Thermodynamics-I

SHAHROZE UMAR
IST Islamabad
 Summary (Chapter #0 1)

• Thermodynamics and Energy

• Microscopic Vs Macroscopic
• Real Life Applications
• System, Surrounding, Boundary
• Types of System
• Intensive vs Extensive Properties
• State and Equilibrium
• Processes and Cycles
• Steady Flow Processes
• Zeroth Law and Temperature Scales
• Pressure
 Chapter 2

Energy, Energy Transfer, and General

Energy Analysis
 Content

• Introduction
• Forms of Energy
• Energy Transfer by Heat
• Energy Transfer by Work
• Mechanical Forms of Work
• The First Law of Thermodynamics
• Energy Conversion Efficiencies
 Introduction
▪ If we take the entire room—including the air and the refrigerator (or fan)—as the SYSTEM,
i.e.
✓ Adiabatic Closed System : Since the room is well-sealed and well-insulated
✓ Only energy interaction involved is the Electrical Energy crossing the system boundary
and entering the room.
▪ Due to the conversion of Electric Energy consumed by the device to Heat, the room
temperature will rise.

A refrigerator operating with its door A fan running in a well-sealed and

open in a well-sealed and well- well-insulated room will raise the
insulated room temperature of air in the room.
 Forms of Energy

▪ Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric,
magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their sum constitutes the TOTAL ENERGY, E of a system.

✓ Total Energy of a system on a unit mass basis is denoted by e.

▪ Thermodynamics deals only with the change of the total energy

▪ Macroscopic forms of energy: Those a system

possesses as a whole with respect to some
outside reference frame
e.g., kinetic and potential energies
▪ Microscopic forms of energy: Those related to The macroscopic energy of an object
the molecular structure of a system and the changes with velocity and elevation
degree of the molecular activity

▪ Internal energy, U: The sum of all the Microscopic

forms of energy
 Forms of Energy
▪ Kinetic Energy, KE: Energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion relative to some
reference frame → When all parts of the system move with the same velocity
▪ Potential energy, PE: The energy that a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a
gravitational field.

▪ Magnetic, Electric, and Surface Tension Effects are significant in some specialized cases only and
are usually ignored

⇒ Total Energy of a system:

Energy of a system per unit mass

 Forms of Energy
▪ Most Closed Systems remain Stationary during a process and thus experience no change
in their kinetic and potential energies

▪ Stationary Systems → Closed systems whose velocity and elevation of the center of gravity
remain constant during a process
▪ Change in the total energy E of a Stationary System is identical to the change in its internal
energy U

▪ Control Volumes typically involve fluid flow for long periods of time → It is convenient to
express the energy flow associated with a fluid stream in the rate form:

Mass Flow Rate:

Where
ρ: fluid density, Ac: cross sectional area of flow, and
Vavg: average flow velocity normal to Ac

Energy Flow Rate:

 Some Physical Insight to Internal
Energy Various forms of
microscopic energies
▪ Internal Energy is related to the molecular structure that make up sensible
and the degree of molecular activity and can be energy
viewed as the sum of the Kinetic and Potential
energies of the molecules

✓ For Gases, Kinetic Energy is mostly due to

Translational and Rotational motions, with Vibrational
motion becoming significant at higher temperatures
✓ Electrons in an atom rotate about the Nucleus, and
thus possess Rotational Kinetic Energy

