A General Outline of Arabic Language (Chapter - Two)

CHAPTER TWO
A GENERAL OUTLINE OF THE ARABIC

LANGUAGE
SATTAR IZWAINI
Introduction
Arabic is the official language of 22 countries in the Middle East and North
Africa, with a combined population of more than 300 million. Arabic is also
recognized either as a second official language or is studied in school
curriculum in many Muslim-majority countries. It is spoken by minorities
in countries such as Cyprus, Iran, Turkey and several central African
countries, as well as some areas in the former Soviet Union. 1 Arabic is the
Copyright © 2019. Cambridge Scholars Publisher. All rights reserved.
native language of many immigrant communities in North and South

America, Europe, and Australia. And it is one of the six official languages
of the United Nations. This chapter provides a general overview of the
Arabic language, outlining its development and characteristics—phonology,
morphology, lexis and syntax—as well as its varieties and the impact of
translation on it.
Arabic is classified as one of a group of languages that are spoken in the
north of the Arabian Peninsula (North Arabian language), and belongs to a
larger group that is the southern branch of a family of languages called
Semitic languages (after Sam (Shem), son of Noah) that includes Aramaic,
Akkadian and Hebrew. Its earliest writing forms can be traced in scripts that
go back to a period between 250 AD and 328 AD. 2 These scripts (or
fragmentary scripts) are found at tombs and ruins, and in papyri. Before and
after the advent of Islam, Arabic was largely spoken. Written texts at that
time were the exception to the rule of oral tradition. They were used for
limited purposes such as treaties, commercial contracts, religious scripts and
1 See Bakalla, 1984 and Versteegh, 1995.

2 Versteegh, 1995: 30-31.
Arabic Heritage in the Post-Abbasid Period, edited by Imed Nsiri, Cambridge Scholars Publisher, 2019. ProQuest Ebook
Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/aus-ebooks/detail.action?docID=5721574.
Created from aus-ebooks on 2020-09-08 22:03:57.
30 Chapter Two
some exceptional poems. The Holy Qur’an and poetry are our main sources
of the kind of Arabic spoken at that time. Arabic had different geographical
dialects in the Arabian Peninsula that had distinct phonetic and
morphological features. One dialect used shƯn ε especially for the feminine
pronoun (what is called kashkashah), for example ζΑ ϼϫ΃ ahlan bish
(welcome to you FEM 3) in contrast to ˶Ϛ˶Α biki. Another dialect used ‘am as
a definite article instead of al, e.g. ήϔδϣ΍ imsafar (the-travelling) in contrast
to ήϔδϟ΍ al-safar. The Hijazi dialect of Qureish, for example, did not in
general use the hamza as illustrated in the table below.
Islam played a significant role in creating a unified form of Arabic
(ϰΤμϔϟ΍ fu‫ۊ܈‬Ɨ). The Qur’an basically standardized Arabic as it uses a
combination of different dialects, mainly those of Quraysh and 7DPƯm.
Table 1: A comparison between words from HijƗzƯ and TamƯmƯ dialects

(examples taken from al-AntakƯ, 1969) 4
+LMƗ]Ư Qureishi 7DPƯPƯ dialect Meaning

dialect
ΚϴΣ তD\Wh ΙϮΣ তDZWh where
(adverb of place)
ϚϟΫ GKƗlika ϙ΍Ϋ GKƗka that MASC 5
ϚϠΗ tilka ϙΎΗ tƗka that FEM
Ϧϳάϟ΍ al-ODGKƯna ϥϭάϠϟ΍ al-ODGKǌna who plural MASC
άϨϣ mundhu άϣ mudh since
Ϊϫ ˴ί zahada Ϊ˶˰ϫί zahida to be ascetic (verb)
ϰϘΗ· LWWDTƗ ϰϘΗ WDTƗ to fear
˯΍ήΑ EDUƗ‫ގ‬ ˯ϱήΑ EDUƯ‫ގ‬ innocent
3 Feminine ΚϧΆϣ
4 Al-Antaki, 1969: 90-91.
5 Masculine ήϛ˷ άϣ˵
A General Outline of the Arabic Language 31
Ϊϛ˷ ϭ wakkada Ϊϛ˷ ΃ akkada to emphasize
ΩΎμ˶˰Σ তiৢƗd ΩΎμ˴˰Σ তDৢƗd harvest
ϦϳΪϣ PDGƯn ϥϮϳΪϣ PDGL\ǌn borrower
Δϫ΍ήϛ NDUƗKD Δϴϫ΍ήϛ NDUƗhiya hatred
ήϴΑ EƯr ήΌΑ bi‫ގ‬r water well
ΏΎΒϟ΍ Ϊλϭ΃ ΏΎΒϟ΍ Ϊλ΁ he closed the door

