World History Class Notes Avadh Ojha

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World History Class Notes
By Avadh Ojha Sir
INTRODUCTION TO WORLD HISTORY.......................................................................................................................................................... 2

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION............................................................................................................................................................................. 5
AMERICAN REVOLUTION ............................................................................................................................................................................ 13
AMERICAN CIVIL WAR................................................................................................................................................................................ 18
FRENCH REVOLUTION................................................................................................................................................................................. 21
UNIFICATION OF GERMANY ....................................................................................................................................................................... 26
UNIFICATION OF ITALY ............................................................................................................................................................................... 30
FIRST WORLD WAR (1914-1918) ........................................................................................................................................................ 31
SECOND WORLD WAR (1939-1945) .................................................................................................................................................... 41
COLD WAR .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 42
World History Avadh Ojha

World History Class Notes

By Avadh Ojha Sir
Introduction to World History
World History is divided into 2 parts:
Pre-modern World Modern World
Simple economy - barter, precious metals Complex economy - token currency
Polity - mainly monarchy Polity - mainly Parliamentary form of govt
Society - privileged classes Society - egalitarian, no privilege by birth
Religion - it was the constitution Man-made constitution
Reason for this transformation

The story of this transformation is related to the relation between the West (Europe) and the
East (Asia). West from ancient times was dependent on East for its survival. From November
to February, entire Europe is covered with snow. For this period, Europeans required 2 things
for their survival - silk and spices. Spices are not only preservatives but also medicines. They
are the fruits of the Tropical region. This relation was maintained by 4 routes -
Whenever Central and West Asia were in trouble, silk came from China to Indo-China and
spices from Indonesia and Malaysia -> Indo-China -> Bengal -> Ujjain -> Gujarat -> Persian
Gulf -> West Asia -> Europe

This was called Maritime silk route comprising 4 seas - South China Sea, Bay of Bengal,
Arabian Sea, Mediterranean Sea
Route A, D in the Pre-modern World supplied silk and spices, in the modern world supplies oil
and natural gas.
These routes saw the movement of goods, people and ideas from one place to another. In this
background, a revolution took place in West Asia in the 7th century, ie, the birth of Islam.
In the 7th century, when West and East were the victims of Feudalism and common people
were suffering, Islam emerged as a resolution against evils. Till the 10th century, Islam
consolidated its position in Central and West Asia. From the 11th century, it started expanding
in different directions. Its expansion towards the West gave birth to a new phenomenon -
Crusades (holy war) between the Cross and the Crescent.
In 1453, the Turks (Muslims) occupied Contantinople (Istanbul) and from here started the
dominance of Muslims on the Silk Route. This was the beginning of the trouble for the people
of the West since goods from the East to the West had to pass through Central and West
Asia. Turks increased the prices at their discretion.
After 1453, the situation became critical for Europeans and that gave promotion to a new
development in Europe - Renaissance (rebirth). It gave promotion to geographical discoveries
of which the most important were:
● 1492 - Columbus discovered New World
● 1498 - Vasco da Gama discovered a direct sea route to India via Cape of Good Hope
This gave promotion to World trade.

This interdependence of trade and commerce between various continents was called World
Trade.
World trade with passage of time increased the demand for goods to such a level that it went
beyond human production. This became the ground for big development in the second half of
the 18th century - Industrial Revolution.
2 forces led to birth of Modern World

● Mother of Modern World - Renaissance
● Father of Modern World - Industrial Revolution
Renaissance and Industrial Revolution started giving promotion to new order which had a
clash with the old order and this clash between old and new led to a series of revolutions:
● 1787 - American Revolution
● 1789 - French Revolution
● 1917 - Russian Revolution
● 1949 - Chinese Revolution

Renaissance and Industrial Revolution led to new developments in World History in which the
important development in the second half of 19th century was the birth of New Industrialized
Nations.
From here starts the clash of interests between the old bosses Britain and France and new
leaders Germany and Italy for raw materials and market. It led to important development in
the 20th century - 2 World Wars - World War I (1914-1918) and World War II (1939-1944).
The use of atom bombs in WWII created the threat of the existence of this world. Another
world war would mean the end of this world and the world cannot survive without war.
This situation gave birth to a new type of War - Cold War i.e., the war between Capitalism
under the dominance of the US & Communism under the USSR.
With the disintegration of the USSR in 1991, the US became the sole world power.
Quick Glance of World History

Islam → Crusades → Renaissance → Geographical Discoveries → World Trade →Industrial
Revolution → Birth of New Industrialized Nations → Two World Wars → Cold War →
Disintegration of USSR.
Industrial Revolution
- Reasons, England as the epicenter, Evaluation, IR in different countries
Reasons
● Ground (World Trade) – With the beginning of World Trade, the demand for goods
increased to such a level that it went beyond human production preparing the ground
for the Industrial Revolution.
● Fuel (Capitalism) – Capitalism had its beginning from the 15th century & it generally
means rotation of wealth. The core objective of capitalism is profit at any cost. This
created the necessity of new mode of production and transportation. This created the
necessity of R&D. R&D required finance, this led to the birth of Royal Societies Eg.,
Royal Society of London. This gave promotion to new inventions and discoveries like
telegraph, telephone, steam engine, etc.
● Spark (New Inventions & Discoveries) – The new inventions and discoveries acted as a
spark for Industrial Revolution, Eg., Arkwright, Hargreaves, Crompton tried to improve
the spinning wheel but they failed to overcome the limitations of human production.
The revolution in this field was done by Newcomen who invented the steam engine
and James Watt who improved the steam engine. Steam Power was turned into
machine power & this was the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the world.

● Fire (Imperialism & Colonialism) – Raw Material and Market was the Oxygen for this
fire which was provided by Imperialism and Colonialism, Eg., the two power houses of
Britain → American Colonies till 18th Century and India from 18th Century.
England - epicenter of Industrial Revolution in 18th Century

● Pioneer of Geographical Discoveries: Spain & Portugal.
● Pioneer in Colonialism: Spain & Portugal. Eg., Goa in 1510
● Pioneer in World Trade: Spain & Portugal.
● Pioneer in Wealth: Spain & Portugal.
But pioneer in the Industrial Revolution was England. Why?

● Social structure of England i.e., dominance of the Capitalist Class in Polity & Society of
England. The story starts from 13th century, when King John of England became the
victim of Financial Crisis. He was helped by the big merchants, traders and feudal
lords. As a return to them, he included them in the policy making of the state through
Magna Carta of 1215 (the Great Charter). This was the birth of Parliament in England.
This Parliament had the right to regulate the finances of the state. The Glorious
Revolution of 1688 turned this Parliament as a supreme authority in England.
● Availability of Capital – 1750 Industrial Revolution in England. 1757 Battle of Plassey
and from here starts Drain of Wealth. 1764 Battle of Buxar and then Company received
Diwani Rights in 1765. From here began the official reign. The entire wealth was
rotated by the Bank of England estd in 1694.
● Availability of Labour – Enclosure Movement → With the beginning of Industrial
Revolution in England, the value of land increased. In this situation the big landlords
started snatching away the land of small farmers and this was called the Enclosure
Movement. The landless labourers started moving towards cities and they fulfilled the
requirement of labour in Industries.
● New Political Order – During the 1640s Charles I was the ruler of England and he was
busy fighting the Civil War with Scotland. Charles I became the victim of a financial
crisis and he demands money from the Parliament. But Parliament refuses to entertain
his demand. He declares war on Parliament. Mature people do not fight on Double
Fronts. Parliament refuses to pay salaries to the soldiers. Finally the army sided with
the Parliament, Charles I was caught and beheaded. The new rulers Charles II and
James II failed to handle the situation and James II escaped to France. In this
scenario, Parliament brought William and Mary from Holland and placed them on the
throne of England. They in return surrendered all their power and privileges to the
Parliament. This peaceful transfer of power from Monarchy to Parliament was called

the Glorious Revolution of 1688. In 1706 Parliament got the right to nominate the ruler
for the British throne. Therefore, in the beginning of the 18th century, England had
Parliamentary form of Government which was concerned about Nation and the People
while the rest of Europe was still under Monarchy.
● Availability of Raw Material and Market, initially from American Colonies and then from
India.
● Naval Power
Evaluation
1. Impact on Economy - Modern economy is the gift of Capitalism & Industrialization. Its
important features are Stock Exchange, Banking, etc. Wealth of Nations written by
Adam Smith in 1767 is considered as the Bible of Modern Economy.
2. Impact on Polity – Capitalism gave promotion to Mercantilism, which gave promotion
to Imperialism and Colonialism. Then Nation was born. Nationalism finally strengthens
Capitalism, Communism and Socialism.
CAPITALISM → had its beginning from the 15th Century and it generally means Rotation of
Wealth. The two important pillars of Rotation are Banks and Stock Exchange.
MERCANTILISM → It was an economic phenomenon prevalent in Europe from 16th to 18th

century. According to it, nations have limited wealth and this wealth is to be used in growth
and development of the Nation. For this, nations should save their wealth by regulating the
EXIM Policy. But practically it was not possible for all the nations so European countries
started conquering the areas of raw material and market leading to a new development
called Mercantile Wars Eg., Anglo-Carnatic War in India. This gave rise to Imperialism and
Colonialism.
IMPERIALISM → Whenever a nation controls the economy and polity of a country outside its
territory for the benefit of the mother country, it is called Imperialism. Eg. Britain controlled
India from 1757 to 1947 in 3 phases.
Three Phases in which Britain controlled India from 1757 to 1947:

● First Phase (1757-1813) - Industrial Revolution had started, industries were being
established. Finance was required.
● Second Phase (1813-1836) - Industries are established. Raw Material and Market is
required. By Charter Act of 1813 the door of India was opened for British goods and
free trade. India became a farmhouse of Industrial Britain.