✓ Electrons also spin about their axes, and the

energy associated with this motion is the Spin
Energy

✓ Particles in the Nucleus of an atom also possess Spin

Energy
▪ Sensible Energy → Portion of the internal energy of a
system associated with the Kinetic Energies of the
molecules
 Some Physical Insight to Internal
Energy
▪ Internal Energy is also associated with Various Binding Forces between the molecules of a
substance, between the atoms within a molecule, and between the particles within an atom
and its nucleus
✓ If sufficient energy is added to the molecules of a solid or liquid, the molecules overcome
these Molecular Forces and break away, turning the substance into a gas → Phase Change
Process
▪ Latent Energy: portion of the internal energy of a system associated with the phase change of a
system
✓ Phase-change Process can occur without a change in the chemical composition of a system
▪ Chemical Energy: internal energy associated with the Atomic
Bonds in a molecule
✓ During a Chemical Reaction, e.g. combustion, some chemical
bonds are destroyed while others are formed → Internal
Energy changes
▪ Nuclear Energy: tremendous amount of energy associated with
the strong bonds within the Nucleus of the atom itself
✓ Chemical Reaction involves changes in the structure of the
electrons of the atoms, but a Nuclear Reaction involves
changes in the core or nucleus Internal energy of a
system is the sum of all
forms of the microscopic
energies
 Some Physical Insight to Internal
Energy
▪ Total energy of a system, can be contained or stored in a system,
and thus can be viewed as the Static Forms of Energy
Macroscopic form of kinetic
▪ Forms of energy not stored in a system can be energy is an organized form
viewed as the Dynamic Forms of Energy or as
Energy Interactions
of energy and is much more
useful than the disorganized
▪ Dynamic forms of energy are recognized at the microscopic energies of
System Boundary as they cross it, and they
molecules.
represent the energy gained or lost by a system
during a process
▪ Only two forms of energy interactions associated
with a Closed System are Heat Transfer and Work
✓ Difference between Heat Transfer and Work: An
energy interaction is Heat Transfer if its driving
force is a Temperature Difference →
Otherwise it is Work
▪ K.E of an Object → Organized form of energy
associated with the orderly motion of all
molecules in one direction in a straight path or
around an axis
 Some Physical Insight to Internal
Energy

▪ K.E of Molecules is completely random and highly disorganized

▪ Organized Energy is much more valuable than the Disorganized Energy

▪ Major Application area of Thermodynamics is the conversion of organized energy (Heat) into
organized energy (Work)
 Mechanical Energy
▪ Many Engineering Systems are designed:
✓ to transport a fluid from one location to another at specified flow rate, velocity, and
elevation difference
✓ and the system may generate Mechanical Work in a Turbine or it may consume
Mechanical Work in a Pump or Fan during this process
▪ These systems do not involve the conversion of nuclear, chemical, or thermal energy to
mechanical energy
✓ Also, they do not involve any heat transfer in any significant amount, and they operate
essentially at constant temperature
▪ Such systems can be analyzed conveniently by considering the Mechanical forms of energy
only and the Frictional Effects that cause the Mechanical Energy to be lost in the form of
Thermal Energy
▪ Mechanical Energy: → form of energy that can be converted to mechanical work
completely and directly by an ideal mechanical device such as an Ideal Turbine
▪ Kinetic and Potential Energies: → familiar forms of Mechanical Energy
▪ A Pump transfers Mechanical Energy to a fluid by raising its pressure, and a Turbine extracts
mechanical energy from a fluid by dropping its pressure
Pressure unit Pascal is equivalent to
⇒ Pressure of a flowing fluid is also associated
Pa = N/m 2 = N m/m 3 = J/m 3
with its Mechanical Energy
⇒ P v = P / ρ (J/kg) → Energy per unit
Mass
 Mechanical Energy

▪ Pressure itself is not a form of Energy, But a Pressure Force acting on a fluid through
a distance produces work, called Flow Work, in the amount of P / ρ per unit mass

Mechanical Energy of a Flowing Fluid per Unit Mass:

Rate of Mechanical Energy of a Flowing Fluid:

▪ Mechanical Energy Change of a fluid during Incompressible (ρ = Constant) flow per unit
mass:

▪ Rate of Mechanical Energy change of a fluid during Incompressible Flow:

Mechanical Energy of a fluid does not change during flow if its pressure, density, velocity, and
elevation remain constant

Mechanical Energy Change represents the mechanical work supplied to the fluid (if Δemech > 0) or
extracted from the fluid (if Δemech < 0)
 Mechanical Energy