DZৢDGD al-EƗba Ɨৢada al-EƗba
ϚΗϮλ Ϧϣ ξπϏ΃ ϚΗϮλ Ϧϣ ξϏ lower your voice
DJKঌLঌ min ৢawtik JKLঌ min ৢawtik
With the spread of Islam and non-Arab nations embracing it, the
linguistic contact influenced the right pronunciation and correct use in those
regions far away from Arabia. To take care of the right pronunciation,
especially when the Qur’an was recited, scholars started to refer to the Arabs
of the desert as the authority of the language, and recorded their linguistic
usage to adopt it in their teaching, books and dictionaries. With the different
varieties of Classical Arabic (CA) and the expansion of the Islamic rule,
dialects of different tribes continued to be used in the new countries,
contributing to different geographical spoken varieties of Arabic in later
eras.
After the invasion of Baghdad by Hulagu in the thirteenth century and
the fall of Arab rule of Andalusia in the fifteenth century, Arabic
experienced a long period of stagnation when its teaching was limited to the
Qur’an, and its use in governmental administrations switched to other
languages such as Spanish, Persian and Turkish. Moreover, while Arabic
was the language of culture, civilization and scientific scholarship during
the long centuries of prosperous Islamic rule prior to this period, books and
scientific articles now were written on a very limited scale and mostly
within religious studies, leading to the stagnation of Arabic. By the
nineteenth century, when the establishment of Arab independent rule began,
national education systems were set up with Arabic as the language of
teaching, which was in some cases abandoned for foreign languages such
English and French in response to the policy of the foreign rule.
With that period of stagnation, very limited education, the use of Arabic
by Muslims who were non-native speakers, and contact with other
32 Chapter Two
languages such as English and French, spoken Arabic started to develop

away from ϰΤμϔϟ΍ IX‫ۊ܈‬Ɨ (Classical Arabic), in particular in different
countries that are geographically distant from each other. The Arabic
renaissance (ΔπϬϨϟ΍ ήμϋ) and the system of education taking the momentum
of national governments as well as using Arabic as an official language, all
contributed to the flourishing of Arabic in modern times. The kind of Arabic
that developed and has been used in formal settings, books and the media is
what is called Modern Standard Arabic (MSA). ‘Standard’ refers to the
unified variety of language that is mainly written, not spoken. It is important
to highlight the fact that modern standard Arabic is inherently IX‫ۊ܈‬Ɨ,
because despite the huge development it witnessed, its lexical stock and
structures are in general those of Classical Arabic (see Varieties of Arabic
below). It is worth noting that translation has contributed greatly to MSA
by introducing new terms from other cultures and civilizations, western in
particular.
Varieties of Arabic
Arabic is usually categorised as Classical Arabic (CA) and Modern
Standard Arabic (MSA). The former refers to the Arabic whose earliest texts
goes back to the third century. Its sources are mainly the Holy Qur’an and
pre-Islamic poetry. It remained as the official and literary language until
some time after the capture of Baghdad by Hulagu in the thirteenth century.
CA is the language of the Qur’an, classical literary and non-literary works.
It is characterised by its rich vocabulary and very elaborate grammar. It
developed and flourished when the Islamic civilization prospered and
experienced a movement of research and high education, including the
large-scale institutionalized translation of different works of sciences and
humanities.
Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), on the other hand, is used to refer to
the modern written Arabic that functions as a formal medium of
communication in the Arab world. MSA is a preserved CA that evolved
under the influence of a long period of stagnation, translation activity, and
modern style. It is mainly a written variety (see Table 2 below). There are
also different labels used to refer to modern Arabic such as literary Arabic
and contemporary Arabic. 6
Arabic is also looked at as having at least two varieties: the eloquent
variety (IX‫ۊ܈‬Ɨ) where the line between CA and MSA is blurred, and the
vernacular or colloquial (ΔϴϣΎόϟ΍ ҵƗmmiya or ΔΟέ΍Ϊϟ΍ dƗrija), which is mainly
6 See Bakalla, 1984: 85; Holes, 1995: 4; and Abd Al-$]Ư]1998: 143-163.
spoken. Table 2 below provides a comparison of the features of these two

main categories. It is important to note that these features should be looked
at as “mainly” not “solely”. The colloquial variety can also be used in formal
context and thus it moves towards the standard variety. In the case of
advertisements, the written form of the colloquial variety is used for the sake
of simplicity and to reach wider audience, especially when they are initially
broadcast on TV or radio.
Table 2: A comparison of Standard Arabic and Colloquial Arabic
Standard Colloquial
Formal Informal
Pan-Arab Geographical dialects
Spoken: official meetings, speeches, Spoken: everyday interaction.
sermons, rituals, ceremonies, media
(news bulletins, TV & radio
broadcasting), advertisements &
announcements.
Written: books, literary works, Written as if spoken: dialogues
essays, research papers, the printed (in literary works, films, drama,
press (newspapers and magazines), and plays), folk poetry, song
advertisements & announcements, lyrics, advertisements, TV &
and formal computer-mediated radio shows, and informal

communication (emails, text computer-mediated
messages, blogs, internet forums, communication (emails,
and online social networking). chatting, text messaging, blogs,
internet forums, and online
social networking).
The vocabulary of a spoken variety is inherently linked to CA and MSA.