● Third Phase (1856-1947) - Peak of Industrial Revolution in England. Labour became

costly and the internal market got exhausted. This is a Period of Plunder through
Investment Eg., Railways.
COLONIALISM → From 1757-1947 India was forced to sacrifice its interest for the interest of
Britain. This led to poverty, economic backwardness, unemployment. This in totality was
called Colonialism. Therefore, imperialism is the action and colonialism is the outcome. This
gave promotion to the next development i.e., Nationalism.
NATIONALISM →
● Nation-State – 15th century was the birth of Capitalism. It led to change in Economy,
Polity, and Society. The Church and the Pope became a hurdle towards this change.
The new changes led to the emergence of new classes - Middle Class, Working Class.
These new classes started funding money to the king. This gave birth to Absolute
Monarchy of Britain, Spain, France. These monarchies emerged with a new identity
called Nation-State.
● Nation – The separation & exploitation because of Imperialism and Colonialism acted
as a binding force for the suffering people in the name of Nationalism. Eg, US.
All these philosophies became a challenge for the people and this played an important role in
the emergence of 2 new philosophies - Socialism & Communism.
COMMUNISM → Resource or wealth controlled or regulated by a commune i.e., a group of

people. Capitalism was born in the 15th Century. Feudalism was the immediate enemy of
Capitalism. Capitalism gave noble dreams to the common people - Libert, Equality, Fraternity.
With the help of common people they succeeded in suppressing Feudalism. Eg., French
Revolution of 1789. But in spite of getting relief the condition of common people was
deteriorating because
AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY INDUSTRIAL ECONOMY
Working Hour - Only day time. Working Hour - 24 hours.
Women & Children have a superficial role. They have a key role - Cheap Labour.
Periodical Employment Throughout the year.
This situation led to the emergence of Ned Ludd - the Labour leader in Britain - in the last
phase of the 18th Century, considering industries as the main cause for the sufferings of the
working class, he started targeting and burning down the industries. This was called the

Luddite Movement. It laid down the foundation of Communism & Socialism, as it was a
reaction against the exploitation done by Capitalism and the Industrial Revolution. These
philosophies got their prophet Karl Marx in the second half of the 19th century.
KARL MARX
● In his famous book ‘Das Capital’, wrote, Exploitation is the destiny of the working
class.
● Large part of profit for the capitalist class comes from labour charges, so they are
destined to be exploited.
● Root cause of this destiny - According to Karl Marx the section in the society which
controls the Means of production is also the ruling class. Therefore, the working class
is without economic and political power.
● Rule of the Proletariat - He appeals to the working class to unite and take the political
power in their hand. As polity is the guardian of the economy, so after getting political
power they should end the concept of private property and that will be the end of
Capitalism, Mercantilism, Imperialism, Colonialism, Nationalism and this will establish
classless and stateless society. This will be called Marxism. Marxism is the standard
and ideal philosophy of Communism.
So, the future Socialist leaders took the core from him i.e., Means of production and made
additions in it according to their requirement leading to the birth of different variations of
Socialism eg., Leninism, Stalinism, Maoism, Castroism, etc.
SOCIALISM → Communism is a philosophy Socialism is the implementation and it has no

definite definition. But the key pillars of Socialism are:
● Equal Opportunity to everyone in all aspects of life like education, employment etc.
● Welfare State
● Management and regulation of key industries in the hands of the stateImportant
industries would be controlled or regulated by the state.
3. Impact on Society – Society is a living organ. Whenever the economy and polity
changes, society is bound to change Eg. USA, Afghanistan.
● Liberation of Women
● Attack on Slavery System. First country to attack slavery was France in 1773.
● Emergence of New Classes - Capitalist Class, Working Class, Middle Class.
● Impact on Religion.

Religion was the constitution in the Pre-Modern World. In the Modern World, life is governed
by a man-made Constitution. A very important feature of the man-made Constitution is its
amendability. In Pre-Modern World, religious movements acted as Constitutional Amendments
e.g., India.
Religious Movements = Constitutional Movement in Pre-Modern World.

In this scenario, the 15th century AD saw the birth of Capitalism. This led to the change in
economy, polity and society which in turn led to the change in Religion. Therefore, 16th
century Europe saw the beginning of the Religious Movements in Europe eg., Wycliffe in
England stood up against irrelevant and evil practices of Christianity. Martin Luther in
Germany came out with his 99 thesis against the Tetzel Episode. This was the beginning of
the Protestant Movement in Europe.
The changes started by Capitalism got momentum in the second half of the 18th century with
the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. The religious principles became an obstacle in the
new development.
In 1789 the French Revolution happened and in 1791 France came out with the first man-made
Constitution. In this France emphasized on Secularism. Religion became a personal affair.
Religion got a big blow in 20th century because of Russian Revolution in 1917. Communists
came into power. They declared Russia as an atheist state as according to them religion is
based on fear and appeasement.
The Industrial Revolution gave promotion to the new order which led to a series of revolutions
in which the first important revolution was the American Revolution which led to the birth of
a new nation - the USA.
Industrial Revolution in the USA

Preface:
Group A Countries – USA (1787), China (1921), India (1947).
Group B Countries – Syria (1932), Iraq (1934), Pakistan (1947).
The Industrial Revolution plays a very important role in strengthening the concept of Nation
and Nationalism.
Background:

● With the birth of the US in 1787, America had a strong economic and political
background eg., rich in Natural Resources, the land of mines and plantations,
mechanized agriculture, modern political order - Congress and Constitution.
● Americans went for Infrastructural Revolution (Infrastructure = Industry). Eg.,
Macadamized Roads, beginning of Canal Age in America - interlinking of lakes and
rivers through canal, continental railway system which included North Pacific Railway,
South Pacific Railway, Grand Continental Railway. Until the 1850s there was a total
50,000 km railway network. The Shipping Industry got promotion because of Robert
Fulton.
● Technological Revolution - Americans learned the technique of melting the Iron Ore
with coke and charcoal. This gave promotion to the Iron and Steel Industry. Waltham
System 1812 - Revolution in Textile Industry because - spinning, weaving, dying,
printing - all was done under a single unit.
● Fate or blessings - the role played by Napoleon - In 1815 Napoleon adopted the policy
of aggression and he played an important role in spreading the ideals of French
Revolution in Europe. In 1815 he was removed from power then he ignited the forces of
change in Europe. This led to a series of events in Europe like Resolution of 1830 &
1848, Unification of Germany & Italy, Crimean War, Balkan War, two World Wars. This
proved beneficial for USA –
➔ America got isolated from European politics for more than 100 years.
➔ European industrialists & capitalists started moving towards America as America was a
safe destination for investment.
Cotton Chain Reaction

USA is rich in resources - Cotton, Coal & Iron - but resources are not the only requirement.
Market is also required. Napoleon provided the market through his famous Continental Policy.
Napoleon comes into power in 1799 in France and then he decides for a direct war with
Britain, leading to a famous battle – Battle of Trafalgar.
Napoleon was badly defeated in the Battle of Trafalgar. The Indirect war of Napoleon against
Britain was called as Continental Policy. Under it Napoleon & his friends - Spain, Austria,
Russia - ended their trading relations with Britain in 1809. This had impact on two countries -
● India - Charter Act of 1813 (end of trading monopoly of EIC)
● USA - Europe will not buy the goods from Britain. So now the only option is USA & this
gave promotion to the textile industry in India. This in turn gave promotion to Iron &

Steel Industry. This entire development is based on Cotton, so it is called as Cotton

Chain Reaction.
This Cotton Chain Reaction also happened in India -
● India - Rich in resources, cotton, coal & iron.
● Market was never a challenge for India.
This gave promotion to the Cotton Industry in India.
Germany
Coal & Iron Chain Reaction -
● Rich in Resources + Germans went for Technological revolution.
● Learned the art of melting iron ore to coke and charcoal, this gave promotion to the
Iron & Steel Industry.
This made Germany a pioneer in the Automobile Industry.
In 1910, Germany became the second largest producer of steel in the world.
➔ 18th Century - Industrial Revolution in Britain and France.
➔ 19th Century - Industrial Revolution in Europe and USA.
➔ 20th Century - Industrial Revolution in Entire World.
This made Germany the Sink of Foreign Reserve (Gold and Silver). This gave promotion to
other industries like textile, chemical and pharmaceutical.
The Industrial Revolution in different countries started giving promotion to the New Order
which had a clash with the Old Order. This clash between Old & New led to a series of
Revolutions in which the first important Revolution was the American Revolution. It led to the
birth of a country called the United States of America.
Q. Whoever says Industrial Revolution means Cotton. Explain

