Regional Studies in Marine Science 45 (2021) 101802

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Regional Studies in Marine Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rsma

Classification and impact of synthetic textile dyes on Aquatic Flora:

A review
∗
Jyotshana Sharma, Shubhangani Sharma, Vineet Soni
Plant Bioenergetics and Biotechnology Laboratory, Department of Botany, Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Udaipur, Rajasthan, 313001, India

article info a b s t r a c t

Article history: The contamination of the aquatic environment is becoming a serious problem. Dyes are considered
Received 15 March 2021 as micropollutants and visible in aquatic environment at very low concentrations as 1 mg L−1 . These
Received in revised form 20 April 2021 are utilized in many application areas like textile, paper, printing and tannery industries etc. The dye
Accepted 21 April 2021
used in textile industries contaminate aquatic habitat and show potential toxicity towards aquatic
Available online 5 May 2021
organisms, which may enter the food chain. The present review discusses the impact of textile dyes
Keywords: on water bodies, aquatic microalgae and macrophytes. It also discusses the different classes of dye
Disperse which are classifying according to their solubility in water. These dyes are acidic, basic, direct, disperse,
Macrophytes vat, sulfur and pigments. These dyes do not tightly bind to the fabric; its discharge as an effluent in
Pollutants aquatic environment could vary from 2% for basic dyes to as high as 50% for reactive dyes. Due to the
Textile dyes unawareness and continuous discharge of textile dyes without prior treatment into the environment
Toxicity and their persistence constitutively increasing the risk of the aquatic flora and decrease the quality
Vat
of water like eutrophication, odor, color and turbidity and the long-term hazard like accumulation of
carcinogenic products, Persistence and production of by-products. It also causes carcinogenicity and
mutagenicity.
© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The intensive demand for the development of chemical, agri-
cultural, pharmaceutical, textile and different kinds of industries
causes serious environmental problems like contamination of
water, soil (Singh et al., 2020; Dil et al., 2016; Saleh and Gupta,
2014). The textile industry is considered as one of the main pol-
luters of ground and surface water reservoirs because it utilizes
a high amount of water and more than eight thousand chemi-
cals (Saravanan et al., 2016, 2015a,b). Many studies indicate that
for the fabrication of about 8000 kg of fabric, the textile industry
uses around 1.6 million liters of water each day (Khandare and
Govindwar, 2015)
Textile industry consumes an enormous amount of water dur-
ing wet processing activity and thus produces a large amount of
wastewater containing a huge quantity of dissolve dyestuffs and
other different products such as heavy metals, salts, emulsifiers,
dye bath carriers, dispersing and leveling agents (Chakraborty
et al., 2005; El Nemr et al., 2006; El Sikaily et al., 2006; Figueiredo
et al., 2005; Gupta et al., 1997; Namasivayam and Sumithra, 2005;
Noroozi et al., 2007). Report of World Bank indicates that around
17%–20% of water pollution comes from textile industries during
dyeing and finishing operation of texture (Rani et al., 2013; Saini,
∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: vineetsonijnu@gmail.com (V. Soni).
2017). The synthetic dye is broadly utilized for coloring, printing
and a few other dyeing purposes (Raj et al., 2018; Singh et al.,
2021). About fifty percent of the dyes used are azo dyes (Bauer
et al., 2001; Gong et al., 2005). Azo dyes are the largest group of
dyes and it frequently discharged into the environment (Zhao and
Hardin, 2007). A high amount of water is wasted during the dye-
ing process in the form of colored water. It is assessed that around
15% of the dyestuffs are expected to vanish in the industrial
effluents during the processing and development process (Chat-
terjee et al., 2005; Reife and Freeman, 1996). Some other reports
suggest that every year around 20,000 tons of textile dyes are
lost to effluents in the climate consistently due to the inadequate
process of dyeing and all the dyes are not properly absorbed into
the dyeing stuff (Chequer et al., 2013; Jin et al., 2007). Wastewater
loss could range from 2% for cationic dyes to up to 50% for reactive
dyes, leading to surface and groundwater contamination in the
surrounding area of dyeing industries (O’Neill et al., 1999).
The wastewater discharged from the textile industries after
dying is listed as the most polluting agent of all industries that
causes water pollution (Mansour et al., 2012; Panda et al., 2009).
Effluents containing dyes from the textile industry are heavily
colored and thus visually noticeable (Kiliç et al., 2007; Rajendran
et al., 2016). In water, several dyes are evident at very low
concentrations of 1 mg/L (Pandey et al., 2007).
Color is typically the first wastewater contaminant to be iden-
tified (Wong and Yu, 1999), and in this manner, effluents contain-
ing dye provide a clear indication of the contamination of water