The huge gap between the standard and spoken varieties has led to a
somewhat diglossic situation in the Arab world 7, that is to say, the
distinction is so great that the varieties of Arabic can be thought of as two
different languages. The gap between MSA and colloquial varieties is wider
than that found in other languages due to a number of reasons such as
historical developments, lack or availability of education, and level of
exposure to CA. The IX‫ۊ܈‬Ɨ vs. colloquial paradigm can be best be looked at
as a continuum where there are different levels in between. These can be
7 Ferguson, 1959: 325-340; and Zaghoul, 1980: 201-217.

34 Chapter Two
categorized as proposed by Elsaid Badawi 8:
1. Ι΍ήΘϟ΍ ϰΤμϓ IX‫ۊ܈‬Ɨ al-WXUƗWh Classical Arabic

2. ήμόϟ΍ ϰΤμϓ IX‫ۊ܈‬Ɨ al-ҵD‫܈‬r Modern Standard Arabic: the standard
form of the language which is mainly the written form as described
in Table 2 above.
3. ϦϴϔϘΜϤϟ΍ ΔϴϣΎϋ ҵƗmmiyat al-muthaqqafƯn colloquial of the intellectuals:
the formal spoken language of educated people.
4. ϦϳέϮϨΘϤϟ΍ ΔϴϣΎϋ ҵƗmmiyat al-mutanawZUƯn colloquial of the literate:
the informal spoken language of educated people.
5. ϦϴϴϣϷ΍ ΔϴϣΎϋ ҵƗmmiyat al-umiy\Ưn colloquial of the illiterate: the
language in which the illiterate talk.
The variety number 4 is probably better called ϦϴϤϠόΘϤϟ΍ ΔϴϣΎϋ ҵƗmmiyat al-
mutaҵlimƯn to refer to the kind of language spoken by those who have
attained some level of education.
It is worth noting here that features of standard Arabic can be widely
found in the spoken varieties of different Arabic dialects on different levels.
Apart from words, this includes particles, nunation (tanwƯn, see
Definiteness below), verb forms, and accusatives. For example, qad Ϊϗ
(pronounced gad) and the response expression labayk ϚϴΒϟ as well as
nunation are all used in some Gulf dialects. The use of kashkashah (using
the shƯn ε for the feminine pronoun as discussed above), for example,
ζΑ ϼϫ΃ ahlan bish (welcome to you FEM) in contrast to ˶Ϛ˶Α biki is still a
feature of some regional dialects in Arabia. In the Iraqi dialect, the absolute
object (ϖϠτϤϟ΍ ϝϮόϔϤϟ΍) and the ‘double biconsonatal’ verbs (and their
corresponding nouns) are both used to indicate the intensity of action and,
e.g. y‫ܒ‬ag‫ܒ‬ig ϖτϘτϳ (to click repeatedly) and ykasrah takseer ήϴδϜΗ ϩήδϜϳ (to
break it into many pieces).
The term dialect is basically geographical in nature and is usually
associated with a certain country, though many dialects can be found in
different regions, cities, towns and even villages in that particular country.
Furthermore, a dialect of a certain country is usually linked to the one of the
capital that people from other countries are familiar with, for example, the
Cairo dialect is the one referred to as Egyptian dialect, the Iraqi dialect is
that of Baghdad, and the Syrian dialect is that of Damascus. Hence, one can
talk about macro-dialects and micro-dialects where the former is that of the
country-capital, and the latter of other cities or regions of the same country.
Arabic has also been subject to the influence of foreign languages
8 Badawi, 2011: 119.

throughout its history. Initially it borrowed mainly from Greek and Persian.
In modern times, it has borrowed from European languages, English and
French in particular. Spoken Arabic of different dialects has also borrowed
from English, French, Italian, Persian and Turkish. The two varieties of
Arabic (standard and colloquial) led some writers, Arab and non-Arab, in
the nineteenth and twentieth centuries to call for abandoning the standard
language and use the colloquial. Some of them even called for replacing the
Arabic script with the Latin script to copy the Turkish model. Their
argument was that in order to modernize the Arab world, the language
needed to be modernized first.
There have been calls to change the way Arabic is used and written.
Some writers called for using the spoken dialects as standard official
languages in countries such as Egypt and Lebanon. These include William
Willcocks, Karl Vollers, and Wilhelm Spitta in late nineteenth century, and
Selden Willmore and SalƗma MǌsƗ in the early twentieth century, and
$তPDG /X৬fƯ al-Sayyid in the mid-twentieth century who called for using
the Egyptian dialect instead of standard Arabic in Egypt, arguing that Arabic
was complicated and unable to deal with science and modern technology.
There was also a trend of using Latin letters in writing Arabic as a way of
modernization. This was advocated by Spitta, Abdel Azeez Fahmi, Anis
Fraiha and Saeed Aql, arguing that Arabic would be easier to handle and to
follow the modern world. A counter-trend launched a magazine in Egypt
that published scientific articles in MSA. Some reasons why Arabs, in

general, have been keen on preserving the standard language is because it is
intertwined with Islam and the Qur’an as well as its representation of Arabic
identity.
Phonology and graphology