(a) In the absence of Irreversible Losses, the (b) maximum produced power is proportional
maximum produced power is proportional to the to the drop in water pressure from just
change in water surface elevation from the upstream to just downstream of the turbine
upstream to the downstream reservoir
 Energy Transfer by Heat
▪ Heat: Form of energy that is transferred between two systems (or a system and its
surroundings) by virtue of a Temperature Difference
✓ Heat is energy in transition --- in Thermodynamics, the term heat simply
means Heat Transfer

Temperature difference is the driving Energy is recognized as heat

force for heat transfer. The larger the transfer only as it crosses the
temperature difference, the higher is system boundary.
the rate of heat transfer.
 Energy Transfer by Heat
▪ A process during which there is No Heat Transfer is called an Adiabatic Process
▪ There are two ways a process can be Adiabatic:
✓ Either the system is well insulated so that only a negligible amount of heat can pass
through the boundary, or
✓ both the system and the surroundings are at the same temperature and therefore there is
no driving force (temperature difference) for heat transfer.

▪ Even though there is no heat transfer during an adiabatic process, the energy content and
thus the temperature of a system can still be changed by other means such as Work. E.g.
Turbine, Pump
 Energy Transfer by Heat

▪ Heat transfer per unit mass

▪ Amount of heat transfer when heat transfer rate is constant
Δt = t2 - t1 is the time interval during which the process takes place

▪ Amount of heat transfer when heat transfer rate changes with time:
Heat Transfer Mechanisms:
▪ Conduction: Transfer of energy from the more
energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent
less energetic ones as a result of interaction
between particles
▪ Convection: Transfer of energy between a solid
surface and the adjacent fluid that is in motion,
and it involves the combined effects of conduction
and fluid motion

▪ Radiation: The transfer of energy due to the emission

of electromagnetic waves (or photons)
 Energy Transfer by Work
▪ Work: Energy transfer associated with a Force acting
through a Distance
✓ A rising piston, a rotating shaft, are all associated
with work interactions
▪ Heat and work are directional quantities, and thus
the complete description requires the specification
of both the magnitude and direction

▪ Formal sign convention: Heat transfer to a system

and work done by a system are Positive;
✓ Heat transfer from a system and work done on a
system are Negative
▪ Alternative to sign convention is to use the
subscripts in and out to indicate direction
▪ Work done per unit mass of a system
is:
▪ Work done per unit time is called Power and is
denoted Ẇ and units kJ/s, kW
 Heat Vs Work Properties are point functions; but heat
and work are path functions (their
▪ Both are recognized at the boundaries of a magnitudes depend on the path followed)
system as they cross the boundaries i.e.,
both heat and work are Boundary
phenomena
▪ Systems possess Energy, but not Heat or
Work
▪ Both are associated with a Process, not a
State
▪ Unlike properties, Heat or Work has no
meaning at a state
▪ Both are Path Functions (i.e., their
magnitudes depend on the path followed
during a process as well as the end states) ▪ Properties are Point Functions
have Exact Differentials (d)
▪ Path Functions have Inexact Differentials i.e., Volume Change during process 1–2
designated by the symbol δ is always the volume at state 2
o Differential Amount of heat or work is minus the volume at state 1,
represented by δQ or δW, respectively, regardless of the path followed
instead of dQ or dW
 Heat Vs Work
▪ Total Work is obtained by following the process
path and adding the differential amounts of
work (δW) done along the way
Properties are point functions; but heat
and work are path functions (their
magnitudes depend on the path followed)

i.e. Path functions have inexact

differentials ( )
✓ Integral of δW is not W2 - W 1 (i.e., the
work at state 2 minus work at state 1),
✓ which is meaningless since work is not a
property and systems do not possess work
at a state ▪ Point Function: When Two Properties
▪ Path Function: Quantities which cannot be locate a point on the gra ph(co-
located on a graph by a point but are given ordinate axes), those properties are
by the area or so, on that graph called as point function.
✓ Area on the graph, pertaining to the ✓ E.g., Pressure, Temperature,
particular process, is a function of the Volume etc.
path of the process.
 Heat vs Work
Example