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsma.2021.101802
2352-4855/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
J. Sharma, S. Sharma and V. Soni
and the discharge of these highly colored effluents will directly
affect the receiving waters (Chen et al., 2003; Saleh and Gupta,
2012). Synthetic dyes cause significant environmental contami-
nation and genuine wellbeing hazard factors due to large-scale
fabrication and extensive application (Forgacs et al., 2004).
The untreated dyeing effluents in water bodies that are di-
rectly used in agriculture have a significant effect on the envi-
ronment and human health (Pourbabaee et al., 2006; Shedbalkar
et al., 2008). Synthetic dyes present in industrial effluents de-
crease light penetration leading to increase biochemical oxygen
demand and thus impair the photosynthetic activities of aquatic
flora, thereby the food source of aquatic organisms is badly af-
fected (Ahmaruzzaman and Gupta, 2011; Ahmed, 1995; Annuar
et al., 2009; Kumar et al., 2020).
Ultimately, it lessens many numerous advantageous uses such
as potability of water and land irrigation (Gita et al., 2017; Gupta
et al., 2016). Thus, aside from influencing the plant’s growth
and animal development, synthetic dyes are also objectionable in
water sources aesthetically (Saravanan et al., 2013d). The release
of synthetic dyes into water bodies has generated mutagenic,
carcinogenic and genotoxic effects along with aesthetic damage
to aquatic bodies and this has generated much concern among
environmentalists (Chowdhury and Saha, 2010; Nekouei et al.,
2015, 2014). The growing exploration, research publication and
review articles on the pollution caused by textile dyes in the
environment is an indicator and proof of the global concern
about this issue (Saravanan et al., 2013e). Several studies on the
occurrence of synthetic dyes in water (Maguire, 1992; Zhang
et al., 2012), sediment (De Oliveira et al., 2006) and wild fish
have been reported in recent years (Belpaire et al., 2015; Schuetze
et al., 2008). It reveals that, for aquatic organisms, textile organic
dyes pose an environmental threat. Their influence on aquatic
habitats has not been fully assessed, so the presence of dyes in
the ecosystem should be controlled.
2. Textile organic dyes and their classification
Colored goods make the earth more attractive and for thou-
sands of years have been used by humans (Raj et al., 2020). All
the dyes were extracted from nature until the late nineteenth
century. Plants were the major sources of natural dyes but some
insects and other organisms were also used for the production
of natural dyes. To produce a small amount of impure dye, large
quantities of raw materials were needed and the method was
quite intensive (Gordon and Gregory, 1987). The technology of
textile dyeing has transformed the developing industry since
the discovery of the first synthetic dye, ‘‘mauveine’’ by William
Henry Perkin in 1856 and established the synthetic dye-making
industry. At present, more than 7 × 105 tons of synthetic dyes
are produced annually in the form of 10,000 structurally different
colors (Chequer et al., 2013). Textile dyes are organic substances
that absorb light radiation in the visible spectrum range then
reflect or disperse these radiations which in turn causes the death
of material in a sustainable way (Lim et al., 2010).
Dye mainly consists of two key components, one is chro-
mophores i.e.made up of the atomic group and contain different
functional groups such as O ==(C6 H4 ) ==O, –C==O, –N==N– and –NO2
and it is primarily responsible for dyeing the fabrics and the
second is auxochromes that contain many functional groups such
as –SO3 H, –NH3 , –OH and –COOH which not only introduces
the chromophore but increases the fiber affinity for color and
decrease the water-solubility either by donating or removing
electrons (Allen, 1987; Srinivasan and Viraraghavan, 2010).
Dyes are classified into two classes based on their water solu-
bility (Shows in Fig. 1) soluble dye such as acid or an anionic dye,
a basic or cationic dye, reactive dye and direct dye. Insoluble dye
such as sulfur, disperse, vat and pigments (Berradi et al., 2019).
2
Regional Studies in Marine Science 45 (2021) 101802
2.1. Water-soluble dyes
2.1.1. Acid or anionic dyes
The dye which carries out the dying process in an aqueous
solution at acidic pH (pH – 2.0 to 6.0) is known as an acidic
dye. These dyes are applied to hydrophilic fibers like wool, cotton
and nylon. These dyes consume around 30%–40% of the total
utilization of dyes (Lewis, 1999; Miladinova et al., 2016; Pisoni
et al., 2013; Vickerstaff, 2008). Anionic dyes are classified as those
containing sulfonic acid groups or those capable of solubiliza-
tion in alkali. These dyes are also classified according to their
chromophoric groups such as azo, anthraquinone, xanthenes, tri-
arylmethane, and diphenylamine dyes (Alkan et al., 2005; Clark,
2011; Wen et al., 2011). Table 1 lists the examples of acid dyes.
2.1.2. Basic or cationic dyes
Perkin’s Mauve is the first synthetic dye that belongs to the
basic class of dye. Some other examples of the earliest basic class
of synthetic dyes are Magenta and Malachite Green. These dyes
are derived from organic bases and ionize in water that forms
colored cations so it is known as the basic dyes or cationic dyes.
In general, cationic dyes are marketed in the form of salts, usually
chlorides, but often as oxalates or even double salts containing
zinc chloride. The intensity and brightness are the outstanding
properties of these dyes. No other class of dye can match the
shades obtained with some basic dyes. Basic dyes belong to
different chemical classes, listed in Table 2 (Clark, 2011) such as:
• Diphenylmethane or ketone imine e.g. C.I. Basic Yellow 2
• Triarylmethane, e.g. C.I. Basic Green 4 and C.I. Basic Violets
3
• Oxazine e.g. C.I. Basic Blue 12
• Azine e.g. C.I. Basic Red 5
• Xanthene e.g. C.I. Basic Violet 10
2.1.3. Reactive dyes
The reactive dyes are soluble anionic dyes that are covalently
bound to the fiber substrate and this helps in dyeing cotton
and wool. An electrolyte such as NaCl or Na2 SO4 is applied to
facilitate the transfer of dye to the fiber. Any group that is capable
of reacting to fiber sites such as –OH groups in the fiber of
cellulose and –OH, –SH and –NH2 group in wool is a possible
reactive group to be integrated into a reactive dye. Reactive dye
diffuses into the interior fiber which enhances fixation of dye
on fibers (Khatri et al., 2014a,b). The first commercially avail-
able reactive dyes for cotton were dependent on the reactive
group dichloro-s-triazine (Ahmed, 1995). To improve reactiv-
ity levels, the most commonly used reactive groups are diflu-
orochloropyrimide, trichloropyrimidine, aminochloro-s-triazine,
aminofluoro-s-triazine, sulphatoethylsulphone, dichloroquinoxa-
line and dichlorotriazin (Khatri et al., 2015). Some examples of
reactive dyes are listed in Table 3.
2.1.4. Direct dyes
Direct dyes are applied on rayon, linen, cellulosic fibers and
can also be used to dye wool and silk. These dyes are loosely
bound to the molecules of the fiber. Thus, after being applied
to fabrics, they do not rapidly dry up. Such dyes are used at
temperatures between 79.4 ◦ C–93.3 ◦ C (Lorimer et al., 2001).
Direct dyes can only be cold washed because they lack the fixative
property. One of the benefits of direct dye is the cheapest price
compared to all other dyes (Ghaly et al., 2014). Some examples
of direct dye are listed in Table 4.
J. Sharma, S. Sharma and V. Soni Regional Studies in Marine Science 45 (2021) 101802

Fig. 1. Classification of Textile dye.

Table 1
Acid dye (Alkan et al., 2005; Wan et al., 2017; Clark, 2011).
Dye C.I. No. Class Chemical structure
C.I. Acid Red 27 C.I.16185 Azo

C.I. Acid Blue 25 C.I.62055 Anthraquinone

C.I. Acid Brown13 C.I.10410 Diphenylamine

C. I Acid Blue 9 C.I.42090 Diphenylamine

2.2. Insoluble dyes
2.2.1. Disperse dyes
Disperse dye is described by the Society of Dyers and Colorists
(UK) as a substantially water-insoluble dye associated with one or
more than one hydrophobic nature of fibers, such as polyester or
cellulose acetate. Disperse dye is non-ionic so it is easily volatile
and vapors of dye are highly absorbed by the hydrophobic fiber.
Some examples of dispersed dyes are listed in Table 5 (Clark,
2011) such as C.I. Disperse Yellow 13 is suitable for acetates
and nylon, C.I. Disperse Violet 1 is suitable for acetate, nylon
and polyester, C.I. Disperse Blue 56 dyeing polyester fibers, C.I.
Disperse Orange 30 are applied on acetate and triacetate, C.I.
Disperse Blue 183 are dying of polyester.
2.2.2. Vat dye
(Burkinshaw and Son, 2010), reported that vat dye is identified
for better colorfastness and excellent brightness properties. They
are primarily soluble in hot water and some vat dyes are also
3
soluble in sodium carbonate. The most important natural vat
dye is Indigo or indigotin obtained from the plant Indigofera.
Table 6 listed some examples of the vat dyes, (Hihara et al., 2002;
Sanchez, 2015; Sirianuntapiboon et al., 2006).
2.2.3. Sulfur dyes
In 1873, Croissant and Bretonnière prepared the first sulfur
dye (Holme, 2006). Sulfur dyes accounted for 9.1 percent of total
US dye production in 1966 and around 110,000–120,000 tonnes
per year was produced all over the world and 15.8 percent of the
dyes applied only on cellulosic fibers (among them 80% are black
sulfur dyes)(Burkinshaw and Salihu, 2019; Ferreira et al., 2004;
Holme, 2006; Nguyen and Juang, 2013; Tahir et al., 2016). It gives
better lightfastness (Richards, 2012). These dyes were categorized
into four groups such as sulfur, Leuco sulfur, solubilized and con-
densed sulfur dyes. Table 7 listed the examples of the sulfur dyes,
(Mahmoodi et al., 2010; Zinatloo-Ajabshir and Salavati-Niasari,
2016).
J. Sharma, S. Sharma and V. Soni Regional Studies in Marine Science 45 (2021) 101802