The sounds of Arabic are made of 28 consonants, six vowels and two
diphthongs. A consonant is the production of the sound with an obstruction
of the air flow at some point by the articulatory organs (tongue, teeth, palate,
glottis etc.). The consonants should be differentiated from the letters
(alphabet) where the latter is the written representation of sounds, and the
former is phonological, i.e. sounds. Arabic does not allow consonant
clusters of two consonants in the initial position. 9 Consonant clusters are the
sequence of two or more consonants without a vowel in between. Consonant
clusters of up to two consonants can occur in middle or final positions.
Cases of initial clusters, however, can be found in spoken varieties, for
9 ϙήΤΘϤΑ ϲϬΘϨΗ ϻϭ ˬϦϛΎδΑ ΃ΪΒΗ ϻ ΔϴΑήόϟ΍

36 Chapter Two
example, the pronunciation of the name Ϊϴό˸γ (s‫ޏ‬Ưd) in Emirati dialect where
the first two consonants are adjacent in an initial position, i.e. there is no
vowel after the first consonant.
Vowels are those sounds that are produced with no obstruction of the air
flow is involved. Arabic has three long vowels Ɨ, ǌ, Ư (represented by the
letters ϒϟ΃, ϭ΍ϭ, and ˯Ύϳ respectively) which are the long versions of the short
vowels that are represented by the ‫ۊ‬arakƗt (diacritics), fat‫ۊ‬a (a), ‫ڲ‬amma (u),
and kasra (i) respectively (see Table 3 below). The letters ϭ (waw) and ϱ
(yƗ‫ )ގ‬are also used to represent two consonants that are semi-vowels since
they sound like vowels, which makes these two letters serve a double role
as vowels and as consonants. Arabic semi-vowels usually occur initially as
in Ϊϟϭ walad (boy) and έΎδϳ yasƗr (left) (see Table 4 below). These are
phonologically different form the long vowels ǌ ϭ΍ϭ as in έϮϧ nǌr (light) and
Ư ˯Ύϴϟ΍ like ϢϳΪϗ qadƯm (old).
Table 3: Long and short vowels of Arabic
Long Written Example Corresponding Written

Vowel Form Short Vowel Form
Ɨ ϒϟ΃ ΍ qƗla ϝ
˴ Ύϗ a (IDWতD) ΔΤΘϓ ˰˰˴˰˰˰
ǌ ϭ΍ϭ ϭ sǌr έϮγ u (ঌDPPD) ΔϤο ˰˰˵˰˰˰
Ư ˯Ύϳ ϱ salƯm ϢϴϠγ i (kasra) Γήδϛ ˰˶˰˰˰
Table 4: Semi vowels of Arabic
Written Form Example

w ϭ΍ϭ ϭ wazƯr ήϳίϭ
y ˯Ύϳ ϱ yaqǌl ϝϮϘϳ
One aspect of the Arabic writing system is the diacritic forms (‫ۊ‬arakƗt
or tashkƯl) of its three short vowels, which are not usually written since word
pronunciation can be easily recognized by native speakers (see Table 3
above). However, short vowels are fully represented in the Qur’an and
children’s books to ensure correct pronunciation, and elsewhere to clarify
the difference in meaning, for example, ή˰ ˶ϤόΘδϣ˵ mustaҵmir (colonizer) and
ή˰Ϥ˴ όΘδϣ˵ mustaҵmar (colonized). While not having actual characters to
represent the short vowels can be problematic in getting the right meaning
of words, especially in natural language processing and machine translation,
Arabic writing is thus economical in that words are much shorter than a
written form with the vowels represented as actual letters. Being represented
by diacritics, short vowels are inaccurately looked at as secondary to the
other sounds (consonants and long vowels) since the latter are written as
letters. Sometimes people are misled by the written form into the thinking
that the alif ϒϟ΃, wƗw ϭ΍ϭ, and yƗҴ ˯Ύϴϟ΍ are the only vowels of Arabic. Arabic
has two diphthongs which are a combination of two vowels. These are ai as
in Ζϴ˴Α bait (home) and aw as in ϡϮ˴ϧ nawm (sleeping).
Gemination in Arabic is having a double consonant sound which is
represented by the diacritic (˰˷˰˰) as in darrasa αέΩ ˷ (to teach). When words
that start with one of a group of 14 consonants (called shamsƯ letters
ΔϴδϤθϟ΍ ϑήΣϷ΍) are definite (by adding ϒϳήόΘϟ΍ ϝ΃ al at the beginning), the l
sound of the definite article changes into that first consonant of that word
and assimilates with it to produce a double sound. For example, the definite
form of βϤη shams (sun) is ashshams. The 14 consonants are ί έ Ϋ Ω Ι Ε
ϥ ϝ υ ρ ν ι ε α.
The Arabic alphabet is made of 29 letters including the hamza (glottal
stop) which is usually neglected or confused with the alif only because it is
mostly written along with an alif. Arabic writing used to use no signs for
vowels, which were added along with letter dots in the eighth century. Some
letters, especially the alif, are still not written in words such as ϦϜϟ lƗkin (but)
and ϩ˶άϫ hƗdhihi (this FEM). The final tƗ’ (tƗ’ marbǌtah) when at the end of
a word is written as a tƗ’, but pronounced as a hƗ’ (˰ϫ) and thus called
ϒϗϮϟ΍ ˯Ύϫ (roughly the pause hƗ’), for example ΔΒϴϘΣ ‫ۊ‬aqƯba (bag). When it is
in the first word of a construct (compound of two elements), it is usually
pronounced as tƗ’ /t/, as in ΪϟϮϟ΍ ΔΒϴϘΣ ‫ۊ‬aqƯbat al-walad (the boy’s bag). 10 9F
Morphology
The morphological scale ϲϓήμϟ΍ ϥ΍ΰϴϤϟ΍ al-mƯzƗn al-‫܈‬arfƯ is the standard
procedure that designates the morphological forms of the Arabic words. If
we take the root k t b (denoting the notion of writing), we will have the
pattern of the verb kataba ΐΘϛ˴ (to write), the agent (doer) is of the pattern
ΐΗΎϛ NƗWLE (writer), ΔΒΘϜϣ matabah (library) and ΐΘϜϣ maktab (desk/office).
Also, an initial hamza makes the verb, among other things, transitive, for
example Ϣ˰˶Ϡ˰ϋ
˴ ‫ޏ‬alima (to know) and ϢϠϋ΃ DҵODPD (to inform). Adding the prefix
ist can make the verb denote request, e.g. istaktaba ΐΘϜΘγ΍ (request to write
down). Other meanings include appointment as in έίϮΘγ΍ istawzara (to
appoint as a minister) and opinion as in ήϜϨΘγ΍ istankara (to find
unacceptable/improper).
The vocabulary of Arabic is based on consonantal roots and derivational
10 The case marker (ΔϴΑ΍ήϋϻ΍ ΔϛήΤϟ΍) is not represented in the transliterated form since
it depends on the sentence structure in which the word is used.
38 Chapter Two
patterns according to which words are built. The majority is triconsonantal

