“INTRODUCTION TO THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON”

Module 1 – Doing Philosophy

What is Philosophy?

Traditionally, philosophy is defined as love of wisdom because it came from two Greek words philos
(love) and Sophia (wisdom). The study of human and the world by thinking and asking questions.

PHILOSOPHICAL ACTIVITY:

First in terms of scope philosophy involves the widest generalizations. - A broad statement or idea
applied to a group of people or things. Every object or every event has a cause.

Second philosophy is all about fundamentals. - Building blocks. If somehow philosophical ideas like
consciousness and existence disappear then knowledge of any kind will not make any sense because
there will be nothing to know (existence) and no one to know (consciousness).

Third philosophy is driven by the desire to integrate things in to a one coherent whole.

BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY

Cognitive Branch

Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that deals with the first principles of things, including abstract
concepts such as being, knowing, substance, cause, identity, time, and space.

Metaphysics= Meta (beyond/after) and physika (physical/nature) = the study of things beyond the
physical; concepts or things that cannot be experienced physically such as the concepts of God, spirit,
freedom.

A. General Metaphysics-ontology - derived from the two Greek words onto (being or that which is)
Logos (knowledge/study). Ontology – specific branch of philosophy that studies beings in their
ultimate causes, reasons and principles through the aid of reasons alone. Studies the first
principles or essence of all things.

Special Metaphysics- Cosmology, Psychology, anthropology, natural theology or theodicy.

kosmos=world logos=study. Studies the world (or universe) including its origin, dynamics, and
characteristics, as well as the laws that govern its order.

B. Psychology: psyche=soul/mind and logos= study - Studies the soul or mind. The study of the
nature and dynamics of the human person as a whole with emphasis on the ways the person’s
mind functions and she behaves.
C. Theodicy or natural theology: Came from the Greek word theos-God. In the work of Gott Fried
Wilhelm Leibniz in 1710 work. Theodicy=study of God - -Justification of the goodness of God in
the face of the existence/presence of evil.

Epistemology the philosophical study of the nature, origin, and limits of human knowledge. The term is
derived from the Greek epistēmē (“knowledge”) and logos (“reason”), and accordingly the field is
sometimes referred to as the theory of knowledge.

Logic -from the Greek word logos= the science of correct thinking. The study of principles and criteria of
valid argument. -attempts to distinguish sound or good reasoning from unsound or bad reasoning.

Normative Branch

Ethics because it tells us how human beings ought to function as a human being. According to Ayn Rand
ethics or morality is a branch of philosophy that provides a human being with a “code of values to guide
man’s choices and actions - the choices and actions that determine the course of his life (Rand, 1964.
Ethics is concerned with the good for human being as a human being. If we apply ethics in a social
context then it becomes politics.

POLITICS “which defines the principles of a proper social system.” According to Rand “proper” means
proper for human beings which presupposes that one knows what a human being is.
Aesthetics. from the Greek word Aisthetikos which means sensitive or perceptive. It is the study of
beauty or philosophy of art. It is directed toward the nature of aesthetics judgement, and standards of
beauty.

Philosophical Tools and Processes

1. Philosophical Questions. - Philosophy was born because of ignorance. A philosopher is like a child who
has an inquisitive mind who never stops asking questions and finding answers.

 The Socratic Method (dialectic method), also known as method of elenchus, elenctic method, or
Socratic debate, is a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue between individuals, based on
asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking and to draw out ideas and
underlying presuppositions.

2. Logical Reasoning - In philosophy, reasoning is the process of thinking about something in a logical
way in order to form a conclusion or judgement. It has been the method institutionalized by the
triumvirate Greek philosophers specially Aristotle

Doing philosophy- is to ask questions, to reflect, and to formulate arguments in order for us to express
our ideas into a coherent whole. It is engaging oneself in matters of utility and methodologies to
eliminate practical problem or abstract ideas.

Skills involve in doing philosophy: Logical, Analytical thinking, Observation, and Communication Skills

The Value of Doing Philosophy - According to Bertrand Russell, Philosophy aims at knowledge.
Philosophy has value in terms of what it contributes to the quality of knowledge acquired by people and
how such knowledge enhances the mind’s ability to reason.

The Value of Doing Philosophy:

 Not measured by its ability of arriving a definitive answers

•In uncertainty because when you philosophize, you seek answers and open to broader perspective.