A candle is burning in a well-insulated room. Taking the room (the air plus the candle)
as the system, determine (a) if there is any heat transfer during this burning process
and (b) if there is any change in the internal energy of the system.

a) Heat is recognized as it crosses the

boundaries. Since the room is well insulated
→ It is an adiabatic system and no heat will
pass through the boundaries => Q = 0 for this
process
b) Part of the chemical energy is converted to
sensible energy. Since there is no increase
or decrease in the total internal energy of the
system → ∆U = 0 for this process

Self Study: 2-5 MECHANICAL FORMS OF WORK

 1st Law of Thermodynamics

▪ The first law of thermodynamics (the Energy cannot be created or

conservation of energy principle) provides a destroyed; it can only
sound basis for studying the relationships change forms
among the various forms of energy and
energy interactions, such as Heat Q, Work
W, and Total Energy E

▪ The first law states that Energy can neither

be created nor destroyed during a process;
it can only change forms  every bit of
energy should be accounted for during a
process

The increase in the energy of a

potato in an oven is equal to the
amount of heat transferred to it
 I- The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Control Mass
Undergoing a Cycle

During any cycle a system (control mass) undergoes, the Cyclic Integral of the heat is
proportional to the cyclic integral of the work

▪ Consider as a control mass the gas in the container shown go through a cycle that is made
up of two processes
✓ work is done on the system by the paddle that turns as the weight is lowered
✓ system then return to its initial state by transferring heat from the system until the cycle
has been completed
▪ Measurements of Work and Heat were made during a Cycle for a wide variety of
systems and for various amounts of work and heat.
▪ When the amounts of Work and Heat were compared, it was found that they were always
proportional.
 I- The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Control Mass
Undergoing a Cycle
▪ Observations led to the formulation of the First Law of Thermodynamics, which in
equation form is
ර 𝛿𝑄 = ර 𝛿𝑊

‫𝑸𝜹 ׯ‬cyclic integral of the heat transfer → represents the net heat transfer during the
cycle,

‫𝑾𝜹 ׯ‬cyclic integral of the work → represents the net work during the cycle

▪ When a system undergoes a Thermodynamic Cycle then the net heat supplied to
the system from its surroundings plus the net work input to the system from its
surroundings must equal zero

෍𝑄 + ෍𝑊 = 0
 II- The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Change in State of
Control Mass
▪ System undergoes a Cycle in which it changes from state 1 to state 2 by process
A and returns from state 2 to state 1 by process B

ර 𝛿𝑄 = ර 𝛿𝑊 Considering the Two Separate Processes

✓ Consider another Cycle in which the control mass changes from state 1 to state 2
by process C and returns to state 1 by process B, as before

Subtracting the second of these

equations from the first
 II- The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Change
in State of Control Mass

⇒ Quantity (δQ − δW) is the same for all processes between states 1 and 2
⇒ (δQ − δW) depends only on the initial and final states and not on the path
followed between the two states
⇒ This is a Point Function, and therefore it is the differential of a property of the
mass

Because E is a property, its derivative is written dE

E1, E2: initial and final values of the energy E

of the control mass
1Q2: heat transferred to the control mass
during the process from state 1 to state 2
1W2: work done by the control mass during
the process
 II- The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Change
in State of Control Mass
▪System undergoing a series of adiabatic processes from a specified state 1 to
another specified state 2, may involve several kinds of work interactions
▪ Careful measurements during these experiments indicate the following:
For all adiabatic processes between two specified states of a closed system,
the net work done is the same regardless of the nature of the closed system
and the details of the process
⇒ ∆E = δW as δQ = 0 for Adiabatic Process

Above statement is largely based on the experiments of Joule in the first half of the
nineteenth century → recognized as a Fundamental Principle

⇒ Value of the Net Work must depend on the end states of the
system only, and thus it must correspond to a change in a
Property of the system → Total Energy
OR
⇒ Change in energy between two states of a system is the same,
whatever path the system may follow in undergoing that change
of state
 1st Law of Thermodynamics

The work (electrical)

done on an adiabatic
system is equal to the
increase in the energy
of the system.

