cronbach’s alpha for flow of α = 0.953 for
the overall sample was found. These values indicate good to excel-
lent internal consistency.
4.3. Procedure
The survey was conducted online, with participants giving con-
sent before answering the 15 min survey, which was given in a
fixed order. Separate links were given to first years and the gen-
eral public, to differentiate participant sources. Macquarie students
were given course credit for their participation.
5. Results
5.1. General results
Analysis of data was conducted using SPSS (v22). For all hy-
potheses a series of multiple linear regressions with model reduc-
tion were performed with significance set at p < 0.05. Analysis
found all assumptions were met.
Preliminary analyses, using independent samples t-tests, were
conducted to determine whether sample group membership (first
year psychology pool or other sources) was related to flow or
character identification scores. The analyses indicated there was
no significant difference between groups on these two measures
(p > 0.05), as a result samples were combined for analyses.
Descriptive statistics for scales are reported in Table 1.
5.2. Hypothesis 1: character identification and flow
A multiple linear regression with model reduction was con-
ducted, with total flow as the dependent variable. The original
model before reduction included the predictors of the five person-
ality sub-scales, life satisfaction, gender, customisation, similarity,
and character identification. The analysis revealed that this model
was significant, F (10, 273) = 19.949, p < 0.001, R 2 = 0.422.
Model reduction was then conducted with alpha set at 0.05. Af-
ter model reduction only character identification, similarity, and
customisation remained. This new model was significant, F (3,
280) = 63.282, p < 0.001, R 2 = 0.404. The removal of seven vari-
ables only led to a reduction in R 2 of 0.018. See Table 2 for a
summary of the regression results. The following values are from
Model 2, found in Table 2. Holding customisation and similarity
constant, those with a higher character identification score also
 A.R.B. Soutter, M. Hitchens / Computers in Human Behavior 55 (2016) 1030–1038 1035

Table 1
Descriptive statistics.

Variable n M SD Possible range Actual range

Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum

Satisfaction with Life 306 23.09 6.48 5.00 35.00 5.00 35.00
Customisation 293 5.86 3.87 0.00 10.00 0.00 10.00
Similarity 293 3.98 3.00 0.00 10.00 0.00 10.00
Character Identification 306 42.98 16.23 17.00 85.00 17.00 85.00
Flow 297 114.81 31.29 28 196 30 196
Personality Scale
Openness to Experience 306 3.78 0.57 1.00 5.00 2.10 5.00
Conscientiousness 306 3.27 0.72 1.00 5.00 1.30 5.00
Extraversion 306 3.08 0.84 1.00 5.00 1.10 4.90
Agreeableness 306 3.68 0.57 1.00 5.00 1.00 5.00
Neuroticism 306 2.73 0.79 1.00 5.00 1.00 4.90

Table 2 Table 3
Summary of model reduction for Hypothesis 1. Summary of model reduction for Hypothesis 2 & 3.

Variable B SE B β Variable B SE B β

Model 1 Model 1
Openness to experience 3.065 2.659 0.056 Openness 2.881 1.284 0.101∗
Conscientiousness −4.884 2.299 −0.110∗ Conscientiousness 0.350 1.127 0.015
Extraversion 2.017 2.038 0.053 Extraversion −2.758 0.984 −0.140∗∗
Agreeableness 2.323 2.782 0.043 Agreeableness 0.391 1.372 0.014
Neuroticism −1.656 2.466 −0.042 Neuroticism 1.908 1.199 0.093
Life satisfaction −0.211 0.288 −0.044 Life satisfaction 0.008 0.143 0.003
Gender 2.902 2.995 0.050 Gender −0.514 1.473 −0.017
Similarity −2.059 0.704 −0.197∗∗ Similarity 3.584 0.275 0.656∗∗∗
Customisation 1.325 0.424 0.162∗∗ Customisation 0.058 0.209 0.014
Character identification 1.336 0.121 0.693∗∗∗ R2 0.465
R2 0.422 F 27.349∗∗∗
F 19.949∗∗∗ Model 2
Model 2 Openness 3.016 1.258 0.105∗
Similarity −2.172 0.675 −0.208∗∗∗ Extraversion −3.151 0.870 −0.160∗∗∗
Customisation 1.371 0.420 0.168∗∗∗ Similarity 3.621 0.240 0.663∗∗∗
Character identification 1.335 0.117 0.692∗∗∗ R2 0.459 R2 0.006
R2 0.404 R2 0.018 F 81.609∗∗∗
F 63.282∗∗∗
Note: N = 293, ∗ p ≤ 0.05, ∗∗
p ≤ 0.01, ∗∗∗
p ≤ 0.001.
Note: N = 284, ∗ p ≤ 0.05, ∗∗
p ≤ 0.01, ∗∗∗
p ≤ 0.001.