Q. Modern World is the outcome of the Industrial Revolution, as all the outcomes are the
result of Industrial Revolution. As Industrial Revolution transformed all aspects of human life.
Explain with evidence.
United States of America

● Preface
● American Revolution
● Industrial Revolution in US (already completed)
● Civil War

PREFACE:
17th Century - 13 slum areas
18th Century - The slum areas became a Nation. Why?
19th Century - The Nation becomes an Economic Power. How?
20th Century - This Economic Power becomes a World Power. How?
In the Pre-Modern World, the drain of wealth was from West to East because countries like
India were self-sufficient economies and their balance of payment was in their favor because
of maximum export and minimum import. This was a pain for the people of the West. This is
evident by the statement of the following personalities -
● Pliney, the Roman historian was of the opinion that the entire gold of Rome is being
drained towards India.
● Bernier, the French Traveller in the Medieval Period says that the entire gold of Europe
is being drained towards India.
● Peter the Great, the Russian ruler of the 17th century said the country which will
control the trade and commerce of India will be the boss of Europe.
In this scenario, the discovery of the New World proved to be a boon for Europe. For the first
time, Europeans got certain new commodities like Tobacco, Potato, Fine quality Cotton,
Pineapple, etc,. which developed big market in India. This started the rush of Europeans
towards the New World and Queen Elizabeth I opted for the official policy for the settlement
of colonies in the New World with the help of chartered companies.
In 1607, Virginia was the first colony on the Atlantic Coast.
In 1732, Georgia was the 13th colony on the Atlantic Coast & this was the beginning of the
story of the USA.
➔ 1492 - 1607 – New World
➔ 1607 - 1783 – American Colonies
➔ 1787 onwards – USA
American Revolution
- Reasons, Phases, Evaluation
Reasons:
1. Economic Causes - American Colonies were settled by the British Crown so Britain
considered its political right on these colonies. In this scenario, Britain framed
economic policies for these colonies in such a way that it led to the exploitation of
these colonies Eg.,

(a) Trading Monopoly - under it Britain maintained monopoly for trade on specific
items of America like tobacco, potato, American cotton, etc,.
(b) Navigation Law of 1651 - Under it, it was compulsory for American ships to visit
British ports before leaving for the other parts of the world. This law was to stop the
smuggling of American Goods.
(c) Industrial Policy - American colonies were not allowed to establish production
units to maintain the dependency of American colonies on Britain.
2. Political Causes - There were 13 colonies, every colony had a Governor and a
Legislature.
In 1688 - Glorious Revolution - Monarchy was replaced by Parliament.
In 1689 - This Parliament came out with a law known as Gentleman’s Resolution. In
this law it was said that tax paying people will be given representation in the British
Parliament.
In 1763 - End of Seven Years War. Britain became the victim of the financial crisis. In
this situation, Britain imposed new taxes on American Colonies – Stamp Duty, Sugar
Duty, etc,. In this scenario, American colonies raised the issue of Gentleman’s
Resolution & they gave the slogan “No taxation without, without representation”. This
was the beginning of the political tension between American colonies and Britain.
3. Social Causes - Diversified, detached, dynamic, disappointed

(a) Diversified Society - Moving to New World in 16th Century, meant committing suicide.
The first hurdle was Atlantic, next comes the Grand Bank, the third hurdle was natives
especially, Red Indians and most followed cannibalism.
● Therefore, the first group of people moving towards the New World were former
convicts.
● The second group of people moving towards America were Religious Liberals.
● Third group was the Adventurers.
In this way, American colonies had people from different classes, different sections
and different nationalities.
(b) Detached Society - The group which arrived in the 17th century were attached to their
motherland in Europe. But the generation that was born and brought up in America in
the 18th century for them America was the Motherland.
(c) Dynamic Society - Liberalism and detachment lead to dynamism and the barren land
of America was turned into land of mines & plantations in the 18th century, economic
power in the 19th century, world power in the 20th century and superpower in the 21st
century.

(d) Disappointed Society - The fruit of the risk and labour done by Americans was taken
away by the British.
4. Role of Intellectuals -
(a) Thomas Paine came out with his pamphlets “Common Sense”, in which he explained
the exploitative policies of Britain eg., trading monopoly, navigation law, etc.
(b) Benjamin Franklin - established philosophical houses to discuss and debate on the
issues given by Thomas Paine.
(c) Henry Patrick - Instigated the people when he said give me death or independence.
American Colonies India France Russia
Thomas Paine Dadabhai Naoroji Voltaire Maxim Gorky
Benjamin Franklin Tilak Montesquieu Leo Tolstoy
Henry Patrick Subhas Chandra Rousseau Lenin

Bose
5. Immediate Cause -
Seven Years War (1756-63) between Austria and Prussia for Silesia which was rich in
coal & iron.
France is a country without resources. France used to get its resources from
Rhineland, which is a German Territory. Prussia is a German State. Therefore, France
sided with Austria and Britain sided with Prussia. Finally Britain and Prussia won the
war. Although Britain was victorious, Britain became a victim of the financial crisis.
When Britain tried to recover it from American colonies it started the tension between
American Colonies and Britain leading to the Boston Tea Party, which became the
immediate cause for American Revolution.
Phases:
1. Grenville’s Policy to Son’s of Liberty and Daughters of Liberty (Phase of Rift)
2. Rockingham Declaration and Townshend Plan to Boston Massacre (Phase of Struggle)
3. Lord North’s Tea Policy to Boston Tea Party (Phase of Blast)
FIRST PHASE -
With the end of Seven Years War Britain became the victim of Financial Crisis and PM
Grenville came out with 3 Point Program –

1. According to Grenville, the Seven Years War was fought for the protection of American
Colonies so the burden of the war will be paid by American Colonies. In this
background he imposed new taxes on American Colonies eg., Sugar Duty, Stamp Duty,
etc.
2. Grenville was of the opinion that America took advantage of the Seven Years War &
violated old rules & regulations like Navigation Law. So a strict implementation of old
rules & regulations.
3. Restrictions on territorial expansion of American Colonies to protect the rights of the
native people eg., Red Indians.
The America of 1763 was young, mature and grown up America and they rejected Grenvilles’s
Policy. This was followed by the birth of the organizations like Sons of Liberty & Daughters of
Liberty. They, as a symbol of protest targeted stamp vendors, pulled out the stamps & burnt
it. Here they gave the slogan - No Taxation, Without Representation. This was the beginning of
the Rift between American colonies and Britain.
Date - 6 June, 2023

SECOND PHASE - 1760s - Challenging decade for Britain
● Mercantile Wars
● World Trade
● Territorial Expansion
● Unrest in American Colonies
After 1763, Britain was in trouble from 2 sides - financial crisis and unrest in American
colonies. This proved costly for Grenville as his government came down on this issue. The new
PM Rockingham considering stamp duty as the main cause of irritation for Americans -
abolished it but then his Finance Minister Townshend said that although we have abolished
the Stamp Duty but Britain still has the right to impose tax on American colonies and under
Townshend Plan, Britain increased import duties on certain articles imported by America like
Glass, Paper, Tea, etc,. This move saw protest in the American colonies when Samuel Adams
organized a mass protest in Boston. Government committed the blunder of using force
against the people demanding rights leading to the Boston Massacre of 1770. This ruptured
the relationship between the British Government and American Colonies.
THIRD PHASE - 1770’s - Critical decade for American Colonies

The two power houses were in trouble -
1. American Colonies were facing unrest
2. Hindustan and EIC was facing financial difficulties

In this situation, Lord North, the PM of Britain tried for a double shot by a single arrow
through his famous Tea Policy.
Americans were the consumers of tea and companies like East India Company were suppliers
of tea. Lord North gave the permission to EIC to shift its tea containers towards American
colonies. This tea got exemption from Toll Tax (the protection money given by commercial
ship to the British navy for its protection from Sea Pirates).
● EIC, Ted Baker, New World - British Companies

● Eastern Circle - French Companies
Exemption was provided only to EIC.
➔ When Ted Baker, New World and Eastern Circle brought tea they paid - Toll Tax and
Import Duty.
➔ When EIC brought tea they had to pay only Import Duty. They had exemption from Toll
Tax.
The price of tea supplied by EIC came down and Lord north was of the assumption that the
Americans will be attracted to purchase this tea and if they did so it will fulfill 2 objectives:
1. It will end financial crisis of EIC
2. If Americans purchased tea with import duty increased by Britain under the
Townshend Plan it meant that Americans accepted the British right to impose tax on
American Colonies.
Americans were not in a mood to surrender and Samuel Adams with his followers entered
into the Boston Port and threw away the tea containers in the Atlantic Ocean. This was the
Boston Tea Party of 1773.
Boston Tea Party - This event proved to be the turning point in American history. It was
followed by the First Philadelphia Convention, 1774. It was the meeting of the representatives
from 12 American Colonies (Georgia was absent) with the objective to send a delegation to
Britain with 2 proposals -
● Britain should immediately remove all restrictions on trade and commerce of American
Colonies.
● America should be given representation in the British Parliament.
It seems that Britain failed to analyze the situation in American colonies or they
underestimated the strength of American Colonies. Britain decided for military action against
American Colonies leading to the Second Philadelphia Convention, 1776.