• Enabling a person to widen the perspective to avoid dogmatism.

• To engage in contemplation in reflective activity to free from personal or narrow aims.

 Engaging in Philosophy means engaging in contemplation.

Importance in doing Philosophy:

1. People can clarify what they believe.

2. People can be stimulated to think of ultimate questions

3. Philosophy helps us to better understand ourselves

4. It enables us to think carefully and clearly about important issues.

5. It sharpens our analytical abilities to evaluate strengths and weaknesses in any position.

6. It hones the ability to construct and articulate clear arguments of your own.

Its trajectory is to see the bigger picture about everything. This process is called philosophical reflection.
According to Gabriel Marcel, philosophical reflection is the act of giving time to think about the meaning
and purpose of life.

Primary Reflection- which is the ability to think logically. The ability of the mind to construct and
evaluate arguments.
Secondary Reflection. enables us to look deeper into our experiences and see the bigger picture of
reality.

Distinguish Holistic from the Partial Point of View

Perceptions of Doing Philosophy
Holistic Thinking
• It came from the word “holos” which literally mean “all, entire or totality.”
• Looks at all aspects of the situation.
• All parts are given importance when making decision.
• All aspects are tied in together to form a general overview of the situation.
Partial Thinking
• focuses on specific/limited aspects of a situation important component of analytical thinking, as
an individual focuses on certain areas or aspects of a problem in order to understand it.
• though partial thinking is useful, philosophy utilizes holistic thinking in making sense of problems
and issues related to the human experience
• Conclusions were made based on considering some, but not all sides of the situations.

Pythagoras
•A mathematician and scientist, credited with formulating the Pythagorean Theorem, established a
community of learners devoted to the study of religion and philosophy.

Heraclitus
▪ Proposed that everything that exists is based on a higher order or plan which he called logos
▪ Change is permanent aspect of the human condition; “No man never steps in the same river twice.”

Democritus
▪ study the causes of natural phenomena
▪ was among the first to propose that matter is composed of tiny particles called atoms

Epicurus
▪ philosophy could enable man to live a life of happiness
▪ his views gave rise to Epicureanism – a school of philosophy which believes that wisdom and simple
living will result in a life free of fear and pain.

Socrates
▪ considered the foremost philosopher of ancient times
▪ he did not claim to be “wise” and merely considered himself a “midwife” that helped inquiring minds
achieve wisdom
▪ believed that philosophy could enable a man to live a life of virtue.
▪ formulated the Socratic Method – a means of examining a topic by devising a series of questions that
let the learner examine and analyze his knowledge and views regarding the topic

Aristotle
▪ he attended the academy and prominent student of Plato
• all ideas and views are based on perception and our reality is based on what we can sense and
perceive
▪ studied logic that led to the formulation of a formal process of analyzing reasoning which gave rise to
deductive reasoning – the process of which specific statements are analyzed to reach a conclusion or
generalization.

Plato
▪ a student of Socrates, he wrote down his mentor’s teachings and incorporated some of his own ideas
▪ his teachings and writings were considered the foundation of Western philosophy
▪ dialectic – a method of inquiry where two opposing ideas are discussed in an attempt to arrive at new
knowledge
▪ founded the Academy – an institution of higher learning which was the first of its kind in the Western
World

Karl Jaspers
• Swiss-German philosopher saw the need to philosophize because of experience. These
experiences limit situation, philosophy provides us a means to understand adverse or
challenging conditions, and to rise above them and gain new knowledge and perspective.
Rene Descartes traced the need to philosophize to doubt. In life, we will be facing with several ideas and
arguments which present themselves as “truths”. A critical and questioning perspective is necessary to
determine if indeed these ideas or views are correct or true.

Module 2 – Methods of Philosophizing

The purpose of epistemology therefore is two-fold:

1. To show how we can acquire knowledge

2. To give us a method of demonstrating whether the knowledge we acquired is really knowledge (i.e.,
true).

THE NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE

According to Ayn Rand knowledge is a “mental grasp of reality reached either by perceptual observation
or by a process of reason based on perceptual observation” (Rand 1990).

Empiricism

Miss Rand’s definition gives us two ways: First, we can acquire knowledge using our senses: seeing,
hearing, tasting, feeling, smelling.

Empiricist: John Locke, George Berkley, David

Second, we can acquire knowledge by thinking with the use of our minds (what philosophers call the
rational faculty).