Table 2
Basic dye (Clark, 2011).
Dye Common name C.I. No. Class Chemical structure
C.I. Basic Yellow 2 Auramine O C.I.41000 Diphenylmethane

C.I. Basic Green 4 Malachite Green C.I.42000 Triarylmethane

C.I. Basic Blue 12 Nile Blue C.I.51180 Oxazine

C.I. Basic Violet 10 Rhodamine B C.I.45170 Xanthene

Table 3
Reactive dye (Khatri et al., 2014a,b).
Dye C.I. No. Class Chemical structure

C.I. Reactive Red 3 C.I.18159 Azo

C.I. Reactive Blue 19 C.I. 61200 Anthraquinones

2.2.4. Pigments
Pigments means colored compounds, insoluble in water, acidic
and basic solvent that does not contain any functional group and
reacts with fibers as a binder (Nguyen et al., 2016). They are
widely used in the process of printing. Organic pigments are ben-
zoic derivatives while inorganic pigments are metal derivatives
such as Zn, Fe, Mb, Sn, Pb, Al, Ca, Cr and Mg (Es-sahbany et al.,
2018).
3. Dyestuff regarded as recalcitrant
Recalcitrant pollutants are referred to as complex chemical
compound which does not degrade easily and remain intact in
the environment for longer duration and is transported widely
over long distances within diverse geographical regions. Some
of the characteristics that contribute to the recalcitrance of a
pollutant are stability, toxic nature, larger molecular sizes (due
4
to highly condensed and branched aromatic rings), the presence
of unusual bonds and replacement with other compounds such
as Cl− or Br− (An, 2007).
Textile dyes are highly persistent in the natural atmosphere
and are most difficult to degrade because of the existence of
a complex aromatic structure in which electrons are delocal-
ized, molecule with conjugated double bonds, photolytic and
chemically stable in nature (Maddhinni et al., 2006; Zille et al.,
2005).
Organic synthetic dyes are classified into nonionic, anionic and
cationic dyes depend only on the general structure. The direct,
reactive and acid dyes are the major anionic dyes (Robinson
et al., 2001), and the intensely colored and water-soluble acid and
reactive dyes are the highly recalcitrant pollutants. They cannot
be treated through conventional methods of treatment. Disperse
dyes that are not ionized in the aqueous solution are the main
nonionic dyes and azo, anthraquinone, basic and reactive dyes
J. Sharma, S. Sharma and V. Soni
Table 4
Direct dye (Lorimer et al., 2001).
Dye C.I. No.
C.I. Direct Blue 1 C.I.24410
C.I. Direct Blue 86 C.I.74180
C.I. Direct Blue 106 C.I.51300
Table 5
Disperse dye (Clark, 2011).
Dye C.I. No.
C.I. Disperse Orange 30 C.I.11119
C.I. Disperse Violet 1 C.I.61100
C.I. Disperse Yellow 26 C.I.10348
are the predominant cationic dyes. The synthetic dye which made
from carcinogenic compounds like benzidine and other aromatic
substituent are the most troublesome dye (Carmen and Daniel,
2012).
The mainly utilized dyes of the dying process in the textile
industry are azo dye (Sarkar et al., 2020). Azo dyes belong to
the largest family of textile dye consisting of 60%–70% of all
textile dyes (Berradi et al., 2019; Brüschweiler and Merlot, 2017;
Sinha et al., 2018). The important characteristic of these dye
are the presence of a functional group such as –N ==N– that
unites two symmetrical or asymmetrical (Gupta et al., 2014a),
similar or non-azo aryl or alkyl radicals (Benkhaya et al., 2020;
Mittal et al., 2010) and it contains heterocyclic rings which give
intense and bright shade (Shinde and Sekar, 2019). Between 60
and 70% of azo dyes are carcinogenic, toxic and are resistant to
biodegradability due to their chemical structure (Benkhaya et al.,
2020; Berradi et al., 2019). The government has strictly prohibited
between seven and eight percent of azo dyes as it discharges
Regional Studies in Marine Science 45 (2021) 101802
Class Chemical structure
Azo
Phthalocyanine
Triphenodioxazine
Class Chemical structure
Azo
Anthraquinones
Nitrodiphenylamine
aromatic amines that are carcinogenic like benzidine and 3,3’-
dimethylbenzidine (Chen et al., 2017). One of the azo dyes such
as Direct Black 38 is identified as carcinogenic to human beings
due to its bioconversion to benzidine (de Oliveira et al., 2018).
During biological treatment of azo dyes, it can produce byprod-
ucts of amine that may be harmful, carcinogenic and are more
toxic than the original dye compound (Franca et al., 2020; Semião
et al., 2020).
Relatively high polarity and recalcitrance is a unique feature
of the textile azo dyes. Due to the dependence of degradation
on highly variable parameters such as pH or redox environment,
recalcitrance is hard to assess. For example, Aniline is the first dis-
covered synthetic dye that is considered to be readily degradable
but it cannot degrade easily under particular anoxic conditions
(Carmen and Daniel, 2012).
Some anthraquinone-based dyes have fused aromatic rings
and due to this characteristic, they difficult to degrade. Some
dispersed dyes have a strong bioaccumulation potential and nitro
5
J. Sharma, S. Sharma and V. Soni Regional Studies in Marine Science 45 (2021) 101802

Table 6
Vat dye (Hihara et al., 2002; Sirianuntapiboon et al., 2006; Sanchez, 2015).
Dye C.I. No. Class Chemical structure
C.I. Vat Blue 1 C.I.73001 Indigo class

C.I. Vat Black 25 C.I.69525 Anthraquinones

C.I. Vat Green 1 C.I.59825 Violanthrone

Table 7
Sulfur dye (Zinatloo-Ajabshir and Salavati-Niasari, 2016).
Dye C.I. No. Chemical structure
C.I. Sulfur Blue 15 C.I.53540