Heating of water in a
pan on top of a range

The work (shaft) done

In the absence of any on an adiabatic system
work interactions, the is equal to the increase
energy change of a in the energy of the
system is equal to the system.
net heat transfer.
 1st Law of Thermodynamics
Energy Balance:
▪ Netchange (increase or decrease) in the Total Energy of the system during
a Process is equal to the difference between the Total Energy Entering and the
Total Energy Leaving the system during that process

The energy change of a

system during a process
is equal to the net work
and heat transfer
between the system and
its surroundings

The work (boundary)

done on an adiabatic
system is equal to
the increase in the
energy of the system
 1st Law of Thermodynamics

Energy Change of a System, ΔEsystem

Energy Change = Energy at final state – Energy at initial state

▪ In the absence of Electric, Magnetic, and Surface Tension Effects the change
in the total energy of a system during a process is the sum of the changes in
its Internal, Kinetic, and Potential Energies

▪ The First Law introduces a new property of the system called the Energy of the
System
▪ We have “Energy in transition (Heat)” between the system and the
surroundings” which is not a property and “Energy of the system” which is a
property
 1st Law of Thermodynamics

Energy Change of a System, ΔEsystem

▪ The change in the value of a “Property” during a process depends only on

the End States and not on the path taken by a process

▪ Most systems encountered in practice are

STATIONARY, i.e., they do not involve any
changes in their velocity or elevation during a
process
 1st Law of Thermodynamics

Problem

A tank containing a fluid is stirred by a paddle wheel. The work input to the paddle
wheel is 5090 kJ. The heat transfer from the tank is 1500 kJ. Consider the tank and
the fluid inside a control surface and determine the change in internal energy of this
control mass.

Problem

A domestic refrigerator is loaded with food and the door closed. During a certain
period the machine consumes 1 kWh of energy and the internal energy of the system
drops by 5000 kJ. Find the net heat transfer for the system.
 III- The First Law of Thermodynamics for a Control Volume
Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout
▪ Energy can be transferred to or from a system in three forms: Heat, Work, and Mass Flow
▪ Net Transfer of a quantity is equal to the difference between the amounts transferred in and out

✓ Heat Transfer Q is zero for Adiabatic Systems

✓ Work Transfer W is zero for systems that involve
no work interactions
✓ Energy Transport with Mass Emass is zero for systems
that involve no mass flow across their boundaries
(i.e., Closed Systems)
▪ More compactly, Energy balance for any system
undergoing any kind of process

The energy content of a control

volume can be changed by mass
flow as well as heat and work
interactions.

In Rate Form
 1st Law of Thermodynamics
Energy Change of a System, ΔEsystem
▪ Energy Balance can be expressed on a per unit mass basis:
▪ Energy Balance in Differential form:

For a cycle
∆E = 0, thus
Qnet = Wnet

When applying the Energy Balance in any of its forms, it is important to be

careful about Signs and Units and to distinguish carefully between Rates and
Amounts
Mechanical Engineering Dept. HITEC Univ.
 1st Law of Thermodynamics

Example
Air is contained in a vertical piston–cylinder assembly fitted with an
electrical resistor. The atmosphere exerts a pressure of 1 bar on the top
of the piston, which has a mass of 45 kg and a face area of 0.09. Electric
current passes through the resistor, and the volume of the air slowly
increases by 0.045 m3 while its pressure remains constant. The mass of
the air is 0.27 kg, and its specific internal energy increases by 42 kJ/kg.
The air and piston are at rest initially and finally. The piston–cylinder
material is a ceramic composite and thus a good insulator. Friction
between the piston and cylinder wall can be ignored, and the local
acceleration of gravity is g = 9.81 m/s2. Determine the heat transfer from
the resistor to the air, in kJ, for a system consisting of:
• the air alone
• the air and the piston.
 1st Law of Thermodynamics