(ΔϴΛϼΛ) with some quadri-consonantal (ΔϴϋΎΑέ) and even a few five-consonant
roots. There is evidence of biconsonantal words, which is a controversial
issue. Derivational patterns are made of a combination of consonant and
specific vowels that help in giving words a certain meaning. A change or
addition of a vowel (or more) or one consonant (or more) can lead to change
in meaning, as in kataba ΐΘϛ (wrote) and kutiba ΐΘ˰˵˰ϛ (was written), NƗWLE
ΐΗΎϛ (writer) and NƗWLEƗni ϥΎΒΗΎϛ (two writers) respectively. The infinitive
noun, al-PD‫܈‬GDU έΪμϤϟ΍, 11 designates the abstract notion of the process or
action of the corresponding verb. It is usually referred to in order to have
the right pattern of derivatives such as adjectives and nouns that denote the
same idea. The past tense is usually taken as the base form.
Inflection
Arabic has a sophisticated inflectional system. Nouns have three cases
(ΔϴΑ΍ήϋ΍ ΕϻΎΣ): nominative ϊϓήϟ΍, accusative ΐμϨϟ΍/ΔϴϟϮόϔϤϟ΍, and genitive ήΠϟ΍
with exceptions that are made according to certain conditions. Nominative
is the case of the subject ϞϋΎϔϟ΍, topic ΃ΪΘΒϤϟ΍, or comment ήΒΨϟ΍ as well as the
topic of the group of kƗna (i.e. ϥΎϛ Ϣγ΍), and the comment of the group of
‘inna (ϥ·
˷ ήΒΧ).
Accusative is the case of objects, vocatives ϯΩΎϨϤϟ΍, and nouns preceded
by the exceptive particle (˯ΎϨΜΘγ΍ Γ΍Ω΍) or emphasis particle (ΪϴϛϮΗ) as well as

the comment of the group of kƗna (ϥΎϛ ήΒΧ), and the topic of the group of
‘inna (ϥ·
˷ Ϣγ΍ . The accusative is also the case of different kinds of adverbs.
The genitive is the case of nouns preceded by prepositions and
quantifiers as well as non-head nouns in compounds (Ϫϴϟ΍ ϑΎπϤϟ΍). Spoken
varieties usually drop case and mood markers, i.e. vowels at the end of
words (ΔϴΑ΍ήϋϻ΍ ΔϛήΤϟ΍). In the standard language, this is the case only at a
pause position, i.e. when saying a word alone or at the end of a sentence; in
other words, markers at the end of a sentence are not pronounced. 12
Verbs have two tenses: past and present, which are also termed perfect
and imperfect. The notion of future can be realised by attaching the prefix
˴ sa to the present tense form or by a combination of the present tense form
α
and the particle ϑϮγ sawfa or using time adverbs indicating future.
11 Specialised dictionaries refer to it as ‘quasi infinitive’ or ‘verbal noun’.