C.I. Leuco Sulfur Black1 C.I.53185

C.I. Sulfur Green 3 C.I.53570

and other azo substituent are reduced in sediments and some
other dyes accumulating substrates are reduced to toxic amines
(Carmen and Daniel, 2012).
Polyester now accounts for a large part of the intake of dye ev-
ery day. Dispersed dyes, utilized in polyesters, are therefore also
expected to expand at a higher rate. Textile industries consume
around sixty percent Sulphonated vinyl reactive dyes that contain
azo chromophoric group (–N==N –) among all the dyes (Catanho
et al., 2006). These dyes have a solubility in water and release in
the effluent as much as the high concentration that does not have
an affinity with clothing material (Al-Degs et al., 2000).
Reactive Red-3 is a commercially available reactive dye. These
dyes are associated with Cu, Cr and Ni. At the time of washing
50% of the dye do not fix with textile stuff and release into
the aquatic environment (As shown in Fig. 2). So its pollution
in wastewater must be concerned (Wantala et al., 2013). The
6
decomposition of these dyes generates toxic heavy metals in
the aquatic environment that enter into the food chain of an
ecosystem (Hassan et al., 2009; Khani et al., 2010). Auramine O
is a yellow color reactive dye and is commonly utilized in paper,
leather, textile and carpet industries. Existence of these dyes is
highly persistent and stable in nature (Asfaram et al., 2015).
Without purification or treatment, the presence of dyes in
the textile effluents causes serious problems and damages the
quality of receiving aquatic environments. It alters the equilib-
rium of aquatic climate due to their non-biodegradable nature
and causes serious risks like eutrophication, turbidity and fouling
smell and the long-term impact is persistence, bioaccumulation
of carcinogenic products and mutagenicity (Berradi et al., 2019).
Before discharge into water sources or surrounding areas, these
dyestuffs are treated properly and even if discharged untreated,
J. Sharma, S. Sharma and V. Soni
Fig. 2. Percentage of effluents discharge in aquatic ecosystem.
these dyestuffs should be decolorized or deteriorated to detoxify
or decontaminate the infected sites.
4. Impact of textile dyes on the aquatic environment
Humans have been interacting and interfering with the natural
habitat for their endurance and development since ancient times
(Soni et al., 2021). These interactions and interferences polluted
the environment. A major source of pollutants is a deposition
of contaminate in terrestrial habitats (grasslands, forests) and
aquatic ecosystems (lakes, rivers and oceans) (Keck and Lepori,
2012).
Some non-depositional processes like discharge, run-off and
leaching of effluents are other significant pathways for con-
tamination input, especially to aquatic ecosystems (Vodyanitskii,
2013). When pollutants are discharged into a terrestrial and
aquatic habitat, from where they were at first deposited through
soil erosion, surface spillover, runoff and groundwater streams
and it is mixed into water and soil where they can be taken
up directly by biota (Gupta and Saleh, 2013). Chemical, Physical
and biological factors influence the accumulation of contamina-
tion and destructiveness in biota. Accumulation of atmospheric
pollutant in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem causes unfavorable
effects on natural ecosystems and exposure to pollution may have
a detrimental effect on the human being as well as aquatic ani-
mals and plants (Bobbink et al., 2010; de Vries et al., 2014; Duan
et al., 2016; Rodríguez-Estival and Smits, 2016; Vodyanitskii,
2013).
The Earth is secured with 66% of water and still, one of the
serious issues that are looked at by mankind today is the in-
accessibility of unadulterated and great quality drinking water.
The interest for consumable water is expanding alarmingly and
statistics expose that the average utilization of accessible water
by agribusiness, industry and the domestic sector is 70%, 19%
and 11%, individually (Gupta and Suhas, 2009). Specifically, the
main contributor to the deterioration of the water quality that
persists in nature for an unlimited period is the textile industry.
The textile dyeing industries may create dazzling textures by
their dynamic hues to impact the spirit. However, the effluents
are the devil that eats up the soul of the earth. Since enormous
volumes of textile dye effluents are released into the aquatic
systems (Savin and Butnaru, 2008).
7
Regional Studies in Marine Science 45 (2021) 101802
In the textile industry, these textile dyes are difficult to biode-
grade due to their xenobiotic nature, aromatic structure, high
thermal resistance and photostability. Dye leads to several eco-
logical and health peril (As shown in Fig. 3). The presence of
extremely modest quantities of textile dyes released by textile
industries in aquatic environments such as running and stagnant
water is profoundly obvious and genuinely influences the quality
and transparency of water bodies promptly harming the aquatic
environment (Saravanan et al., 2014b, 2013f). The more promi-
nent natural issue with dye is their absorption and reflection of
sunlight into the water. It stops the light penetration in the photic
region of the aquatic environment (Azbar et al., 2004; Eren, 2012;
Liang et al., 2017; Srinivasan and Viraraghavan, 2010). While a
huge concentration of textile dyes in water bodies depletes the
oxygen concentration, cut-off sunlight and disturbs the biological
activity of aquatic flora and fauna (Ghaedi et al., 2015; Zaharia
et al., 2009).
Information about the toxicity of dyes in aquatic ecosystems
is scarce, So It is necessary to review and calculate the toxicity
of textile dye on organisms in aquatic ecosystems associated
with discharges of the textile industry. Furthermore, we should
examine the impact on primary producers such as microalgae,
phytoplankton and submerged species.
4.1. Impact on algae
Aquatic plants are characterized by a range of algal and macro-
phytic species found in many types of habitat. They are important
for nutrient cycling, stabilization of sediments, formation of O2 ,
water quality control and provide protection, habitat and shel-
ter for the aquatic organisms. Furthermore, the major energy
sources for the aquatic environment are phytoplankton, microal-
gae, epiphytic microalgae, benthic microalgae and macrophytes.
Macrophytes are consist of enormous body aquatic plants that
are not planktonic or filamentous algae but include aquatic an-
giosperms, bryophytes, pteridophytes, a few forms of encrusting
lichens and charales (Welch, 1992).
Microalgae play an important role as the primary producer and
economically, ecologically valuable species in aquatic ecosystems.
It is highly sensitive to environmental changes in the aquatic
system (listed in Table 8) so they are utilized as indicators to
evaluate the consequence of pollutants in the water body for
ecological assessments of risk (Levy et al., 2007; Qian et al.,
2008; Stauber and Davies, 2000). They are very sensitive to toxic
chemicals and have a short span of the life cycle (Real et al., 2003)
and because of these characteristics, they are utilized as a testing
organism in the ecological system (Eguchi et al., 2004).
Contamination of dye inhibits the development of microalgae
and causes a disturbance in the trophic transfer of energy and
nutrients in aquatic ecosystems. Dyes have a clear potential result
on algal growth (Krishna Moorthy et al., 2021). For example,
some azo-based dyes such as Direct Red 2 and Direct Blue 15
and other anionic diazo dyes such as Congo red, are harmful
and caused mutations in aquatic flora and fauna (Bafana et al.,
2009; Golka et al., 2004; Saratale et al., 2011). Various parameters
of algal growth such as contents of pigment, protein and other
supplements are affected by the release of a significant volume of
dyes in rivers, lakes, oceans and seas. Compared to other aquatic
species, the greater vulnerability of algae to pollutants makes
them an ideal indicator for pollution assessment in toxicology
studies (Hoffman et al., 2002).
The effect of textile dye i.e. Optilan Red on several parameters
such as specific growth rate (SGR), EC50, protein, chlorophyll,
carotenoid, and elemental composition of the microalgae Chlorella
vulgaris was monitored for 96 h. Results showed that specific
growth rate was reduced and protein, pigments and elemental
J. Sharma, S. Sharma and V. Soni
Fig. 3. Effect of dye effluents on different water parameter and aquatic plants.
composition such as carbon and sulfur were inhibited signifi-
cantly with an increase in dye concentrations. Maximum percent-
age reduction was observed for total carotenoid and chlorophyll
at 50 ppm. Hence, a review of textile dye toxicity is of prime
significance to conserving the aquatic flora and fauna (Gita et al.,
2018).
Furthermore, the toxicity of textile dyes towards photoau-
totrophic organisms was studied. In green algae, Chlorella vulgaris,
the toxicity of three textile dyes i.e.Optilan yellow, Lanasyn brown
and Drimarene blue was examined. The effects of the different
concentrations of three textile dyes were evaluated on the growth
rate, elemental composition, generation time, protein content,
pigment content and EC50 after the exposure. It was found that
with a rise in dye concentration, there was a substantial de-
crease in the specific growth rate (SGR), pigment and elemental
composition for all three dyes to a certain level of concentration
after that 100% growth inhibition was detected. Drimarene blue
was found to be highly toxic among all three dyes and others
were average to moderately toxic to C. vulgaris. This investigation
provides a deeper understanding of the effects of textile dyes on
ecologically significant aquatic species (Gita et al., 2019).
This study was designed to study the eco-toxicological prop-
erty of frequently consumed four acid dyes such as Optilan yel-
low, Optilan red, Lanasyn olive, Lanasyn brown and two reactive
dye such as Drimarene red, Drimarene blue on concentration-
dependent several characteristics of Spirulina platensis (blue–
green alga). A significant decrease in growth rate, fundamental
photosynthetic pigments, protein synthesis and a variation in the
concentrations of essential elements such as carbon, nitrogen,
hydrogen and sulfur in the biomass enlighten that toxicity of the
textile dyes, directly and indirectly, produce a severe metabolic
disturbance in algal populations. Furthermore, it suggests that
algal species S. platensis is an indicator of broad assessment about
the toxicity of the textile dyes (Gita et al., 2021).
Some Cyanobacteria are phototrophic and diazotrophic, capa-
ble of producing oxygen through the process of photosynthesis
and have a significant effect on aquatic climate biologically and
8
Regional Studies in Marine Science 45 (2021) 101802
chemically (Stewart and Rowell, 1975). Although a certain form
of dyes is forbidden due to their carcinogenic nature. Among all
the dyes, azo dyes are widely used in the textile industry for
dyeing. This study explores the influence of azo dye such as CI
Reactive 22 (RP2B) on the growth of Anabaena species. This dye
is an anionic dye that is the source of nitrogen that could not
be utilized by the Anabaena species. The experimental outcome
showed that RP2B dye-containing medium inhibited the growth
of Anabaena sp. Dry weight was decreased and the degree of
inhibition was increased with an increased concentration of dye
during incubation. It indicates that Anabeana sp. could not utilize
azo dye CI Reactive 22 and it was not photodegradable (Hu and
Wu, 2001).
(Lim et al., 2010) have reported that the highest concentration
of Azo dye in textile wastewater inhibited the growth of the
microalga C. vulgaris. Similarly, Textile effluent contains Remazol
Red Brilliant dye (RRB) polluted the aquatic environment. This
dye is harmful to aquatic organisms and upset the tropic level
of the food chain and finally disrupting the ecological balance.
The effect of different concentrations of indigo dye effluent on
the freshwater microalgae Scenedesmus quadricauda ABU12 was
examined. The growth rate, biomass production of the microalga
decreased and cell density, dry weight, chlorophyll a and size
of coenobium used as bioindicator were negatively affected by
increased indigo dye effluent concentration. Additionally, it alters
the morphological properties of the S. quadricauda. It further
validates that ecological stress affects S. quadricauda ABU12 and
is considered an important bioassay for toxicity evaluation of dye
(Chia and Musa, 2014).
Methylene blue was an important cationic dye utilized in
many textile industries and it discharges potential carcinogens,
aromatic amines such as benzidine and methylene. So the toxic
effect of Methylene blue was examined on microalgae Spirulina
platensis and Chlorella vulgaris. The basis for selecting S. platen-
sis and C. vulgaris was its significant nutritional, economic and
ecological value (Ali and Saleh, 2012; Richmond, 2004). Exposure
of the different concentrations of dye S. platensis and C. vulgaris
J. Sharma, S. Sharma and V. Soni Regional Studies in Marine Science 45 (2021) 101802