in Table 3. Customisation was not a significant predictor of char-

had a higher total flow score (B = 1.335, 95% CI [1.104, 1.566],
p < 0.001). Holding customisation and character identification con-
stant, those with a higher similarity score had a lower flow score
(B = −2.172, 95% CI [−3.502, −0.842], p = 0.001). Holding sim-
ilarity and character identification constant, those with a higher
customisation score had a higher flow score (B = 1.371, 95% CI
[0.554, 2.198], p = 0.001). Character identification appears to be
the strongest predictor compared with customisation and similar-
ity (β = 0.692 compared to β = 0.168 and β = −0.208 respec-
tively).
5.3. Hypothesis 2 & 3: customisation, similarity, and character
identification
acter identification (p = 0.781). Holding Openness and Extraver-
sion constant, those with a higher similarity also had a higher
character identification score (B = 3.621, 95% CI [3.148, 4.093],
p < 0.001). Holding Openness and similarity constant, those with
a higher Extraversion score had a lower character identification
score (B = −3.151, 95% CI [−4.864,−1.439], p < 0.001). Holding Ex-
traversion and similarity constant, those with a higher Openness
score had a higher character identification score (B = 3.016, 95%
CI [0.539, 5.492], p = 0.017). Similarity appears to be the strongest
predictor compared with Openness and Extraversion (β = 0.663
compared to β = 0.105 and β = −0.160 respectively).
6. Discussion