In this Convention, Thomas Jefferson came out with the declaration of independence on 4th
July, 1776. He was of the opinion that it was the duty of every citizen to oppose the wrongs
done by the state. This was the beginning of the American War of Independence.
The important battles were - Concord, Lexington, etc. and initially Americans were in trouble.
In 1781, France gave military assistance to American Colonies under their commander
Lafayette. This strengthened the position of Americans and in 1783 British forces under
Cornwallis surrendered to American militia under the leadership of George Washington. By
the Treaty of Paris, 1783 Britain accepted the independence of American colonies.
The new challenge in 1783 in front of American colonies was their future & philosophy. This
led to the Third Philadelphia Convention, 1787. The important decisions were -
● 13 colonies decided to remain united & this was the birth of the USA.
● Man-made Constitution in which the important decisions were - Republic, Bill of
Rights, Federalism, Federal court, Provision of Amendment, etc.
These decisions ended the Old Order and started the New Order and here the American War
of Independence turns into the American Revolution.
American Civil War

- Reasons, Stages, Role of Abraham Lincoln.
Reasons -
● Rift - Compact Sovereignty
● Struggle - Tariff Policy
● Blast - Slavery System
From the beginning, Northern and Southern states had economic and social differences. In
this background, the rift starts in the name of Compact Sovereignty. Southern States were of
the opinion that as we have joined the Union voluntarily, we want special status including the
right to leave the Union. Northern States were against it and they wanted a strong union
called Compact Sovereignty.
This started the rift between the Northern States and the Southern States.
The rift turned into a struggle on Tariff Policy. Northern States wanted a change in Tariff
Policy i.e., high import duty to protect their industry from European competition. But this was
against the interest of Southern States as they imported agricultural tools and slaves. So they
opposed it. This turned rift into struggle.

The struggle finally turned into a blast when Northern States took up the issue of Slavery
system. A Slave was a person without socio-economic status. This type of person is an
obstacle for the Urban Economy or Industrial Economy. Therefore, slaves were a necessity for
the Southern State but a curse for the Northern State. Northern States stood up against
slavery system and this was an attack on the existence of Feudal Lords in the Southern
States leading to the blast between the Northern & Southern States.
Phases:
● Missouri Agreement
● Anti-Slavery Activity
● Violation of Missouri Agreement
● Confederation of States.
Missouri Agreement:
1787 - There were 13 states.
2023 - 51 states.
38 new states came into existence after the birth of America. How? By Policy of Purchase and
Conquest. Eg., Alaska and Texas. This led to the birth of new states creating new challenges in
front of the American Union about the status of these states - whether they will be free
states or slave states.
● Northern States → Industrialized or Capitalist States → Slavery was illegal.

● Southern States → Agricultural or Feudal States → Slavery was legal in Southern
States.
Both the groups wanted to increase their number because both of them were clear that the
group which will be able to dominate the American Senate will be able to implement its
policy. This started the tension between Northern & Southern States and tension in an infant
nation is suicidal for the Nation.
Under the Missouri Agreement it was decided that 36 degree 33 min north will be free states
and 36 degree 33 min south will be Slave States (Mason-Dixon Line). This was a compromise
between Northern State and Southern State.
Anti-Slavery Activities:
● The Missouri Agreement was a compromise between Northern & Southern States not
between Capitalists & Feudal Lords.

● It seems that Capitalists opted for an indirect path to fulfill their objective. This is
evident because of the following developments -
1. The newspaper ‘Liberator’, concentrated on the issue of slavery
2. The famous novel ‘Uncle Tom's Cabin’ presented the critical picture of slaves in
Southern States.
3. Formation of Anti-Slavery society after 1813.
These developments created suspicion among Southern States because
revolution/movement/revolt cannot be managed without finance.
Violation of Missouri Agreement

Anti-Slavery activities has already created suspicion on Southern States & in this scenario 2
new developments increased the tension in America : –
1. Stephen Douglas Episode – Stephen Doughlas was a senator from Illinois ambitious to
be President of America. Political ambitions require finance. He came out with a new
formula called Squatter Sovereignty. In this he said that the status of the state will
depend upon the wish of the people of the state. This was a political victory for
Southern States.
2. Dred Scott Case – In the famous Dred Scott case, the US Supreme Court gave
judgement that slavery is a legal institution and a slave can only be liberated by the
wish of his master. This was a legal victory for Southern States. In this background of
political & legal victory, Southern States succeeded in turning Kansas & Nebraska into
slave states which were above 33 deg 33 min North. This was a violation of the
Missouri Agreement, rupturing the relationship between Northern & Southern States.
With the violation of the Missouri Agreement, the situation was tense in the USA. In this
scenario certain new developments deteriorated the conditions in America –
1. 1854 - Birth of Republican Party. An important program in its manifesto was abolition
of Slavery after coming into power.
2. James Brown Episode - He was a sympathizer of slaves. He raided military arsenal
providing arms and ammunition to the states and instigating them to fight against their
masters.
3. 1860 - Abraham Lincoln became the Republican President of America. This was a clear
cut message to Southern States that the days of slavery were over in America and 7
Southern States - Florida, Texas, Illinois, etc,. separated from the Union & created a
Confederation of States. Davis Jefferson became the head of this confederation and
made 3 important declarations –
● Slavery as a legal institution.

● Special status to the states.

● No change in tariff policy.
This was the beginning of the Civil War in America, which was smartly handled by Abraham
Lincoln.
ROLE OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN

1. Diplomatic mission to Britain & France - Lincoln requested Britain and France to avoid
their interference in the internal matters of America and if they did so, all their
interests would be protected in America. America will help them at the time of their
need. This was accepted by Britain and France. It was a big achievement for Lincoln as
he succeeded in cutting off the outside support of Southern States.
2. Naval Blockade of Atlantic Ocean - As a precautionary step, he went for naval
blockade of the Atlantic Ocean to stop any type of outside support to Southern States.
In case Britain and France change their stand, Lincoln will be able to handle the
situation.
3. Change of the Issue - Civil War started on the issue of slavery but with the beginning
of the war Lincoln said, “Slavery is not the concern for me. My issue is the American
Union, which was created by the sacrifice of our ancestors.” This generated an
emotional wave in America creating confusion among rivals.
4. Internal Emergency - Ban on press and end of freedom of expression to stop the
enemy from counter-propaganda.
5. Role of Volunteers
6. Thirteenth Amendment - abolition of slavery in America. Lincoln completed the
impossible task of protecting the American Union & abolishing Slavery system in
America.
The American Revolution in the last phase of the 18th Century, created the ground for the big
event in Europe - French Revolution.
French Revolution
- Reasons, Phases, Napoleon, Evaluation
Reasons:
1. Economic Causes – In 1763, France was in a financial crisis because of the Seven Years
War. In 1781, France made a blunder by providing military assistance to America. This
created financial bankruptcy in France.

2. Political Causes – Collapse of administrative structure due to financial crisis.

Incompetent ruler of France - Louis XVI
3. Social Causes – Absence of Law and Order. The tax paying section was in trouble as
they lacked important rights.
4. Role of Intellectuals – Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau
These philosophers became inspiration for Americans and success of these principles
in the American Revolution became inspiration for the French people.
5. Immediate Cause – mistakes of Louis XVI
Phases:
1. Financial Bankruptcy, 1781 - New taxes were imposed on people. The people in return
demanded political reforms. King refused, so people also refused to pay taxes. King
started using force. This angered the common people and riots began in France. In
order to control the riots, Louis XVI agreed to listen to the demands of the people.
People demanded an invitation to the Estates General.
2. Estates General - It was the General Assembly to discuss crucial matters. There were
3 Estates: Clergy, Nobles, Commoners. Decisions were made on the basis of voting.
Every group had a single vote.
Commoners were invited to the General Assembly. Large number of people gathered in
Paris. They demanded that the representation of Estates General to be on the basis of
population ratio. This gave birth to the National Assembly.
This angered Louis XVI and he started arresting leaders of the National Assembly.
3. Fall of Bastille, 1789 - This marked the beginning of the French Revolution. People
attacked the Bastille to get arms and ammunition. Many political prisoners were also
released. A People's militia, comprising 7000 men and women was formed.
The army was also very disgruntled as they did not receive salary for 8 years from 1781
to 1789. The army sided with the militia. This led to the formation of National Guards.
They came under the control of the National Assembly.
With the emergence of the National Assembly, Monarchy came to an end in France.
The first priority of National Assembly was framing the Constitution for France.
Constitution of 1791
● Nominal Head - King
● Real Head - Legislature (Indirect Election).
● Religion subordinated to the State.
● Pope - Nominal religious head of State.
● Economic Policy - Mixed economy, nationalization of land.