12 ϙήΤΘϤΑ ϲϬΘϨΗ ϻϭ ˬϦϛΎδΑ ΃ΪΒΗ ϻ ΔϴΑήόϟ΍
Definiteness
Definiteness is realized by adding the article al (ϒϳήόΘϟ΍ ϝ΃) at the beginning
of the word. Indefiniteness, on the other hand, is marked by having no
definite article attached; instead, nunation (ϦϳϮϨΗ) occurs, which means
adding an n sound at a final position after the case-ending vowel
(ΔϴΑ΍ήϋϻ΍ ΔϛήΤϟ΍) of a single noun, an adjective, regular feminine plural, and
irregular plural. Nunation is also a characteristic of some adverbs such
adverb of time as in ˱ϼ ϴϟ ΎϧήϓΎγ sƗfarna leilan (we travelled at night), adverb
of manner ϝΎΤϟ΍ as in ˱ Ύπϛ΍έ ˯ΎΟ jƗҴa rƗki‫ڲ‬an (he came running), absolute
object ϖϠτϤϟ΍ ϝϮόϔϤϟ΍ as in ˱ ΎϤϴψϋ ˱ ΎΣήϓ Ρήϓ fari‫ۊ‬a fara‫ۊ‬an ҵDܲƯPDQ (he felt so
happy), and adverbs of frequency as in ˱ ΎϤ΋΍Ω dƗҴiman (always) and ˱ ΍έΩΎϧ
nƗdiran (rarely). Nunation can be found in some spoken varieties, such as
the Gulf area dialects, but with the genitive case (έϭήΠϣ) in all positions.
Gender
Nouns and adjectives have two genders: masculine (ήϛάϣ) and feminine
(ΚϧΆϣ), for example, ϞΟέ rajul (man) and Γ΃ήϣ· imraҴa (woman). The
masculine is also used as a generic form for mixed and neutral gender. Some
words can be neutral or common for both masculine and feminine such as
κΨη shaܵ‫( ܈‬person) and ΔϨϴϫέ rahƯna (hostage). The feminine gender is
either based on the masculine form, for example, ΔϔυϮϣ muwaܲܲafa

(employee FEM), by adding the feminine marker Δ˰ (final tƗ’) to the
masculine form ϒυϮϣ muwaܲܲaf (employee MASC), or ends with a
feminine marker such as Ɨ’ as in ˯Ύϗέί zarqƗҴ (blue FEM), or a long Ɨ suffix
as in ϯήϐλ ‫܈‬ughrƗ (youngest/smallest FEM).
Number
Arabic has a singular form, a dual form for two only ϰϨΜϣ˵ muthanƗ (dual),
and a plural form for more than two. The dual marker is the suffix Ɨni for
the nominative ϊϓήϟ΍ ΔϟΎΣ as in ϥΎ
˶ ϔυϮϣ muwaܲܲafƗni (2 employees MASC) and
˶
ϥΎΘϔυϮϣ muwaܲܲafatƗni (2 employees FEM), and ayni for the accusative
ΐμϨϟ΍/ΔϴϟϮόϔϤϟ΍ and genitive ήΠϟ΍ as in Ϧϴ˶ ˰˴˰ϔυϮϣ muwaܲܲafayni (2 employees
MASC) and ϦϴΘϔυϮϣ
˶ muwaܲܲafatayni (2 employees FEM). The plural can be
regular or irregular. Regular plural complies with gender in that the
masculine form takes the marker ǌn for the nominative as in ϥϮϔυϮϣ
muwaܲܲafǌn (employers MASC), and Ưn for the accusative and genitive as
in ϦϴϔυϮϣ muwaܲܲafƯn. The regular feminine plural takes the final marker Ɨt.
The nominative case is Ɨtu, e.g. ˵ΕΎϔυϮϣ muwaܲܲafƗtu (employers FEM), and
40 Chapter Two
the accusative and genitive cases are Ɨti as in Ε ˶ ΎϔυϮϣ PXZDܲܲafƗti (see
Definiteness above).
Irregular plurals can also have patterns. Such patterns are also analogical
in that nouns and adjectives of a particular form have a common structure
according to which it is constructed. Different plural forms can denote
different meanings, e.g. Ζϴ˴Α bayt (home), ΕϮϴ˵Α buyǌt (homes), and ΕΎϴΑ΃
ҴDE\ƗW(lines of poetry). The plural form is the pattern of analogy if no root
can be traced for the word. This is particularly useful for loan words whose
plural form is the regular feminine (ϢϟΎγ ΚϧΆϣ ϊϤΟ), for example, ΕΎϧϮϳΰϔϠΗ
tilfizyǌnƗt (TV sets).
Lexis
Arabic vocabulary is mainly coined by derivation according to the
morphological scale ϲϓήμϟ΍ ϥ΍ΰϴϤϟ΍. Words are derived according to the
analogical patterns that function as lexical templates. Words are generally
produced by root-and-pattern and affixation. Derivatives of roots are usually
linked by the core meaning of the root (see the example of k t b in
Morphology above). Words are derived according to patterns of semantic
significance. Forms of present participle ϞϋΎϔϟ΍ Ϣγ΍ as in ϖ΋Ύγ sƗҴiq (driver),
past participle ϝϮόϔϤϟ΍ Ϣγ΍ as in έϮδϜϣ maksǌr (broken), tools and machines
Δϟϵ΍ Ϣγ΍ e.g. ΩήΒ˶ϣ mibrad (file/rasp), ΡΎΘϔϣ miftƗ‫( ۊ‬key), comparative and
superlative ϞϴπϔΘϟ΍ Ϣγ΍, e.g. ήΒϛ΃ ҴDNEDU (bigger, elder), diminutive ήϴϐμΘϟ΍ e.g.
ΐϴΘ˰˵˰ϛ kutayyib (booklet), ήϴϬ˵ϧ nuhayr (small river), and place as in βϠΠϣ
majlis (sitting/meeting place) are all derived according to those patterns.
Translation has also introduced compounds that reflect the foreign word
formation processes: ΔϴΠδϔϨΒϟ΍ ϕϮϓ fawq al-banafsajiya (ultraviolet),
˯΍ήϤΤϟ΍ ΖΤΗ ta‫ۊ‬t al-‫ۊ‬DPrƗҴ (infrared) and ϲϜϠγϻ lƗsilkƯ (wireless/radio).
Syntax
Syntax is the way in which sentences and phrases are formed and structured.
Generally speaking, Arabic has two kinds of sentences, a verbal sentence
(ΔϴϠόϓ ΔϠϤΟ) and a nominal sentence (ΔϴϤγ΍ ΔϠϤΟ). The verbal sentence starts
with a verb and can be of the following patterns:
VS (verb + subject)
Ϟ˵ Οήϟ΍ ˯˴ ΎΟ
jƗҴa al-rajulu
(came the-man)
VSA (verb + subject + adverbial)