However thinking is just half of the story of knowing (in fact the second half). The reason is that thinking
involves content. To think is to think of something. You cannot think about nothing. This is where sense
perception enters the picture by feeding our minds with data coming from the outside world so that we
can have something to think about.

Rationalists: Rene Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, Gottfried Wilhelm Liebniz

ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE

• Reality
• Perception
• Concept
• Proposition
• Inference

Reality: To know is to know something. This “something” is what philosophers call reality, existence,
being. Let us employ the term existence. Existence is everything there is (another name for it is the
Universe [Peikoff 1990]). It includes everything we perceive (animals, plants, human beings, inanimate
objects) and everything inside our heads (e.g., our thoughts and emotions) which represents our inner
world.

Perception: Knowledge begins with perceptual knowledge. Our first and only contact with reality is
through our senses. Knowledge begins with perceptual knowledge. At first the senses give us knowledge
of things or entities (what Aristotle calls primary substance): These so called Aristotelian categories
cannot be separated from the entities that have it. Red for example cannot be separated from red
objects; walking cannot be separated from the person that walks, etc.

Concept: After we perceive things we began to notice that some of the things we perceive are similar to
other things. The first concepts we formed are concepts of things like dog, cat, man, house, car. These
elementary concepts are called first level concepts (Rand 1990). From these first level concepts we can
form higher level concepts through a process which Rand calls “abstraction from abstractions”
(Rand1990).
Wider generalization is the process of forming wider and wider concepts.

Proposition: When we use concepts in order to classify or describe an “existent” (a particular that exist
be it an object, a person, an action or event, etc) (Rand 1990) we use what philosophers call a
proposition (Binswanger 2014). A proposition is a statement that expresses either an assertion or a
denial (Copi, 2002) that an existent belongs to a class or possess certain attribute.

Inference: How do we demonstrate that the statement is true? By providing an argument. According to
Hurley an argument “is a group of statements, one or more of which (the premises) are claimed to
provide support for, or reason to believe one of the others (the conclusion) (Hurley 2011). An argument
expresses a reasoning process which logicians call inference.

THE NATURE OF TRUTH

“A belief is true if it can be justified or proven through the use of one’s senses” (Abella 2016).

Not all statements however can be validated directly by the senses. Some beliefs or ideas need a “multi-
step process of validation called proof’ (Binswanger 2014). Nevertheless proof rests ultimately on sense
perception.

For example the belief that human beings have the right to life rests on the following claim:

1. Human beings are rational animals.

2. Animals (including human beings) are living organisms.

A third way to determine if the statement is true is through a consensus (Abella 2016). If the majority
agrees that a statement is true then it is true. However there are certain limitations to this approach.

A fourth way to determine whether a statement is true is to test it by means of action

Truth is knowledge validated and when we say validated we mean they are based on the facts of reality.
You must understand dear student that the facts of reality are independent of your thoughts, feelings or
preferences (Ayn Rand calls this the primacy of existence [Rand 1982]). That is the characteristic of
truth.

Opinion is a belief or attitude based on feeling more than on a reality shared and observed by all. The
expression of a belief that is held with confidence but not substantiated by positive knowledge or proof.
It is a statement of judgment of a person about something in the world.

To summarize an opinion has the following characteristics:

1. Based on emotions
2. Open to interpretation
3. Cannot be confirmed
4. Inherently biased

While truth is:

1. Based on the facts of reality
2. Can be confirmed with other sources
3. Independent of one’s interpretation, preferences and biases

Theories of Truth

1. The Correspondence theory of Truth:

The basic idea of the correspondence theory is that what we believe or say is true if it corresponds to
the way things actually are based on the facts. It argues that an idea that correspond with reality is true
while an idea, which does not correspond to reality is false.

Proposition: There are confirmed positive cases of covid-19 in Antipolo City.

 Compare the given proposition and the truth condition that will make the proposition true
  To make it true, there must be a fact in the world where:
 There is such thing as Covid-19
 There is a place called Antipolo city
 There are confirmed positive cases
 Correspondence Theory is based on facts or objective features of the world.

A fact is some set of circumstances in the world while a belief is an opinion about what those facts are. A
fact cannot be either true or false because it simply the way the world is.
A belief, however, is capable of being true or false because it may or may not accurately describe the
world.