The Constitution of 1791 was progressive in nature but it was a forced constitution. Instead of
creating peace and stability, it created confusion and conflict in France. In this scenario, two
new developments deteriorated the condition of France -
1. Louis XVI tried to escape from France.
2. Pillnitz Declaration - Austria declared war on France.
The first Constitution became invalid. Government was infant, the country was without a
Constitution and facing a foreign invasion. This prepared the ground for the National
Convention in France.
4. National Convention - The first priority of the National Convention was to frame the
new Constitution. Although the second Constitution was more progressive but then it
increased confusion and conflict in France. In this background, the National Convention got
divided into a number of groups like Jacobins and Girondists.
● Jacobins - They were mainly the Working Class from a town called Jacoba. They sat
on the left side of the National Assembly → Leftists
● Girondist - They were the Capitalist Class from the town of Gironde. They sat on the
right side of the National Assembly → Rightists.
Robespierre (1793-94)
Reign of Terror.
Robespierre created complete darkness and intellectual vacuum in France. This prepared the
ground for the emergence of Napoleon Bonaparte in France.
Emergence of Napoleon
● He was a person of Middle Class ambitions.
● Napoleon was born on Corsica Island.
● Napoleon married Josephine, who was the widow of a French Capitalist.
● Napoleon became the Commander-in-Chief of the French Army. His first assignment
as the Commander-in-Chief was an Italian expedition. Austria took advantage of the
Revolution and dominated both the areas. Napoleon was given the charge to take
control of the areas. He defeated Austria and compelled Austria for the Treaty of
Campo Formio 1797.
Important provisions of the Treaty of Campo Formio were:
● Rhineland was accepted as the natural frontier of France (Coal & Iron).
● The Netherlands and Lombardy were given to France.
● France was accepted as the Guardian of Italian States. To satisfy the requirement &
sentiment of Austria.

● Venice was given to Austria.
In 1799, Napoleon became the President of France.
Napoleon Bonaparte - Reforms and Blunder

1. Peace with Europe - Signed Peace Treaties with England, Austria and Russia
2. Economic Reforms - He succeeded in increasing food production in France, promoted
public works and established the Bank of France to strengthen the Currency System.
Napoleon was successful in providing food and employment to people but in reality
basic reforms like land reforms and industrialization were missing. So, the French
economy was still weak and backward.
3. Political Reforms - Napoleon did the political reforms in such a way that on the
outside, it presented a picture of Democracy but from inside, it presented the picture
of Autocracy because all powers were in the hands of Napoleon.
4. Educational Reforms - He set up an elaborate system of schools.
5. Cultural Reforms
a. Constructed many palaces
b. started new award - Legion of Honor
c. Concorde Agreement, 1801 - to solve the dispute between Pope and State
which started with the first Constitution.
6. Codification of laws on secular lines
In this way, Napoleon was successful in maintaining peace and stability in France for
sometime. But his reforms had certain drawbacks which irritated the French intellectuals.
All his reforms had limitations -

1. War with Europe - From 1803, he started following aggression as a state policy leading
to almost 40 wars. These continuous wars created unity in Europe against Napoleon.
2. Continental Policy - Napoleon's Continental Policy aimed to weaken Britain
economically by enforcing a blockade on British trade with continental Europe and
pressuring countries to boycott British goods. While it inflicted economic damage on
Britain, it also sparked resentment and resistance, leading to mixed success and
contributing to Napoleon's eventual downfall.
3. War with Spain - Napoleon's war with Spain was a result of his attempt to assert
control over the country and place his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, on the Spanish
throne. The war involved military campaigns, guerilla warfare, and resistance from the

Spanish people, ultimately leading to Napoleon's costly and unsuccessful occupation

of Spain.
4. War with Russia - Napoleon's war with Russia was a disastrous military campaign in
1812. Despite initial success, the harsh Russian winter, scorched-earth tactics, and
Russian resistance led to the eventual retreat and decimation of Napoleon's Grand
Army.
5. Battle of Waterloo - June 18, 1815 - It was fought between the forces of Napoleon
Bonaparte and a coalition of British, Prussian, and other European troops. The battle
resulted in a decisive victory for the coalition forces, marking the end of Napoleon's
reign and his final defeat.
In 1815, Napoleon was removed from power and this was a sigh of relief for the Old Order.
This led to the next big development in Europe – Vienna Congress of 1815.
Vienna Congress, 1815 – With the end of Napoleon, Europe took a sigh of relief and
Metternich, the chancellor of Austria, organized Vienna Congress for the following reasons –
● To strengthen the old order.
● To maintain balance of power
● To recover the losses given by Napoleon.
The important decisions of this Congress were –
● Principle of Legitimacy - Representative of Old Order was the Monarchy.
Representative of New Order was the Parliament. During the Napoleonic Wars,
Napoleon tried to replace Monarchy by Parliament. Under the Principle of Legitimacy,
the states transformed by Napoleon were returned back to their old ruling families
e.g., France was given back to Louis XVIII, Holland was given back to the Orange
Dynasty, Papal States were returned back to the Pope. Objective was to strengthen the
Monarchy.
● Principle of Compensation - Napoleon came to power in 1799. There was a financial
bankruptcy in 1781 and in 1789 there was the French Revolution. Napoleon used to take
War expenditures from the defeated forces and he did this repeatedly. This was a big
loss for the defeated powers so when France was defeated and Napoleon was
removed from power, the victorious Nations tried to recover their losses eg.,
1. Russia - apart from Poland got a new gift Finland.
2. Austria retained Venice - the new charge was guardianship of German states.
3. The German and Italian States, whose rulers were not praised, were given to
Prussia and Sardinia. This strengthened their positions and they played an
important role in unification of Germany and Italy.

● Formation of Alliances - In case the incidents of French Revolution and Napoleon were
repeated, Europe will unite and handle them.
1. Holy Alliance proposed by Czar Alexander I – Under it Czar wanted the unity of
all Christian powers to protect Christianity and Christians. Britain rejected to be
the part of it and this led to the birth of –
2. Quadruple Alliance which included Prussia, Britain, Russia, Austria. Later on,
France paid up its compensation and France also became a part of it and then
it was called the Concert of Europe.
3. Suppression of Nationalism – Nationalism was a binding force for the masses
and it was acting as a threat for Monarchy. Eg., suppression of revolt in Naples
1820 in the background of Italian Unification. Therefore Concert of Europe was
successful in maintaining peace & stability in Europe for sometime but with the
passage of time, interest started changing. This change in interest led to
change in relation. Therefore, after the 1850s the equation of Concert of Europe
was changing and the forces of new order were gaining momentum leading to
the big changes in European History. An important development in this period
was the Unification of Germany & Italy.
Unification of Germany
Image Source: World History: Patterns of Interaction : McDougal Littel
1. German Diet, 1815 –
In Spite of richness in resources, the
German states were weak and
backward because
● Absence of Unity among
German States.
● Non-German leadership from
ancient times eg., Holy Roman
Empire - It was a union of
German and Italian States
created in the 8th century AD.
The rulers of these states
were called Electors as they
elected their political head.
This political head was guided
by the Pope. As Pope was under the influence of the big powers in Europe so
he rarely bothered about the interest of the German and Italian states. This

was a pain for German and Italian intellectuals. This Holy Roman Empire was
destroyed by Napoleon.
In the Vienna Congress, German states came under the guardianship of Austria.
There were 38 German states and as it was not possible for Austria to
individually handle these states, Austria created the German Diet.
It was a Parliament of German States and it had the right to solve its general
issues by two-third majority. Austria created the German Diet for its benefit
but it also gave formal political unity to German States.
This step of Austria gave formal political unity to German states.
2. Zollverein, 1820 – Custom Union created by Prussia in 1820 by taking the advantage of
the German Diet. Zollverein gave promotion to trade and commerce. This gave the
message to Germans that political unity will lead to economic empowerment of
German states. Therefore, till the 1820s, German states had political and economic
unity. In this situation, the 2 revolutions (1830 and 1848) leading to the second
Frankfurt Parliament strengthened the cause of German Unification.
3. Second Frankfurt Parliament, 1848 –
Revolution of 1830 → Epicenter - France.
→ Reason - Autocracy of Charles X
→ Outcome - Concept of Citizenship by King Louis Philippe.
1781 - Financial Bankruptcy
1789 - French Revolution
1799 - Napoleon comes into power
He came into power amidst bankruptcy and revolution and he was able to entertain
people for 16 years. When he was removed from power, Louis XVIII came into power.
Louis XVIII failed to handle the situation in France. He voluntarily left the throne and
was followed by Charles X. The new ruler, disappointed by the anarchy in the
Parliament, dissolves the Parliament and imposes a ban on the press. This was the
return of autocracy in France. This led to the uprising in France against Charles X. He
was forced to leave the throne and was followed by Louis Phillippe. The new ruler, to
satisfy the sentiment of the masses came out with the concept of Citizen King. This
was the Revolution of 1830 because before the revolution of 1813, the King was the
representative of God. In this authority he had to respect the wish of God which was
mentioned in the Holy books. After the Revolution of 1830, King became the
representative of people (Citizen King). In this authority he had to respect the wishes
of the people (constitution framed by the people).