Example

The 60-W fan of a central heating system is to circulate air through the
ducts. The analysis of the flow shows that the fan needs to raise the
pressure of air by 50 Pa to maintain flow. The fan is located in a
horizontal flow section whose diameter is 30 cm at both the inlet and the
outlet. Determine the highest possible average flow velocity in the duct.
 Energy Conversion Efficiencies

▪ Efficiency: One of the most frequently used terms in thermodynamics wh ich

indicates how well an Energy Conversion or Transfer Process is accomplished
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
Efficiency =
𝑅𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

▪ Efficiency of a Water Heater: Ratio of the energy

delivered to the house by hot water to the energy
supplied to the water heater
 Energy Conversion Efficiencies

▪ Heating value of the fuel: Amount of heat released when a unit amount of fuel
at room temperature is completely burned and the Combustion Products are
cooled to the room temperature

▪ Lower heating value (LHV): When water

leaves as a vapor

▪ Higher heating value (HHV): When water

in the combustion gases is completely
condensed and thus the heat of
vaporization is also recovered
 Energy Conversion Efficiencies
▪ Generator: A device that converts Mechanical Energy to Electrical Energy
▪ Generator Efficiency: The ratio of the Electrical Power Output to the Mechanical
Power Input
▪ Thermal Efficiency of a Power Plant: The ratio of the net electrical power output
to the rate of fuel energy input

Overall Efficiencies are about 26–30 percent for Gasoline Automotive Engines, 34–
40 percent for Diesel Engines, and 40–60 percent for large Power Plants.
 Energy Conversion Efficiencies

▪ Transfer of Mechanical Energy is usually accomplished by a Rotating Shaft

→ Mechanical Work is often referred to as Shaft Work

✓ ηmech of 97% indicates that 3 percent of the mechanical energy input is

converted to Thermal Energy as a result of Frictional Heating, and this will
manifest itself as a slight rise in the temperature of the fluid
▪ Effectiveness of the conversion process between the mechanical work supplied
or extracted and the mechanical energy of the fluid is expressed by the Pump
Efficiency and Turbine Efficiency

Rate of increase in the Mechanical Energy of the fluid, equivalent to the useful
pumping power supplied to the pump
 Energy Conversion Efficiencies

Rate of decrease in the Mechanical

Energy of the fluid
→ equivalent to the Mechanical Power
extracted from the fluid by the turbine
Ẇturbine,e
 Energy Conversion Efficiencies
▪ Electrical Energy is commonly converted to rotating Mechanical Energy by electric
motors to drive fans, compressors, and so forth
Effectiveness of this conversion process is characterized by the Motor Efficiency ηmotor

▪A Pump is usually packaged together with its

M otor, and a Turbine with its Generator
→ Combined or Overall efficiency of Pump–Motor
and Turbine–Generator combinations:
 Energy Conversion Efficiencies

▪ All the Efficiencies just defined range between 0 and 100 percent

▪ Lower Limit of 0 percent corresponds to the conversion of the entire Mechanical

or electric energy input to thermal energy → device functions like a Resistance
Heater

▪ Upper Limit of 100 Percent corresponds to the case of Perfect Conversion with
No Friction or other irreversibilities, and thus no conversion of Mechanical or
Electric Energy to Thermal Energy
 Energy Conversion Efficiencies
Example
The water in a large lake is to be used to generate electricity by the installation of a
hydraulic turbine– generator at a location where the depth of the water is 50 m
(Fig. below). Water is to be supplied at a rate of 5000 kg/s. If the electric power
generated is measured to be 1862 kW and the generator efficiency is 95 percent,
determine:
a) The overall efficiency of the turbine–generator,
b) The mechanical efficiency of the turbine, and
c) The shaft power supplied by the turbine to generator