Beliefs are statements that express convictions that are not easily and clearly explained by facts. To
judge the truthfulness of a belief, we must also consider things such as the person’s experiences and
views.

Explanations are statements that assume the claim to be true and provide reasons why the statement is
true.

Arguments are a series of statements that provide reasons to convince the reader or listener that a
claim or opinion is truthful. They often take the form of statements that are either claims of facts and
are phrased in such a way that they seem reasonable.

2. The Coherence Theory of Truth:

In order to know the truth of a statement, it must be tested as part of a larger set of ideas. Statements
cannot be sufficiently evaluated in isolation. In a sense, the Coherence Theory is similar to the
Correspondence Theory since both evaluates statements based on their agreement with reality. The
difference lies in the method where the former involves a larger system while the latter relies on a single
evidence of fact.

Coherence theory insists that a belief is true if and only if it is part of a coherent system of beliefs.
Example: The Sum of Half of One Hundred (100) and One Hundred (100) is One Hundred-Fifty 150
½(100) +100= 150
50+100= 150
150=150
3. The Pragmatist Theory of Truth:
The Pragmatic Theory of Truth states that a belief/statement is true if it has a useful (pragmatic)
application in the world. If it does not, then it is not true. In addition, we can know whether a
belief/statement is true by examining the consequence of holding or accepting the statement/belief to
be true.
Example: Balance Diet and Proper Exercise are helpful to maintain a healthy body.
The given proposition is true if it leads to success--that is, if it is expedient for the person to believe that
his or her proper diet and exercise will result to a healthy body.

Philosophical method (or philosophical methodology) is the study of how to do philosophy.

A method of philosophizing is a process of determining the truth or drawing a conclusion from a

statement using various philosophical methods.

METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING
Socratic Method-a type of interrogative statement that clarifies points through understanding the
deeper meaning of a claim.

According to Gerry and Rhiza, the Socratic Method is a didactic dialogue of questioning that is expressed
in the critical examination and cross-examination of the positions of every participant in the dialogue.
This method- “elenchus” that means "to inquire or to cross-examine", is an exchange of ideas using
Socratic questioning.

Phenomenology comes from the two Greek words phainomenon, which means “appearance,” and
logos, which means “reason” or “study.” Phenomenology means “study of phenomenon.” The term
phenomenon means anything that exists of which the mind is conscious. Phenomenology is about
reflecting upon our everyday immediate or lived experiences in order to gain some understanding of its
underlying order, coherence, and structure.
Analytic philosophy is based on the idea that philosophical problems can be solved through an analysis
of their terms, and pure, systematic logic. Many traditional philosophical problems are dismissed
because their terms are too vague, while those that remain are subjected to a rigorous logical analysis

Dialectic Method
The term 'dialectic‘-from the Greek word dialektike which means 'the art of conversation. It is the act of
talking back and forth, disagreeing with one another, and arguing about contentious issues. Its aim as a
process of the dialogue, is the clarification of controversial notions and arguments with other people.

Different Fallacies
Logical Fallacies - Errors in reasoning that invalidate the argument

● However, there are arguments that are erroneous or based from faulty reasoning called
Fallacies (Abella, 2016).

Ad Hominem – “Argument against the man” Unfairly attacking a person instead of the issue . Attacking
the character and/or reputation of a position’s supporters; “Guilt by association”

Ad populum – Definition: The Latin name of this fallacy means "to the people." There are several
versions of the ad populum fallacy, but what they all have in common is that in them, the arguer takes
advantage of the desire most people have to be liked and to fit in with others and uses that desire to try
to get the audience to accept his or her argument.

Appeal to pity - Definition: The appeal to pity takes place when an arguer tries to get people to accept a
conclusion by making them feel sorry for someone.

False Cause (Cause and Effect) - Citing a false or remote cause to explain a situation

Hasty Generalization - An inference drawn from insufficient evidence

Module 3 “THE HUMAN PERSON AS AN EMBODIED SPIRIT”

Man - By definition, it is generally and commonly define to represent the entire human race.

Human - A term used to refer for various classifications and species. For a living man, human is under
the classification of Mamalia.

Human Being - A term used to separate man from other Human Classifications like animals

Person - Refers to an individual who possess self-awareness, self-determination, rational mind, and the
capacity to interact with other and with himself/herself.