This Revolution ended the divine right of Kings, instigating the middle class to demand
constitution from their rulers.
Revolution of 1848 -
1847 - Economic Depression in Britain. Europe became the victim of economic
depression as the European economy was connected with the British economy,
creating a socio-economic crisis. 70-80 % of people became unemployed.
1848 - Karl Marx came out with the Communist Manifesto. In this Manifesto, he
appealed to the working class to unite and change the political order. After 1847 the
European rulers were facing the same situation which was faced by the British Crown
in India after 1857. European rulers accepted the demand of the constitution. German
States were not the exception and this led to the second Frankfurt Parliament of
1848.
This Parliament was attended by the representatives of German state to decide the
constitution for German States. 38 constitutions were not possible and German States
already had economic and political unity. So they decided for one constitution and
German Federation under the leadership of Prussia.
In this scenario, a Holy Party took place in Olmutz. In the Olmutz Convention, Austria
gave warning to Prussia i.e., if Prussia violates the Vienna Convention, Prussia should
be ready for the consequences. This ended the peaceful path of German Unification,
preparing the ground for the emergence of the Hero of German History - Otto von
Bismarck
Third Requirement for a country to become a nation is the Constitution.
4. Role of Bismarck - As a Chancellor of Prussia, Bismarck was clear that war with
Austria is the destiny of German unification. So his first step was economic
empowerment of Prussia. Under it the important steps were –
● Established Imperial Bank to strengthen currency system
● Infrastructural Revolution
● Technological Developments
● Foundation of Coal and Iron Chain Reaction.
● Emphasis on the concept of State Socialism - social security & employment to
the working class.
In this way Prussia turned into an economic power which in turn turned Prussia as political &
military power. This was followed by the Policy of Entrapment by Bismarck to fulfill the
objective of German Unification.
Policy of Entrapment

● Denmark became the victim.

● Austria was betrayed.
● France was betrayed
● Britain and Russia were deceived.
The story started on the issue of Schleswig and Holstein - the 2 disputed territories between
Denmark and the Duke of Augustenburg.
By the London Agreement of 1852,

Schleswig and Holstein were kept under
the protection of Denmark. Bismarck
instigated Denmark to take away both the
territories and when Denmark obeyed
Bismarck, he turned towards Austria.
Bismarck instigated Austria against
Denmark and then the combined armies
of Austria and Prussia attacked and
defeated Denmark.
By the Gaustein Agreement of 1860,
Schleswig came under Austria and
Holstein came under the protection of Image Source: World History: Patterns of Interaction : McDougal Littel
Prussia. The issue was over for Austria but for Bismarck it was the beginning of the story. The
war with Denmark proved beneficial for Bismarck because here he understood the strategy
and strength of the Austrian army. After this he started alienating Austria from its European
friends eg., he promised Russia not to interfere in the matters of Eastern Europe. He promised
Italians to help them in their unification. He promised Napoleon III, the ruler of France, to give
him big gifts in return for his neutrality in case the war starts between Austria and Prussia.
Once Bismarck was prepared, he instigated Austria by violating the Gaustein Agreement,
leading to a war between Austria and Prussia. In the Battle of Sadowa 1866, Austria was
defeated. German states on the eastern side lost the support of Austria and were integrated
into Prussia. This completed the first phase of German Unification.
Napoleon III committed the mistake of making his demands in writing to Bismarck. Bismarck
showed those letters to the concerned parties and entire Europe was angry with Napoleon III.
Bismarck took advantage of the situation, instigated France. This led to the war between
France and Prussia and in the Battle of Sedan 1971, France was defeated. The German states
on the Western side lost the support of France and were integrated into Prussia. This

completed the story of German Unification. Bismarck completed the impossible task of
unifying Germany in a situation when entire Europe was against German Unification because –
● Austria and France were against it as they were exploiting German resources.
● Russia was already facing Turkey on the eastern front.
● Britain did not want to create a new competitor.
Unification of Italy
● Carbonari - secret societies
to revolt against rulers and
integrate Italian states.
● Mazzini - started Young Italy
Movement - used the youth
to promote awareness and
political awakening.
● Cavour - contributions to
Italian unification:
○ Implemented
Realpolitik strategies
to strengthen the
Kingdom of Sardinia.
○ Formed diplomatic
alliances, notably
with France, to
weaken opposing Italian states.
○ Orchestrated the Franco-Sardinian victory in the Second War of Italian
Independence.
○ Strategically involved Sardinia in the Crimean War to gain international
recognition.
○ Facilitated the incorporation of various Italian states into the Kingdom of
Sardinia, laying the groundwork for Italy's unification.
● Revolutionary Councils - emerged in various Italian states as a means for the people to
voice their demands for political reforms, independence, and unification.
The birth of Germany & Italy as newly industrialized nations started changing political
equations in Europe leading to the big event in the 20th century i.e., the 2 world wars.

First World War (1914-1918)

● Reasons of the War
● Course of the War
● Evaluation
● Important events during and after the war
1. Russian Revolution 1917
2. Treaty of Versailles 1919
3. League of Nations
4. Great Depression of 1929
Reasons:
1. Economic Causes - There was a clash between Cotton Chain Reaction and Coal & Iron
Chain Reaction. The tag of Made in Germany became the tension for Britain, France,
US. From here starts the economic rivalry between the old bosses and the new
leaders.
2. Political Causes - Economic rivalry became political rivalry and the lead was taken by
Germany which shifted from the Policy of Cautious Continentalism to Aggressive
Imperialism.
Cautious Continentalism - An infant nation and a nation in crisis requires peace and
stability for its growth and development. Under it Bismarck was successful in
maintaining good relations with almost all powers of Europe except France -
a. The Alliance between Germany, Austria and Italy – Triple Alliance.
b. Friendly Relation with Russia as he promised not to interfere in the matters of
Eastern Europe.
c. Good relations with Britain on 2 grounds -
● Marriage alliance - Queen Victoria was from the Royal family of
Germany.
● Balance of Power.
d. France was left alone.
This was again a big achievement of Bismarck because when the entire Europe was busy
fighting among themselves, Bismarck was successful in providing peace and stability to
Germany. The story started changing with the arrival of Kaiser William II (1888 - 1918).
In 1890 Bismarck resigned, when William II violated the old tradition of negotiating with the
Council of Ministers through the Chancellor. William II then came out with his Policy of
Aggressive Imperialism also called Welt Politik or World Politics. The 3 pillars of this policy
were:
1. Naval Empowerment

2. Territorial Expansion for colonies

3. Interference in world politics
This was not simply the theoretical declaration of William II, he started taking practical steps
to support his policy –
1. Boer War - Boer means Dutch Farmers. They revolted against the exploitation done by
the British planters in South Africa. William II gave moral support to the Dutch Farmers
and he also congratulated Kruger - the rebel leader - from Transvaal. British
neglected this approach of William II since Germany was a big market for heavy
industries of Britain. This incident increased the enthusiasm of William II and he
turned towards a new issue creating the Morocco Crisis.
2. Morocco Crisis
● Egypt is the door to enter Asia. This door was under British control.
● Morocco is the door to enter Africa. This door was under French control.
William II personally visited Morocco and assured the Sultan to help him against
France. To fulfill his promise he started sending his Dreadnoughts (Battle-ships) to
assist Morocco but Britain was alarmed and Britain immediately sided with France. As
it was not possible for Germany to face the combined army of Britain & France so he
left the issue with the condition of having a share in the National Bank of Morocco.
This was accepted by Britain and France. This policy of appeasement proved costly for
Britain because William II developed it as a practice - interfere, pressurize and bargain.
This led to political rivalry between Germany and Old Bosses.
3. Economic and Political Rivalry led to Militarization and formation of blocs. In Militarization
the lead was again taken by Germany, when Germany took the following steps -
1. Naval Empowerment by increasing the number of dreadnoughts and later introducing
U-boats.
2. Construction of Kiel Canal adjoining Baltic and North Sea.
3. Railway Project from Berlin to Baghdad.
This trend was followed by other European powers increasing the tension in Europe and
preparing the ground for big war in future. As a precaution, European countries started
forming the Blocs:
1. Triple Alliance - The alliance between Germany, Austria and Italy.
2. Dual Alliance - France and Russia.
3. Anglo-Japanese Alliance 1902.
4. Triple Entente 1907 - the diplomatic alliance between Britain, France and Russia.