Table 8
List of the toxicity of textile dyes towards aquatic microalgae.
Species Dye name Classes of dye Toxicological effects References
Chlorella vulgaris Optilan Red Acid dye Total content of carotenoid and Gita et al. (2018)
chlorophyll was reduced.
Chlorella vulgaris Optilan yellow, Acid dye Specific growth rate (SGR), pigments Gita et al. (2019)
Lanasyn brown Acid dye and elemental composition decreased.
Drimarene blue Reactive dye
Spirulina platensis Optilan yellow Acid dye Growth rate, photosynthetic Gita et al. (2021)
Optilan red Acid dye pigments, protein synthesis and
Lanasyn olive Acid dye concentrations of essential elements
Lanasyn brown Acid dye such as C, N, H and S decreased.
Drimarene red Reactive Dye Severe metabolic disturbance in algal
Drimarene blue Reactive Dye populations was observed.
Anabaena species Reactive 22 Azo dye Growth and Dry weight of Hu and Wu (2001)
(RP2B) dye Anabaena sp. was decreased.
Chlorella vulgaris Remazol Red Azo Dye Upset the tropic level of the food Lim et al. (2010)
Brilliant dye chain and finally disrupting the
ecological balance.
Scenedesmus quadricauda Indigo dye Vat Dye The growth rate, biomass production, Chia and Musa (2014)
ABU12 cell density, dry weight, chlorophyll a
and size of coenobium were
negatively affected.
Spirulina platensis and Methylene blue Basic Dye It inhibits specific growth rate, Krishna Moorthy et al.
Chlorella vulgaris Chlorophyll pigment and protein (2021)
content. So the rate of
photosynthesis decreases.
Chlorella vulgaris Congo red Azo Dye It decreases electron transport rate, Hernández-Zamora et al.
quantum yield for electron transport (2014)
and performance index (PI). It affects
growth and metabolic activity in
photosynthetic organisms.
Pseudokirchneriella Congo red Azo It affected the population growth Hernández-Zamora and
subcapitata with an exhibition of sub-inhibitory Martínez-Jerónimo
effects. (2019)
Nostoc muscorum Metomega Acid It reduce protein, phycocyanin, Prakash Shukla et al.
Chrome chlorophyll a, carotenoid content and (1994)
Orange GL Photosynthetic oxygen evolution
Vibrio fischeri Congo Red Azo Disperse Blue 3 dye was highly toxic Č et al. (2006)
(bacterium), Selenastrum Reactive Azo among all dyes. The algal species was
capricornutum Orange 16 Anthraquinone the most sensitive species to assess
(microalga) and Disperse Blue Anthraquinone the toxicity of the dyes
Tetrahymena pyriformis 3 Remazol
(ciliate). Brilliant Blue
Chlorella pyrenoidosa Malachite green Basic It causes cellular, morphological Kanhere et al. (2014)
Daphnia magna changes and induces genetic level
toxicity by altering profiles of protein
and increasing ROS level respectively
in Chlorella and immobilization in
Daphnia.
Spirulina platensis Congo red Azo It reduce growth rate and show Dwivedi (2013)
toxicity inside the cell