Hypothesis 2 and 3 were combined as they included the same
variables. A multiple linear regression with model reduction was
conducted, with character identification as the dependent variable.
The original model included the predictors of the five personal-
ity sub-scales, life satisfaction, gender, customisation, and similar-
ity. The analysis revealed that this model was significant, F (9,
283) = 27.349, p < 0.001, R 2 = 0.465.
Model reduction was then conducted removing variables, based
on an alpha of 0.05. Only Extraversion, Openness, and similarity
remained. This new model was significant, F (3, 289) = 81.609,
p < 0.001, R 2 = 0.459. Six variables were removed with only
a reduction in R 2 of 0.006. See Table 3 for a summary of the
regression results. The following values are from Model 2, found
Hypothesis 1 was clearly supported, finding greater character
identification correlating with higher levels of flow. These findings
are in line with expectations. Previous research has demonstrated
that as an individual identifies with a character they become trans-
ported into said character (Cohen, 2001). This transporting is de-
scribed as a loss of self-reflection (Cohen, 2001), which is an aspect
of flow (Jennett et al., 2008). Model reduction found that gender,
personality factors, and life satisfaction were not related to flow.
This suggests that these factors do not influence flow experience
within video games. The finding that life satisfaction is not related
to flow is counter to past research (Ullén et al., 2012). However, a
problem with this is that Ullén et al. (2012) looked at flow within
everyday life and not video games. This contrary finding is possibly
1036 A.R.B. Soutter, M. Hitchens / Computers in Human Behavior 55 (2016) 1030–1038
explained by video games allowing those who are unsatisfied with
life to explore and become what they wish they could be, and thus
making life satisfaction irrelevant (Trepte & Reinecke, 2010), some-
thing that is less likely within real life experiences of flow. The
finding that personality was not related to flow is also counter to
past research (Ullén et al., 2012). A possible explanation for this
lack of finding is that Ullén et al. (2012) were testing flow prone-
ness, rather than experiences of flow. It is possible that personality
only effects flow proneness and not the experience itself. Lastly the
failure to find a relationship between gender and flow is in support
of past research (Sweetser & Wyeth, 2005).
Model reduction revealed that character customisation and sim-
ilarity to character were also related to flow. It was found that
those who customised their character to a greater extent reported
higher levels of flow. However, those who rated their character
as more similar to themselves reported lower levels of flow. This
demonstrates that flow is a complex construct and is not explained
simply by one factor, as suggested by past research (Ullén et al.,
2012). The finding that customisation is related to flow suggests
that by customising one’s character one might be more likely to
enter a flow state, however, causation cannot be determined in this
study due to its correlational nature. The finding that similarity
was negatively related to flow is counter to past research (Cohen,
2001); this could be due to the competiveness of the game cho-
sen by participants. Past research has demonstrated that in highly
competitive games players create less similar characters (Trepte &
Reinecke, 2010); it is thus possible that competitiveness could have
mediated and resulted in this negative relationship. This should be
examined in future studies.
It is interesting that customisation is positively related to flow
whereas similarity is negatively related to flow. This is surprising
as research suggests that players who have access to customisation
tools would create characters more similar to themselves (Sung
et al., 2011). The finding that customisation was positively related
to flow while similarity was negatively related suggests that there
is a component outside of these two factor’s relationship with each
other that is affecting flow. Lastly, these results are interesting as
they demonstrate that the only factors tested that were signifi-
cantly related to flow were video game specific characteristics.
Hypothesis 2 was not supported, finding no relationship be-
tween character customisation and character identification. This
does not support past research which suggests that increased cus-
tomisation would allow players to customise their characters how
they desire and thus identify with them more (Trepte & Reinecke,
2010). A possible explanation for this finding is possibly the differ-
ent types of customisation that exists, with some occurring inside
the game and some occurring inside the player’s imagination but is
acted out through the game. It is possible that the measure of cus-
tomisation here was not sophisticated enough to pick up on these
different types of customisation. Another explanation is that play-
ers do not customise their character in a way that makes it easy
to identify with, but rather customise their character to meet the
challenges within the game. Future research should examine this
in more depth.
Hypothesis 3 was supported, finding that a greater similarity to
one’s character was related to greater levels of character identifica-
tion, which is in line with past research (Trepte & Reinecke, 2010).
This has real-world implications in that the more similar a gamer
is to their character the more they might identify with the charac-
ter, which, as previously mentioned, identifying with one’s charac-
ter is shown to be play an important role in the effects of media
(Cohen, 2001). This could enhance video games used in treatment
of mental illness, such as SPARX. (2012); as by creating a more
similar character to the person, the media/treatment might have
a greater impact on them. However, one must keep in mind that
due to the correlational nature of this research, causation cannot
be determined.
Model reduction found that gender, Conscientiousness, Neuroti-
cism, Agreeableness, and life satisfaction were not significantly re-
lated to character identification. Past research has suggested links
between these personality variables and character identification
(Dunn & Guadagno, 2012; Trepte & Reinecke, 2010). However, these
studies mainly looked at character creation rather than identifi-
cation, or when they did look at character identification it was
through this character-player similarity. The failure to replicate
these findings could be due to these personality variables having
no effect on character identification after similarity to one’s char-
acter is controlled for. Lastly life satisfaction has been linked to
character identification (Trepte & Reinecke, 2010), which was not
supported by this study. This could be due to the competitiveness
of the game, which past research has suggested mediates the effect
of life satisfaction on character identification (Dunn & Guadagno,
2012). Therefore, future research should examine whether this re-
lationship changes once game competitiveness is controlled for.
Model reduction revealed that Extraversion and Openness were
significantly related to character identification. Higher levels of ex-
traversion were found to be related to lower levels of character
identification. This is interesting as research has demonstrated that
extroverts create more similar characters to themselves (Dunn &
Guadagno, 2012), and that higher levels of similarity to a character
increases character identification (Trepte & Reinecke, 2010). Open-
ness was found to be positively related to character identification
which is in line with past research, which has found that those
with higher levels of Openness report feeling more connected to
their character (Dunn & Guadagno, 2012).
These results are important as there is currently very little re-
search into character identification in video games (Jansz & Mar-
tis, 2007). This area of study is important in understanding video
games, as it is the player’s relation to their character that de-
fines and separates video games from other forms of media (Van
Looy et al., 2012). Furthermore, as previously mentioned charac-
ter identification plays an important role in the effects of media.
Thus, by having greater knowledge of which personalities are more
likely to form this character identification, it is potentially possi-
ble to pre-screen which individuals, based on their personality, will
most likely relate to their character and subsequently be affected
more by the media. This is useful in gaming treatments like SPARX.
(2012), as it potentially identifies which individuals will be more
easily impacted by the treatment, and which will need more help
in identifying with their character.
This study had a few limitations, firstly it was completely on-
line, and thus the honesty of answers can be called into ques-
tion. However, this problem exists in non-online surveys (Foster,
Campbell, & Twenge, 2003). A further weakness is selection bias,
in that those who chose to answer the survey potentially do not
represent the average player (Ducheneaut et al., 2009). Despite the
study being open to any English-speaking individuals, the major-
ity of participants were Australian and American. Furthermore, al-
though present, there were limited numbers of Asian and African
participants, and no South Americans. The over-representation of
certain groups and under-representation of others poses problems
for generalizability. The correlational nature of this study meant
that causation could not be concluded, and the possibility of the
third variable problem. Future studies should also examine other
variables such as game competitiveness. Despite these weaknesses,
this study had a number of strengths such as a relatively large
sample size across many countries, ages and gender, novelty of re-
search, and a broad spectrum of games studied.
 A.R.B. Soutter, M. Hitchens / Computers in Human Behavior 55 (2016) 1030–1038
In conclusion, this study have built upon previous theory and
extended current understanding of character identification and
flow in video games. It has demonstrated the positive relationship
between character identification and flow, and that a number of
variables are related to character identification. As already noted
further studies are needed to build upon the findings of these
studies.
Acknowledgements
The first author would like to thank Macquarie University, in
particular Eugene Chekaluk, for its assistance while completing this
work as part of an Honours Degree.
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