Economic Rivalry, Political Rivalry, Militarization, Formation of Blocs completed the script for
the First World War. The shooting took place in Eastern Europe under the banner called
Eastern Question.
Eastern Question
The real story of Eastern Question starts from 1453 when Turks occupied Constantinople and
from here they started entering Europe. They were stopped on the borders of Vienna but till
the end of 15th century they succeeded in occupying Eastern Europe. The Turkish rulers under
the influence of priestly class never gave equal status to the Christian subjects of Eastern
Europe. So from the very beginning the people of Eastern Europe were against Ottoman Turks.
The story of Modern Russia starts from the 17th century when Peter the Great came out with
his policy called Warm Water Policy. Under it the objective of Russia is to dominate the 2
seas.
● Baltic Sea - The door for Russia to enter into Europe
● Black Sea - The door for Russia to enter into Silk Route
From here starts the rivalry between Russia and Turkey. Therefore, Russia sided with Eastern
Europe on 2 grounds:
● Religion
● Race
When Russia sided with Eastern Europe to eliminate Turkey, this became the pain for Britain
and France. So, Britain and France sided with Turkey. This involvement of all the powers in
the matter of Eastern Europe is called the Eastern Question. The main story starts from
Crimean War (1854-56)
● War between Russia and Turkey
● Reason - encroachment by Czar Nicholas I of Danubian territories
● Outcome - Paris Peace Conference 1856.
The two power houses of Britain were moving towards trouble - USA was moving towards
Civil War and India was moving towards the Big Revolt.
In this scenario, Czar Nicholas I made a proposal to Britain to let the two Christian powers
unite and eliminate the Muslim power, Turkey. Czar Nicholas I took advantage of the situation
and started encroaching Danubian Territories. This led to the war between Russia and Turkey.
Turkey was supported by Britain and France which defeated Russia. This was followed by the
Paris Peace Conference in which all the concerned parties were invited. Britain invited both
the parties Russia and Turkey as both were important for Britain

Turkey acted as a buffer to control Russia from entering in the Silk Route while Russia was
the new hub for investment for British capitalist and industrialists. Although the Sultan of
Turkey promised in Paris to give equal status to the people of Eastern Europe but them after
returning back he neglected his promise. This irritated Eastern Europe and Bulgaria attacked
Turkey. Russia immediately supported Bulgaria. Before English and French support could
arrive for Turkey, it was defeated. Turkey was forced to sign the Treaty of San Stefano 1877.
The important provisions of this treaty were -
1. Turkey accepted the independence of Eastern Europe.
2. Bulgaria got autonomy and kept under the protection of Russia.
3. Black Sea came under the influence of Russia.
This treaty fulfilled the Russian dream of dominating Eastern Europe, which became the pain
for Britain and France. British Prime Minister Disraeli gave a warning to Russia to amend the
treaty or face a war.
In this situation, Bismarck emerged as a peace maker leading to a new development -
Berlin Congress of 1878 - Till now London, Paris, Vienna were the centres of political activity.
For the first time Berlin got this status. This shows the rising status of Germany in Europe.
The important decisions of this Congress were,
● Black Sea was declared as a neutral zone (loss for Russia)
● Eastern Europe was returned back to Turkey (loss for Russia)
● Bulgaria was partitioned and was handed over to Turkey.
● To maintain the balance of power, Cyprus was given to Britain and Bosnia and
Herzegovina was given to Austria.
This Congress provided the ground for the First World War because
● Russia was completely disappointed by this agreement.
● The question of Eastern Europe was still not solved.
● Entry of 2 new aspirants - Germany and Austria.
● From here starts the rivalry between Serbia and Austria on the issue of Bosnia and
Herzegovina.
Although Russia was disappointed, it was not in a situation to retaliate. The direct door for
Russia was closed so it opted for the indirect road leading to the next development i.e.,
Pan-Slavism - Under it the objective of Serbia was to unite all the areas dominated by Slavs
and to create Greater Serbia. This was in the interest of Russia and against the interest of
Britain and France.
Turkey saw the new development i.e., Young Turk Movement. It was the movement by the
students and military officials of Turkey demanding political reforms and promotion to Turkish
culture, especially Turkish language in the entire Ottoman Empire.

A situation was created for cultural clash for both the parties and as a precaution Eastern
European countries like Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, Romania, etc, united and formed Balkan
League in 1911. This was followed by the 2 Balkan Wars.
First Balkan War (1912-13)

Reason: Turkey sold Bosnia Herzegovina to Austria due to the financial crisis, regular war on
all fronts. Britain and France left Turkey. This irritated Eastern European states and
Montenegro attacked Turkey. Montenegro got the support of Balkan League. Turkey was
defeated and exhausted. By the London Agreement of 1913, Turkey left all its claims on
Eastern Europe. This fulfilled the dream of independence for Eastern Europe.
Second Balkan War (1913-14)

This was the war among Eastern European states for territories. Therefore, the situation was
tense and in this tense situation on 28th June, 1914 ArchDuke Ferdinand, the crown prince of
Austria was killed in Bosnia by the secret organization Black Hat. This became the happiness
for Kaiser William II, who was already enthusiastic about the Second International. It was a
meeting of the Communist leaders of the entire world and they were of the opinion that war
is fought for the benefit of the capitalist class but the burden of the war is paid by the
common people. They gave the slogan ‘War against War’ i.e., strike by the working class in
case their country decides to go on war.
William II gave unconditional backing to Austria and Austria in spite of the liberal attitude of
Serbia, attacked Serbia. Russia came forward to support Serbia, France came forward to
support Russia because both are friends under Dual Alliance. Germany came out to support
Austria and under the Schlieffen Plan, Germany targeted France via Belgium. This was the
beginning of the First World War.

Important events during and after the War

1. Russian Revolution -
Reasons:
● Economic Causes: developing economy participated in the First World War on
superficial grounds.
● Political Causes: Czar Nicholas II was an incompetent ruler.
● Social Causes:
○ Bastard Feudalism. Feudal lords had 2 powers, executive and judicial.
○ Suffering of the working class in urban centers.
● Role of Intellectuals: Maxim Gorkey, Leo Tolstoy, Lenin and Nihilism (to
eliminate maligned officials to awaken the masses and alert the government).
● Immediate Causes: Crisis of 1916.
Phases:
● Rift — Crisis of 1915 —> Germany occupied Western Russia. This created
unemployment and food shortage.
● Struggle — Mensheviks came into power after the March Revolution 1917. But
they failed to handle the situation. Failed to come out with a new economic or
political program.
● Blast — Lenin took the advantage of this situation, leading to the Bolshevik
Revolution of Russia.

This was the first time in the history of the world that the working class came into power.
The Working Class became the Ruling Class. Marxism was victorious. But instead of giving
relief to the working class it became the curse for Russians. It created acute economic
crisis eg., —
● Agricultural Crisis - famine of 1921 - Land came under the control of farmers. As under
Marxism production and distribution is controlled by the state.
● Industrial Crisis - inflation, unemployment, etc,. The working class failed to manage or
regulate the industrial sector properly.
● Financial Crisis - end of foreign investment.
In this scenario, Lenin became the saviour for Russia, when he came out with New Economic
Policy:
a. Public sector for heavy industries while private sector for small scale units.
b. Permission for foreign investment with all guarantee, security and terms and
conditions.
c. Along with PDS shops, retail shops also got the permission.
d. Farmers after paying the part of their produce as a tax were allowed to keep the
surplus and sell it in the market.
This was a compromise between Capitalism and Socialism and was called Leninism. Lenin
was successful in maintaining peace and stability in Russia.
2. Treaty of Versailles, 1919

● 1918, First World War came to an end, when Woodrow Wilson came out with his 14
point program. Here he said , the lenient action will be taken towards surrendering
powers and Germany surrendered in 1918.
● But French President Clemenceau refused to be lenient towards Germany. According
to France, the sole responsibility of the war was of Germany because Serbia was in a
surrendering mood.
In this background the important provisions of this treaty were -
1. Germany lost the area of resources like Saar, Rhineland, etc,.
2. Germany lost African colonies - Cameroon, Tanzania.
3. Huge war compensation, 6600 million pounds.
4. Restrictions on air force and navy. Permission to maintain infantry of 1 lakh.
This treaty created the 1923 Economic Crisis in Germany. In 1926 US became the saviour, as
US came out with 2 plans - (1) Dawes Plan - financial aid (2) Young Plan - reducing
compensation.
1929 - there was the Great Depression in Western World and the USSR was shining.
1931 - elections in Germany

1933 - Hitler became the Chancellor of Germany

1934 - Hitler became Chancellor cum President of Germany. His aggressive internal and
external policies became the ground for the Second World War.
3. League of Nations, 1920

Reason: An organization to maintain peace and stability at international level as proposed by
Woodrow Wilson.
Contributions:
● Settlement of war refugees.
● Promotion to health programs which led to the birth of WHO.
● ILO was created
● Solving the disputes between smaller nations like Sweden and Norway.
But the organization failed to prevent the Second World War.
Failure to prevent the Second World War:
● Absence of big powers like the USA.
● Misbehaviour of big powers like Japan and Italy.
● Absence of military power
● Absence of financial institutions like IMF, WB etc.
● Frustration of post-war Treaties - Versailles, Sevres.
League of Nation United Nations
Presence of Political Institutions. Absence of Created financial institution in alliance with

Financial Organization. Political Institution
Great Depression of 1929

This depression led to the Second World War and it led to change in the world order.
Therefore, it is called the Great Depression. European supremacy came to an end. Debt trap
was the main reason for Economic Depression.
● The 1920s were called the Roaring Twenties in USA because of economic boom as
America was a supplier of money and material to Europe.
● This was followed by collapse of internal and external markets for American capitalists
and industrialists.
Collapse of Internal Market —
A. Economic boom led to an increase in wealth in the hands of American capitalists and
industrialists.