showed a concentration-dependent decline in specific growth
rate, pigment and protein content. The findings indicate that
the Methylene blue inhibit the synthesis of main chlorophyll
pigments after exposure of dye so the rate of photosynthesis
decrease hence it reduces the growth of S. platensis and C. vulgaris.
This experiment gives a better approach towards the toxicity
of the textile dye on the aquatic organism and also provides
guidelines for effluent discharge from textile industries into the
aquatic ecosystem (Krishna Moorthy et al., 2021).
The non-invasive and efficient technique of chlorophyll a
fluorescence kinetic (Muller et al., 2008); (Xia and Tian, 2009)was
used to evaluate changes in the photosynthetic ability of organ-
isms under environmental stress conditions (Jena et al., 2012;
Kalaji et al., 2012). Also, alteration in photosystem II (PSII) can
be measured using the JIP-test (Jena et al., 2012; Strasser et al.,
2000). The present study aims to assess the toxicity of the azo dye
i.e. Congo red on the development and photosynthetic metabolism
of green algae i.e. Chlorella vulgaris. After exposure to Congo
9
red, it decreased the growth rate, respiration and photosynthe-
sis. Fluorescence emission chlorophyll analysis explains that the
maximum concentration of congo red affects the donor side of
Photosystem II. Congo red also decreases electron transport rate,
quantum yield for electron transport and performance index
(PI). It decreases absorbance ability and the use of quantum en-
ergy has increased the thermal dissipation of non-photochemical
quenching. Overall, in the aquatic climate, Congo red drastically
affects growth and metabolic activity in photosynthetic organ-
isms (Hernández-Zamora et al., 2014; Hernández-Zamora and
Martínez-Jerónimo, 2019), reported the toxic effects of Congo red
on the chlorophyceanPseudokirchneriellasubcapitata. The chloro-
phycean alga was found to be the most susceptible species to CR
and even the low concentrations of dye deleteriously affected the
population growth with an exhibition of sub-inhibitory effects.
An anionic dye widely used in the wool, textile and car-
pet industries is Metomega Chrome Orange GL. It discharges
into the river through several industries. This dye concentration
J. Sharma, S. Sharma and V. Soni Regional Studies in Marine Science 45 (2021) 101802

Table 9
List of the toxicity of textile dyes towards aquatic macrophytes.
Species Dye Name Class of dye Toxicological effects References
Lemna gibba Vat Blue 20 Vat It cause serious effects such as Hocini et al. (2019), Mihaita
Direct Red 89 Direct necrosis, chlorosis, detachment of et al. (2016)
fronds, reduce the development rate
and photosynthetic efficiency
Lemna minor Congo red Azo These dyes exerted an inhibitory Adomas et al. (2020)
Gentian violet Triarylmethane impact on development, yield of
biomass and chlorophyll biosynthesis
in L. minor. Gentian violet was more
lethal than Congo red since it altered
the biosynthetic pathway of biogenic
amines.
Lemna minor Congo red Azo It reduced growth, length of root and Hernández-Zamora et al.
fresh biomass of plants was inhibited. (2015)
Eichhornia crassipes Salvinia Eriochrome Azo It decreases vital elements (P, Mg, Ca, Rápó et al. (2020)
natans Black T S, K), damaged roots, chlorosis and
necrosis in young leaves was
observed and change in
photosynthetic pigments was
triggered.
Hydrocotyle vulgaris Acid Blue 92 Azo Results indicate that lipid Vafaei et al. (2013)
peroxidation and antioxidant activity
was increased and growth and
photosynthetic rates of fronds were
decreased
Lemna minor Congo red Azo At moderate concentration of dye, Lobiuc et al. (2018)
Significant inhibition of Chlorophyll a
and PSII efficiency was recorded.
Mitotic indices were decreased and
number of chromosomal aberrations
significantly increased at different −2
concentration of dye.

