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lumen. It is the most common cause of acute abdomen requiring emergency surgical intervention in both children
and adults. The characteristic features of acute appendicitis are periumbilical abdominal pain that migrates to
the right lower quadrant (RLQ), anorexia, nausea, fever, and RLQ tenderness. When seen alongside neutrophilic
leukocytosis, these features are sufficient to make a clinical diagnosis using appendicitis scoring systems to estimate
the likelihood of appendicitis. Imaging (e.g., abdominal CT with IV contrast, abdominal ultrasonography) may be
considered if the clinical diagnosis is uncertain. The current standard of management of acute uncomplicated
appendicitis is appendectomy within 24 hours of diagnosis (laparoscopic or open) and antibiotics. Emergency
appendectomy is indicated for patients with systemic complications. Nonoperative management (NOM), which
includes bowel rest, antibiotics, and analgesics, is indicated in patients with an inflammatory appendiceal
mass (phlegmon) or an appendiceal abscess, because surgical intervention is associated with a higher risk of
complications in these patient groups. Interval appendectomy 6–8 weeks following resolution of the acute episode
may be considered in these patients to prevent a recurrence or if there is concern for an underlying
appendiceal tumor.
Definition:
Appendicitis: acute inflammation of the vermiform appendix
Uncomplicated appendicitis: appendicitis with no evidence of an appendiceal fecalith, an
appendiceal tumor, or complications, such as perforation, gangrene, abscess, or mass
Complicated appendicitis: appendicitis associated with perforation, gangrene, abscess, an inflammatory
mass, an appendiceal fecalith, or an appendiceal tumor
Epidemiology
Common cause of acute abdomen Peak incidence: 10–19 years of age Sex: ♂ > ♀
Etiology:
Description: a localized collection of pus and necrotic tissue that forms around an inflamed appendix,
which typically follows an untreated perforated appendix
Clinical features: manifests as a tender mass in the RLQ in an acutely ill patient (i.e., high-grade fever,
possible paralytic ileus, leukocytosis, signs of sepsis)
Treatment
o Nonoperative management of acute appendicitis
o Abscess < 4 cm: antibiotic therapy alone is usually sufficient.
o Abscess > 4 cm: image-guided percutaneous drainage or surgical drainage; send aspirate for
[44][57]
cultures
[20][34][44]
o Consider interval appendectomy.
Gangrenous appendicitis
Perforated appendix
Description: rupture of the appendix
Clinical features
o Early presentation: localized/generalized peritonitis and decreased bowel sounds
Generalized peritonitis indicates a free rupture of the appendix into
the peritoneal cavity.
Localized peritonitis suggests a concealed perforation.
o Delayed presentation: appendiceal mass or appendiceal abscess
Treatment
o Early presentation
Emergency appendectomy and IV antibiotics
Obtain pus or exudate for cultures intraoperatively. [20]
Tailor antibiotics accordingly.
o Delayed presentation: See “Appendiceal mass” and “Appendiceal abscess.”
Pylephlebitis [58]
Management
Initial management
Subsequent management
Diagnostic imaging is often performed for most patients. A selective and individualized approach is generally
[10][11][15][16]
recommended to minimize patient exposure to radiation and expedite care.
Alvarado score (MANTRELS) A 10-point scoring system that uses eight parameters to estimate the likelihood of
appendicitis Accuracy is higher in young to middle-aged adults than in children < 10 years of age and adults > 60
≤ 4: Low
5–6: Moderate
≥ 7: High
Diagnostics
Acute appendicitis is usually a clinical diagnosis supported by laboratory findings (e.g., leukocytosis with left shift).
Confirmatory imaging is recommended if the diagnosis is uncertain.
Laboratory studies
Routine studies
o CBC: mild leukocytosis with left shift
o CRP: elevated (> 10 mg/L) [10]
o BMP: ↑ creatinine, electrolyte abnormalities may be present in patients with
severe vomiting and diarrhea
o Urinalysis: typically normal in appendicitis; possible findings of
mild pyuria and/or hematuria
Tests to evaluate differential diagnoses
o Urine/serum β-hCG test: perform in all women of reproductive age to rule
[20]
out pregnancy (including ectopic pregnancy)
o See also “Diagnostics workup of acute abdominal pain.”
A normal WBC count does not rule out acute appendicitis.