B. Increase in wealth led to increase in investment.

C. Increase in investment led to increase in production.
But the pace with which production was increasing, with the same pace purchasing power of
people was not increasing. This led to the collapse of the internal market for American
capitalists and industrialists.
Collapse of External Market —
A. End of the war ended the demand from Europe.
B. With the end of the war European countries became the victims of the financial crisis
and they failed to return back to American institutions.
This was the collapse of the external market for American capitalists and industrialists.
Collapse of internal and external markets led to the collapse of the New York Stock Exchange,
this led to the collapse of American Banks. This in turn ended the liquidity in the market. This
closed down many industries and unemployment increased manifold.
In this scenario, President Roosevelt came out with his New Deal.
● Deficit Financing.
● Promotion to public works. Followed Keynes Formula - ‘Dig the Well, fill the well’.
● Promotion of welfare programs related to health and education.
● All types of support by the Government.
Roosevelt was successful in bringing America on track but then the trouble in America
increased the challenges for the countries for whom America was a saviour leading to the
birth of aggressive nationalism e.g., Nazism, Fascism, Shintoism.
NAZISM – Germany
Reasons:
● Economic Causes - Treaty of Versailles created the pain for Germany and Germany
failed to pay the second installment. In this scenario, France and Belgium occupied
Ruhr. As a reaction to this German coal mine workers went on indefinite strike. This
stopped the supply of energy to industries leading to the closing down of industries.
This created unemployment, cutting down on exports leading to devaluation of
German currency. Finally creating deflation. This was the Crisis of 1923.
● Political Causes - Infant Weimar Republic 1918 + two coups - an attempt to overthrow
the government. 1920 - Coup by Dr. Kapp and 1923 - Coup by Ludendroff and Adolf
Hitler.
● Social Causes -
(a) Tension between Jews and Germans. Germans were blaming Jews for the
defeat of Germans in the First World War.

Belfort Declaration - Arthur Belfort, Foreign minister of Britain made a

declaration 1917 that Palestine is the homeland of Jews.
(b) Absence of law and order.
● Rise of Hitler -
➔ In this scenario the Nazi Party was formed in 1919. It received 14 seats.
➔ 1923 - they did a coup.
➔ 1926 - US became the saviour.
➔ 1929 - Darkness.
➔ 1931 - Elections, he convinces the capitalists and common people. He gave the
slogan ‘Lebensraum’.
➔ 1933 - he becomes the Chancellor
➔ 1937 - He becomes the President cum Chancellor of Germany.
Policies:
➔ Internal Policies - Promises made in odd situations lead to the birth of autocracy, eg.,
1789 - Napoleon, 1970s - Mussolini, 1934 - Germany.
a. The first step taken by Hitler was declaring Internal Emergency in Germany in
1934. He created the ground for the emergency by the Reichstag Drama.
b. Abolition of State Legislatures
c. End of Civil Liberties.
d. Purge - Killing of all opponents from inside & outside the party.
➔ Economic Policies
a. Substitute for Key imports eg, wool was replaced by rubber in order to save
foreign reserves
b. 4 year plan to promote industrialization especially arms and ammunition.
c. Killing of Jews - their businesses started shifting to Germans
➔ Social Policies -
a. Education came under the influence of Nazism.
b. Suppression of Women.
c. Racial Superiority.
Germany was in trouble because in political policies Hitler killed democracy, he did cosmetic
reforms in economic policies and in social policies, he violated human rights.
External Policies of Adolf Hitler

● Left Disarmament Conference in 1930 - Disarmament was a part of the Paris Peace
Conference of 1919. In this way he leaves the European community.

● Left League of Nation 1934 as according to him It is a puppet organization because it is

working in the interest of Britain and France. He gave the Mandate System. He leaves
the international community.
● Tore up Treaty of Versailles.
● Third Reich - Third German Empire by uniting all the areas dominated by Germans like
Poland, Austria, Rhineland, Czechoslovakia.
Germany captured Rhineland, Austria, Sudetenland (part of Czechoslovakia), after the Munich
Conference, complete Czechoslovakia was captured slowly. Then Germany turned towards
Poland.
When Germany attacked Poland, Britain attacked Germany - This was the beginning of the
Second World War.
Second World War (1939-1945)

- Reasons, Course of the War, Evaluation, Important events during and after the war.
Reasons
1. Tension - Russian Revolution of 1917
2. Frustration - Post-War Treaties → Treaty of Versailles, Treaty of Sevres.
3. Failure - League of Nations
4. Cyclone - Great Depression
5. Aggression - Nazism, Fascism, Shintoism.
Course of the War - Class 12 NCERT
Evaluation
● End of European Supremacy
● New World War
● De-Colonization
● Beginning of the concept of Global Village under the guidance of UNO, World Bank.
Important Events during and after the War

● Cold War
● Modern Japan
● China and Chinese Revolution
● Decolonization

Cold War
Reasons:
1. Rift - Started in 1945 because of Yalta and Potsdam Conferences.
Yalta Conference to decide the fate of Germany. Germany was divided into 4 parts - North
Germany to France. East Germany - USSR, East Germany - US and South Germany to Britain
to flash out Nazi forces, to organize elections and then to hand over Germany to Germans. In
this conference Stalin demanded German territory upto Oder Neisse for Poland so that Poland
could have access to the sea. But the USA outrightly refused. This irritated Stalin.
Potsdam Conference - To decide the fate of Japan. Both the powers made the commitment
of Joint Operation. But without informing the USSR, the US dropped Atom Bomb on Hiroshima
and Nagasaki. This was a violation of the commitment. Japan was strategically and
economicaly important for the US.
This angered Stalin and in anger he says, “Capitalism and Communism can never be friends
and my only aim is to eliminate Capitalism from this World.” Churchill immediately responded
that the iron curtain has been laid down between Baltic Sea and Adriatic Sea and if anyone
will try to cross it, he should be ready for the consequences.
2. Struggle - The rift turned into Struggle in 1947.

● 1941 - Pearl Harbour - Japan attacks the USA. In 1941 America came out with the
Atlantic Charter. In this Charter, America said every country has a right of self
determination.
● 1945 - America came out with Truman’s Plan. Financial help to Greece and Turkey for
ERP (Economic Recovery Program).
● 1947 - America came out with the Marshall Plan - financial aid to European countries
for ERP and to infant countries for growth and development. This was called Dollar
Imperialism.
● The USSR came out with the Molotov Plan - financial help to Communist Countries.
The important feature of the Cold War was - one party was investing (Capitalist) and another
party was investing for Nationalization eg., Cuba, Egypt, Iran, Vietnam, etc. Apart from this the
strategic importance also became the major reason for the Cold War eg., Afghanistan,
Vietnam, etc.
● Blast - Militarization → NATO 1949 is a military organization of Capitalist Nations under
US to protect democracy and humanism.
Warsaw Pact of 1955 - It was an alliance of Communist Powers to defend human rights
and the rights of the working class.

● Momentum (1960s) - The Cold War got momentum due to the Arms Race → Atom
Bomb, Hydrogen Bomb, ICBM, Space War.
The conclusion of the Cold War can be traced to the late 1980s and early 1990s. Several key
events marked its conclusion:
● The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989: Symbolizing the end of the division between East
and West, the fall of the Berlin Wall represented a turning point in the Cold War. It led
to the reunification of Germany and signified the waning power and influence of the
Soviet Union.
● Dissolution of the Soviet Union: The Soviet Union, under Mikhail Gorbachev's
leadership, underwent political and economic reforms that ultimately led to its
dissolution in 1991. This event marked the end of the communist superpower and
effectively ended the bipolar world order of the Cold War.
● Revolutions in Eastern Europe: Throughout the late 1980s, Eastern European countries
experienced waves of democratic uprisings and revolutions. These movements led to
the overthrow of communist regimes and the establishment of democratic
governments, further eroding the influence of the Soviet Union.
● Disarmament and arms control agreements: The United States and the Soviet Union
engaged in arms control negotiations, resulting in significant disarmament agreements
such as the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) and the Strategic Arms
Reduction Treaty (START). These agreements reduced the nuclear arsenals of both
superpowers and eased tensions between them.
Overall, the conclusion of the Cold War marked a shift in the global political landscape, as the
bipolar power struggle between the United States and the Soviet Union came to an end. It
ushered in a new era characterized by the emergence of new power dynamics and the spread
of democracy and market economies.

World History Class Notes Avadh Ojha

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Foundation Success Program Unacademy Centre, Karol Bagh

GS Foundation Success Program – 2024

INTRODUCTION TO WORLD HISTORY.......................................................................................................................................................... 2

World History Avadh Ojha