ΔγέΪϤϟ΍ ϰϟ· ˵ΐϟΎτϟ΍ ΐϫΫ
˴
dhahaba al-‫ܒ‬Ɨlibu ҴLOƗ al-madrasati
(went the-student to the-school)
VSO (verb + subject + object)

ΓΪϴμϘϟ΍ ˵ΐϟΎτϟ΍ ΃ήϗ
qaraҴD al-‫ܒ‬Ɨlibu al-qa‫܈‬Ưdata
(read-PAST the-student the-poem)
VSOA (verb + subject + object+ adverbial)

˱ ΍ΪϏ νήόϤϟ΍
˴ ˵
ήϳίϮϟ΍ ˵ ΘΘϔϳ
΢
yaftati‫ۊ‬u al-wazƯru al-maҵUL‫ڲ‬a ghadan
(inaugurate the-minister the-exhibition tomorrow)
VSOO (verb + subject + object1 + obeject2)

˱ ΎΑΎΘϛ ΐϟΎτϟ΍
˴ ˵Ζϴτϋ΃
ҴDҵ‫ܒ‬D\WX al-‫ܒ‬aliba kitƗban
(I-gave the-student a-book)
VOS (verb + object + subject)

ϊϴΑήϟ΍ ΎϧΎΗ΃
ҴDWƗQƗ al-rabƯҵu
(came-us the-spring)
VSOC (verb + subject + object + complement)

˱ ΍ήοΎΣ ˱ ΎϴϠϋ ˲Ϊ ϤΤϣ ΐδ
˶ Σ
˴
‫ۊ‬DVLED 0X‫ۊ‬ammadun ҵAliyyan ‫ۊ‬Ɨ‫ڲ‬iran
(thought Muhammad Ali present)
VSOOC (verb + subject + object1 + obeject2 +

complement)
˱ϼϣΎη ˴ϥΎΤΘϣϻ΍ Ώϼτϟ΍
˴ ΫΎΘγϷ΍ ϢϠϋ
˴ ΍
aҵlama al-ҴXVWƗGKXal-‫ܒ‬ullƗba al-imti‫ۊ‬Ɨna shƗmilan
(informed the-teacher the-students the-test
comprehensive)
The nominal sentence is a topic and comment (ήΒΧϭ ΃ΪΘΒϣ mubtadaҴ and
khabar). It starts with the subject which is mostly a noun, and can be of the
following patterns:
42 Chapter Two
SV (subject + verb)
˯ΎΟ ˲Ϊ ϤΤϣ
0X‫ۊ‬ammadun jƗҴ
(Muhammad came)
SVO (subject + verb + object)

ΓέϮλ Ϣγέ ˲Ϊ ϤΤϣ
0X‫ۊ‬ammadun rasama ‫܈‬ǌratan
(Muhammad drew a-picture)
SC (subject + complement)
ΔόΘϤϣ ΔμϘϟ΍
al-qi‫܈‬atu mumtiҵatun
(the-story entertaining)
SA (subject + adverb)
˱ ΍ΪϏ ϝ
˵ ΎϔΘΣϻ΍
al-i‫ۊ‬tifƗlu ghadan
(the-celebration tomorrow)
When the topic (΃ΪΘΒϤϟ΍) in a sentence of the pattern SC is indefinite (ΓήϜϧ),

it is obligatorily postponed, e.g. έϮϔμϋ
˲ ΓήΠθϟ΍ ϰϠϋ ҵalƗ al-shajarati ҵu‫܈‬fǌrun
[on the-tree (is a) bird]. In some patterns of a verbal sentence, the verb does
not inflect, i.e. its form does not necessarily change to agree with the
subject’s number and gender. However, in a nominal sentence, it agrees
with the subject’s number and gender (see Inflection above and Tables 6
and 7 below).
Table 6: Nominal sentences with verb subject agreement
Δ˶ γέΪϤϟ΍ ϰϟ· ΐϫΫ