not only makes the water aesthetically objectionable but also
induces many water-borne diseases (Gupta et al., 1988a,b). It
also disturbs the biological activity and hindering the develop-
ment and metabolic pathway of photoautotrophic species. In the
aquatic environment, this anionic dye forms complexes with pos-
itively charged ions like Ca2+ and Mg2+ which are important for
cell growth and development and thus it can eventually reduce
the growth of the organisms. The effect of different concen-
trations of Metomega Chrome Orange GL was studied on pro-
tein content, pigment content and photosynthetic oxygen evolu-
tion in Nostocmuscorum(Diazotrophic cyanobacterium). The max-
imum concentration of dye reduces protein, phycocyanin, chloro-
phyll a, carotenoid content and Photosynthetic oxygen evolution
(Prakash Shukla et al., 1994).
Toxicity of two azo dyes such as Congo red and Reactive
orange 16 and two anthraquinone dyes such as Disperse Blue
3 and Remazol Brilliant Blue were evaluated on Vibrio fischeri
(bacterium), Selenastrumcapricornutum (microalga) and Tetrahy-
mena pyriformis (ciliate). The following characteristics of toxicity
are measured as inhibition of algal growth, growth inhibition,
bacterial luminescence inhibition and the effects on the protozoa
including viability and morphometric effects. Disperse Blue 3
dye was highly toxic among all dyes in the bacterial, protozoan
and algal species and after metabolic activation show mutagenic
effects in S. typhimurium strains. The algal species was the most
sensitive species to assess the toxicity of the dyes (Č et al., 2006).
Malachite green (N-methylated diaminotriphenylmethane), a
water-soluble dye and discharged into the aquatic surroundings
due to its high demand for utilization. This dye is prohibited in
the United State of America and Europe due to its considerable
health risk and it is considered a pollutant of the environment. In
the present investigation, an attempt has been done to assess the
environmental toxicity of Malachite green using Chlorella pyrenoi-
dosa and Daphnia magna as model organisms. The result shows
that Malachite green causes cellular, morphological changes and
10
induces genetic level toxicity by altering profiles of protein and
increasing ROS level respectively in Chlorella and immobilization
was observed in Daphnia. It also stimulates the development of
pores in the plasma membrane. It confirms that malachite green
is toxic to the primary producer and consumer of the food chain
of aquatic ecosystem i.e.C. pyrenoidosa and D. magna respectively
(Kanhere et al., 2014).
(Dwivedi, 2013), reported the effect of Congo red dye in S.
platensis exposed to the different concentration range of the dye.
In the presence of Congo red, lower specific growth was observed
at higher concentrations resulted in suppression of growth. It sug-
gests that at higher dye concentrations algal cells show reduced
growth because of the toxicity inside the cell and the reason for
this dose-dependent growth inhibition.
Microalgae are the primary-producers and major indicator
species for the assessment of water quality and ecotoxicity of
pollutants in aquatic ecosystems (Wen et al., 2011; Xu et al.,
2013). The discharge of synthetic dyes considerably suppressed
the growth of microalgae. In this manner, the dyed wastewater
should be treated so the concentration of dye is reduced to an
appropriate level before being discharged to the environment.
4.2. Toxic effect of textile effluents on aquatic macrophytes
Organic pollutants such as dyes harm the aqueous environ-
ment. The release of dye from different textile industries antago-
nistically affected water quality, aquatic macrophyte and biologi-
cal system integrity. Aquatic macrophytes are utilized as a natural
ecological marker to quantify the phytotoxicities of textile dyes.
Vigorous growth of a plant is estimated by different parameters,
for example, dry weight of the plant, the number of fronds,
total frond area and its chlorophyll content (Mazur et al., 2018;
Mkandawire et al., 2006). Due to the toxicity of textile dyes, all
the parameters of macrophytes are altering.
J. Sharma, S. Sharma and V. Soni
Various research papers confirmed that dye significantly af-
fects development rate and inhibits the growth of aquatic macro-
phytes (As listed in Table 9). This is because of oxidative stress
or an alteration of the plant photosystem driven by decreased
electron transport of chloroplasts (Sree et al., 2015).
Eco-toxicological tests in the food chain of various trophic
levels of an organism are highly useful to find out the impact
of pollutants at the level of an ecosystem. Nowadays, toxicity
assessment is completely dependent on aquatic flora is a point
of interest for researchers (Alonso et al., 2018; Böcük et al.,
2013; Wang, 1990). Some of the aquatic organisms such as mi-
croalgae (Chlorella), phytoplanktons, duck weeds (Spirodellaand
Lamna) (Blinova, 2000), and macrophytes (Salvinia cuculata, Eich-
horniacrassipes) (Kumar and Prasad, 2004; Lee et al., 1998; Rai
et al., 2003) were used for evaluating the toxic effect of textile
dyes on producers of aquatic ecosystems. Aquatic plants based
bioassay gives valuable information about the toxicity of textile
dyes (Eullaffroy and Vernet, 2003; Siddiqui et al., 2011).
Among these aquatic organisms, Lemna gibba might be used
as a biological alert marker to quantify the phytotoxicities of
synthetic dyes (Singh et al., 2021). The key purpose of the work
was to find out the harmful impacts of Dyes i.e Vat Blue 20 and
Direct Red 89 on the morphology and physiology of Lemna gibba.
Results indicated that a high concentration of dyes harms the
duckweed. It causes serious effects such as necrosis, chlorosis,
detachment of fronds, reduces the development rate of duckweed
and their photosynthetic efficiency (Hocini et al., 2019; Mihaita
et al., 2016).
Industrial effluents containing synthetic dyes enter into the
groundwater, soil, and aquatic habitat (Ghosh and Bhattacharyya,
2002). It causes extensive natural harm by contaminating wa-
ter, lessening oxygen levels and diminishing light availability in
aquatic habitat (Al Farraj et al., 2019; Ganapuram et al., 2015).
Aquatic flora is constantly exposed to different kinds of stresses.
One of the constituents of the plant is polyamines that are
severely affected by water contamination. The impact of Congo
red and Gentian violet dyes on the biosynthetic pathway of
biogenic amines in L. minor was examined. L. minoris a significant
connection in the food chain. These dyes exerted an inhibitory
impact on development, yield of biomass and chlorophyll biosyn-
thesis in L. minor. Gentian violet was more lethal than Congo
red since it altered the biosynthetic pathway of biogenic amines.
Results recommend that the activity of decarboxylase and con-
tents of biogenic amines are early and susceptible markers of the
phytotoxic impacts of Congo red and Gentian violet in L. minor
(Adomas et al., 2020).
The aquatic climate is frequently polluted with various kinds
of contamination which may show high levels of lethality towards
aquatic biota and in the long run, it enters into the food chain. To
restrict the impact of contamination on different living beings,
evaluation should be done which may decide limits of lethality
(Chapman, 1995). Azo dyes are a particular class of dye utilized
in textiles and other industries that may enter into the aquatic
environment and contaminate the aquatic habitat (Carmen and
Daniel, 2012).
Azo dye i.e. Congo red is water-soluble, hard to degrade, po-
tentially toxic and is utilized principally in the dyeing of textile
and research applications. The current paper aims to investigate
the effect of dye on L. minor for the entire assessment of toxicity.
The growth medium contains Congo red dye significantly reduced
the Lemna growth similarly length of root and fresh biomass of
plants was also inhibited (Hernández-Zamora et al., 2015).
When Lemna plants were exposed in the presence of Congo
red dye, carotenoid content was increased and the value of
chlorophyll fluorescence decrease. The outcomes indicate that a
high concentration (over 1000 ppm) of Congo red was toxic to
11
Regional Studies in Marine Science 45 (2021) 101802
Lemna plants, yet duckweed plants can endure lower concen-
trations of dye and possibly remediate dye contamination in an
aqueous climate (Mihaita et al., 2016).
Eichhorniacrassipes is a productive free-floating aquatic species
found in a tropical and subtropical region of the earth. The im-
pacts of contaminants from textile wastewater were examined
on the external morphology of the macrophytes. Textile waste