Personhood - A general term refers to the state of being a person with unique, sacred and ethical status
within him/herself

Human Nature - A general term refers to the deepest and natural behaviour of a person that distinguish
human from animals. A collective traits that formed and considered the very essence of humanity.
Nobody can be considered man without human nature.

✣ Human person is someone with an exact origin of his/her classification. From the biblical
perspective, we came from Adam and Eve. For Science, we came from an Ape under the Class:
Mamalia.
✣ A human person is typically with a body which is tangible and has a three components
composed of SOUL, MIND and SPIRIT. Also, he or she is entitled and granted rights and privileges
by the state which he or she legally belong.

There are two general kinds to distinguish a human person: The Cognitive Self and the Physical Self.
The Cognitive Self (something within and cannot be physically seen) is the essential components of a
human persons that deals with THE WHAT OF A PERSON which includes human persons’ belief, desire,
dreams, and intentions.
The other is one is the Physical Self (something can be seen in his/her physical appearance) which deals
with the essential features of the human way of life or THE WHO OF A PERSON which includes his/her
body type, strength and appearances.

What is Human Person as Embodied Spirit?

1. “Self- awareness refers to person having a clear perception of oneself, including his or her
thoughts, emotions, identity, and actions (Abella, 2016).”

2. A human person is able to connect and interact with another person, an animal or an inanimate
object.

3. We are not determined by others. Because we have interiority; we can direct the course of our
own life .
This is what we call self-determination which is “the capability of persons to make choices and
decisions based on their own preferences, monitor and regulate their actions, and be goal
oriented and self-directed” (Abella 2016) Thus human beings are free.

4. Finally a human person has an inherent value and importance. This is what we call dignity.

Three Theories of a Human Nature

• Human Person as an immortal Soul – Plato and Socrates

• Socrates asserts that “Every soul is immortal, for that which moves itself is immortal, while what
moves, and is moved by something else stops living when it stops moving…this is the very
essence and principle of a soul, for every bodily object is moved from outside has no soul, while
those body whose motion comes from within, from itself does have a soul.

• Plato (430 – 350 BC) Man is his soul. Soul is the essence of man’s humanity and the source of all
his activities. For him, a human being is composed of body and soul, but he argues that the
human is essentially a Soul.

• Human Person as a Thinking Thing – Rene Descartes

• Rene Descartes asserted that the human person is a thinking thing.“I think, therefore I
am”(Cogito Ergo Sum) “ On the one hand I have a clear and distinct idea of myself, in so far as I
am simply a thinking, non-extended thing(that is, the mind), and on other hand I have a distinct
idea of the body, in so far as this is simply an extended, non- thinking thing.

• Human Person as a Composite of Body and Soul – Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas

• St. Thomas Aquinas (1226 – 1274) Like Aristotle, St. Thomas affirms the unity of body and soul in
man. The soul of man is not like the soul of any animal. By virtue of man’s spiritual faculties –
intellect and will – which inherent in man’s soul, human soul, then, is spiritual and can exist
without matter.

• Aristotle (304 – 322 BC) Man is the whole of his body and soul. The relation of the body to the
soul is the relation of matter to form. There is no matter that is not informed by form, and no
form that is not the form of matter. The soul acts as pure actuality of the body while the body is
a material entity that possess the potentiality for life. Aristotle also believes that human beings
are composed of body and soul. He considers things as composed of two co-principles which he
calls matter and form.

1. Facticity- the things in our lives that are already given. It also refers to all the details that
surround us in the present as being-in-the-world in the here and now; our environment,
language, our past decisions, our past and present relationships, and even or future death.
Example: We cannot choose our biological parents and siblings.

2. Spatial-Temporal Being

As temporal beings, our most obvious limitation is our finitude – our finite quality or state.
The fact that we are born and that we exist in a particular space and time already sets
 limitations. As spatial beings, we are limited by our bodies to be present in two or more places
at the same time. Our spatial-temporal situation sets our preconditions of understanding.
Example: we cannot be in the house at the same time in the amusement park.

3. The Body as Intermediary

Intermediary means acting as a mediator (Merriam Webster). Our body serves as an

intermediary between us and the physical world. Our body limits our experience of the world to
our world. This imposes limitations concerning communication and expression. Example: We
are misunderstood due to our words and actions.

Transcendence means overcoming oneself or being in control even if the body reminds us of certain
tendencies. Although these tendencies are felt, the person can govern them and ensure that they are
exercised within the bounds of reason.