Imaging
Decisions regarding the optimal timing and initial imaging modality should be based on individual patient factors
(e.g., demographics, likelihood of appendicitis, risk of alternate diagnoses of concern, comorbidities), available
resources, and local specialist preferences and hospital policy. [10][11][15][16]
Options for first-line imaging in nonpregnant adults [11][12]
[10][12][28]
o CT abdomen
Advantages: higher accuracy and reliability, allows operative planning, better
evaluation of differential diagnoses (e.g., for patients > 60 years old)
Limitations: exposure to ionizing radiation and risk of contrast-related adverse
events
o Ultrasound abdomen (typically performed in conjunction with an appendicitis scoring
[11][16]
system)
Advantages: can limit the exposure to radiation and contrast, potentially reduce
cost and length of stay (LOS) associated with CT use
Limitations: lower accuracy and reliability , can increase cost and LOS if CT
[13]
abdomen is still required
First-line imaging for pregnant adults and children: ultrasound abdomen [10][11][12]
The combined use of appendicitis risk scores and an initial ultrasound abdomen can reduce the need for CT
abdomen in certain patients with suspected appendicitis, however, this should be balanced with the risk of missing
the diagnosis. [11][16][17][29]
Abdominal ultrasound
Many institutions prefer ultrasound as the initial imaging modality, reserving CT scans for
[11][28]
inconclusive ultrasound findings.
Options
o Formal ultrasound
[30]
o POCUS
Supportive findings [10][31]
o Distended appendix (diameter > 6 mm)
o Noncompressible, aperistaltic, distended appendix
o Target sign: concentric rings of hypo- and hyperechogenicity in the axial/transverse section
of the appendix
o Possible appendiceal fecalith: focal hyperechogenicity with posterior acoustic shadowing
While abdominal ultrasound can confirm the diagnosis of acute appendicitis, normal ultrasound findings do not
reliably rule out appendicitis.
Indications
MRI without IV contrast: pregnant patients with inconclusive ultrasound findings [28][34]
o MRI with IV contrast: nonpregnant patients with inconclusive ultrasound findings
and contraindications for CT scan
Findings: similar to CT scan findings
A normal MRI in a pregnant patient does not completely rule out the possibility of acute appendicitis.
Consider diagnostic laparoscopy if clinical suspicion remains high. [11]
Diagnostic laparoscopy
Indications: Consider in the following groups of patients with inconclusive findings on imaging. [14][20][21]
o Women of reproductive age
o Patients with obesity
Findings
o Acute uncomplicated appendicitis: inflamed, distended, erythematous appendix
o Possible signs of complications: perforation, gangrene, pus
Additional steps based on findings [22][36]
o Normal appendix on diagnostic laparoscopy: Leave in situ.
o Appendicitis confirmed: Perform laparoscopic appendectomy.
Treatment
Supportive care
IV antiemetics as needed
Antipyretic therapy
Operative management
[13][14][20][34][42]
Appendectomy
[11]
Appendectomy within 24 hours of diagnosis is the current standard of care for acute uncomplicated appendicitis.
[11][34][42][43]
Definition: surgical removal of the appendix, usually within 24 hours of the diagnosis [11]
o Appendiceal mass
o Appendicular abscess
Approach [34]
o Laparoscopic appendectomy
o Open appendectomy (via a transabdominal incision in the RLQ)
Surgery for acute uncomplicated appendicitis can safely be delayed for up to 24 hours from diagnosis.
Perform an emergency appendectomy for patients with complicated appendicitis and systemic symptoms. [11]
Initial operative treatment of appendiceal abscesses or appendiceal phlegmons is associated with a high risk of
complications. [45]
[14][34][46][47][48]
Interval appendectomy
Indications [14][20][39][46]
Septic shock
Generalized peritonitis
Inability to percutaneously drain an appendiceal abscess
Appendiceal fecalith [51][52]
Empiric parenteral antibiotic therapy for 2–3 days: See ''Mild or moderate infection'' under ''Community-
acquired infections'' in empiric antibiotic therapy for intraabdominal infections. [20][34][39]
Supportive care (see above)
Periappendiceal abscess > 4 cm: image-guided percutaneous drainage; send aspirate for cultures
Monitor vitals and serial abdominal examinations every 6–12 hours.
[34]
o Insignificant improvement/worsening of symptoms : urgent surgical intervention
o Symptomatic improvement within 24–48 hours
Slow introduction of enteral nutrition
[34][39]
Switch to oral antibiotics for 7-day course.
Schedule interval colonoscopy in patients > 40 years of age following NOM of acute appendicitis to rule
out early colonic malignancy. [14][44][53]
PAIN: Pain management, Antibiotics, Intravenous fluid therapy, and NPO are part of conservative management of
appendicitis.
Ectopic pregnancy
Pseudoappendicitis [55]
Meckel diverticulum
Diverticulitis (especially in elderly patients)
Psoas abscess (in patients with a positive psoas sign)
Inflammatory bowel disease
Gastroenteritis
Colon cancer
Urolithiasis and renal colic
Urinary tract infections
Gynecological diseases (e.g., pelvic inflammatory disease, ovarian cyst)
See “Differential diagnoses of acute abdomen.”
Right-sided carcinoma of the colon may manifest with clinical features similar to those of acute appendicitis. [56]