fundamentally affects the size of root cells and crystals of raphide
have occurred in parenchymatous cells of different organs (Mah-
mood et al., 2005).
The toxic effect of Eriochrome Black T onEichhorniacrassipes
and Salvinia natanswas studied. Despite this abiotic stress, both
plants showed a rapid reproduction rate. When they were treated
with a high concentration of dye solution, a large decrease of
vital elements (P, Mg, Ca, S, K), damaged roots, whose length was
reduced, purple or dark green old leaves, chlorosis and necrosis
in young leaves was observed. According to studies, the ratio
of chlorophyll–carotenoids suggested that the change in photo-
synthetic pigments was triggered by the stress in the plant. The
amount of chlorophylls in the plant decreases with the increase
of dye concentration (Rápó et al., 2020).
The perennial submersed aquatic plant Hydrilla verticillata
(Royle) was treated with water solutions of methylene blue,
hematoporphyrin, and Eosin Y in contrast to the control param-
eter. After exposure of all three dyes at initial concentrations, a
considerable reduction of growth rate was observed. Methylene
blue was absorbed by the plant, raising the possibility that dyes
affect the growth of plants (Barltrop et al., 1982).
Roy et al. (2010) were accessed four aquatic species namely
Salvinia cuculata, Pistia stratiotes, Nymphoidesindicum and Eichhor-
niacrassipes treated with textile effluents. Salvinia cuculata could
barely tolerate textile effluents in proper laboratory conditions
for up to 2 days. Roots are completely damaged and the leaf
turned to brownish color. An almost similar result was observed
for Pistia stratiotes and Nymphoidesindicum. Some parts of the root
of Nymphoidesindicum turn green to white and Eichhorniacras-
sipesroots were turned into bright color and very weak.
Vafaei et al. (2013) reported the effect of C.I. Acid Blue 92
dye on Hydrocotyle vulgaris, an aquatic herb. They examined the
phytoremediation capacity of a mono azo dye i.e. AB92. The effect
of AB92 dye was reported on growth, development rate, the con-
tent of chlorophylls and carotenoids, antioxidants activities such
as Peroxidase, Superoxide dismutase, Catalase and production of
monoaldehyde activities. Results indicate that lipid peroxidation
and antioxidant activity were increased and development and
photosynthetic rates of fronds were decreased.
The toxicity of Reactive Dye i.e. Reactive Red 141 and Synthetic
reactive dye wastewater was examined by culturing narrow-
leaved cattails plants at various low and high concentrations.
Various appearance symptoms like Plant height, weight, number
of leaves, shoots and roots of narrow-leaved cattails plants were
examined. Plant growth was suppressed at low concentrations of
dye. After a high concentration of dye exposure plants showing
symptoms like green wilting and then a yellow spot as an indi-
cation of necrosis. Patches of dye along the length of the vascular
bundle veins were also observed. The results indicate that both
root and leaves were damaged from dye, particularly apparent in
damage of the cortex tissue (Nilratnisakorn et al., 2007).
This paper evaluates the toxicity of Congo red dye towards
Lemna minor from a cytogenetical and physiological aspect. At
a minimum concentration of dye, a total surface of frond, root
growth and fresh mass of plant were reduced. Plant growth was
inhibited at the max concentration of dye. Dye was accumulated
in tissues, along with necrosis. At the max concentration of dye,
Chlorophyll contents decreased, while carotenoid contents in-
creased. Significant inhibition of PSII efficiency was recorded at
J. Sharma, S. Sharma and V. Soni
a moderate concentration of dye. Mitotic indices were decreased
and several chromosomes are aberrated significantly at different
-2 concentrations of dye. The results confirm the genotoxic and
cytotoxic effects of Congo red on Lemna minor at higher concen-
trations; furthermore, the photosynthetic tissues are also affected
(Lobiuc et al., 2018).
This finding indicates that the direct release of the textile
effluents in aquatic environment adversely affect the plants and
animal of water bodies (Gupta et al., 2000).
So it is very essential to determine the lethality limits of
dye products to promote and enhance their discovery to assess
their impact on biotic frameworks. Direct and indirect chemical
methods, physical methods and other approaches were used for
the analysis of contamination (Fakhri et al., 2016). In physi-
cal methods, costly and heavy equipment is required. While in
chemical methods, a process used is highly complex, chemicals
used in this process are expensive and during the experiment
secondary pollutant are produced which causes again a kind of
pollution (Burakov et al., 2018; Park et al., 2012). Besides, this
technique is less precise, inaccurate and time-consuming com-
pared to biological assays for environmental pollution monitoring
purposes (Kumar and Han, 2010).
To overcome these limitations, various biological tests have
been established for evaluating toxicity and exposure levels as
well as the adverse effects of contaminations on human health
and the environment (Hund-Rinke et al., 2016). Plant test systems
are inexpensive, sensitive to different contaminants, simple to
evaluate, accurate, reproducible and have shown strong corre-
lations with other animal and microbial bioassays (Feng et al.,
2007; Fiskesjö, 1988; Grant, 1994, 1982). In particular, Plant-
based bioassays are extremely common and popular among the
various toxicological assessment methods (Priya et al., 2014).
Various plant-based biosystems were used for biomonitoring
of the toxicity of industrial effluents such as the textile dye-
ing industry and paper plant effluents (Grover and Kaur, 1999),
silk coloring mill effluent (Sudhakar et al., 2001; Wan et al.,
2017) and azo dye contaminated industrial effluents (Caritá and
Marin-Morales, 2008).
Various methods are commonly used for the remediation of
dye effluents in wastewaters. Some of the best possible method
for removal of synthetic dyes from aquatic environment are cel-
lulose (Suhas et al., 2016) and for photocatalytic degradation of
synthetic dyes like methylene blue and methyl orange, catalyst
like ZnO under UV light and nanorods of Hg doped ZnO are
utilized (Saravanan et al., 2013a,b,f) and some visible light driven
catalyst such as Vanadium pentoxide (Saravanan et al., 2014a),
nanocatalysts like CeO2, CeO2/V2O5, V2O5, CeO2/CuO, ZnO/CuO
and CuO and multi-walled carbon nanotube/tungsten oxide are
also utilized for degradation of organic pollutants (Saleh and
Gupta, 2011; Saravanan et al., 2013c,e). Adsorption technology
is presently being utilized for the degradation of wastewater
pollutants. Activated carbon, bagasse fly ash are commonly used
adsorbent for removal of wastewater pollutants (Gupta et al.,
2014b, 2002). Thus, these all adsorbent is a promising tool for
the effective remediation of synthetic dyes from aquatic envi-
ronment due to its cost effective, proficient and environmentally
friendly approach. Recently attentiveness and concern about the
environmental and wellbeing hazards of synthetic dyes is rising in
the worldwide level. Therefore, environmental and government
legislations are becoming highly rigid about the removal of these
textile dye.
5. Conclusion
The present review article focused on textile dyes and their
effect on the environment is a sign and confirmation of the global
12
Regional Studies in Marine Science 45 (2021) 101802
concern about this issue. This review paper aims to address the
effects of textile dyes on the aquatic environment. Recent litera-
ture data have reported the presence of synthetic organic dyes in
different aquatic habitats such as groundwater, soil and surface
water. The worldwide occurrence of textile dyes in the environ-
ment is directly related to aquatic organisms. Current facts about
aquatic climate contamination with synthetic dyes indicate that
textile dyes are harmful to aquatic biota and disturb ecosystem
balance due to their presence in different trophic levels. The dis-
charge of these dye-based effluents into the aquatic environment
contaminates water, soil and disrupts the physiological process
of aquatic flora due to their harmful, mutagenic and clastogenic
effects. This review raised a global issue and awareness about the
toxicity of dyes and government take proper action regarding the
removal of these pollutants. Thus, dyes occurrence in the envi-
ronment with special regard to the aquatic environment should
be monitored.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
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