˴ ˵ΐϟΎτϟ΍
Δ˶ γέΪϤϟ΍ ϰϟ· ΎΒϫΫ ϥΎΒϟΎτϟ΍
˶
Δ˶ γέΪϤϟ΍ ϰϟ· ΍ϮΒϫΫ ˵Ώϼτϟ΍
Table 7: Verbal sentences with no verb subject agreement
Δ˶ γέΪϤϟ΍ ϰϟ· ˵ΐϟΎτϟ΍ ΐϫΫ

˴
Δ˶ γέΪϤϟ΍ ϰϟ· ϥΎΒϟΎτϟ΍
˶ ΐϫΫ
˴
Δ˶ γέΪϤϟ΍ ϰϟ· ˵Ώϼτϟ΍ ΐϫΫ
˴
$*HQHUDO2XWOLQHRIWKH$UDELF/DQJXDJH

7KHLPSDFWRIWUDQVODWLRQRQ$UDELF
7UDQVODWLRQDFWLYLW\LQIOXHQFHG$UDELFPRGHUQVW\OHWUHPHQGRXVO\$UDELF
KDVZLWQHVVHGDVLJQLILFDQWGHYHORSPHQWLQWKHODVWWZRKXQGUHG\HDUVDVD
UHVXOW RI FXOWXUDO DQG OLQJXLVWLF FRQWDFW LQ ZKLFK WUDQVODWLRQ KDV SOD\HG D
PDMRUUROH7UDQVODWLRQRIOLWHUDU\MRXUQDOLVWLFVFLHQWLILFDQGWHFKQLFDOWH[WV
KDVLQWURGXFHGQHZZRUGVH[SUHVVLRQVDQGVWUXFWXUHVLQWR$UDELF7UDQVODWLRQ
KDVHQULFKHG$UDELFZLWKH[SUHVVLRQVWKDWIRXQGWKHLUZD\LQWRLWVPRGHUQ
VW\OH1HZFRQFHSWVLQSROLWLFVVFLHQFHDQGWHFKQRORJ\KDGWRKDYH$UDELF
FRXQWHUSDUWV HJ ΖϳϮμ ˸ ˴Η ta‫܈‬wƯt YRWLQJ ϝ΍Ϯ˸Π˶Η tijwƗl URDPLQJ ή͊ ˰Τμ
˴ ˴˰Η
ta‫܈‬a‫ۊۊ‬ur GHVHUWLILFDWLRQ DQGΔϣ΍ΪΘδϣ˵ ΔϴϤϨ˰Ηtanmiya mustadƗma VXVWDLQDEOH
GHYHORSPHQW 6RPH WHUPV DUH ERUURZHG DQG DGDSWHG WR $UDELF IRU
H[DPSOHΔϴρ΍ήϘϤϳΩdƯmǌqrƗ‫ܒ‬iyya GHPRFUDF\ DQGRWKHUDUHERUURZHGILUVW
DQG WKHQ $UDELF WHUPV DUH FUHDWHG IRU WKHP HJ ήΗϮϴΒϤ˸ ϛ˵ kumbiyǌtar DQG
ΏϮγΎΣ‫ۊ‬Ɨsǌb FRPSXWHU
7UDQVODWLRQKDVFKDQJHGWKHIDFHRI$UDELFDQGLWKDVFRQWULEXWHGWRWKH
UDSLGPRVWO\XQQDWXUDOHYROXWLRQRIWKH$UDELFODQJXDJH$UDELFWKDWLVWR
VD\ KDV GHYHORSHG QRW RQ LWV RZQ EXW UDWKHU DV D UHVXOW RI WKH RXWVLGH
LQIOXHQFH RI WKH SURFHVV RI WUDQVODWLRQ ZKHUH FRQFHSWV YRFDEXODU\
VWUXFWXUHVDQGFXOWXUHRIWKHRULJLQDOODQJXDJHDVZHOODVWKHWUDQVODWRU¶V
DSSURDFKKDYHSOD\HGDGHFLVLYHUROH
6WDQGDUG$UDELFLVDYDULHW\WKDW$UDEVGRQRWOHDUQDWKRPHEXWUDWKHU
DWVFKRRODQGLVLPSURYHGDQGUHILQHGVRORQJDVDVSHDNHULVH[SRVHGWRLW
+RZHYHUSHRSOHGRQRWXVHLWPXFKLQWKHLUHYHU\GD\LQWHUDFWLRQVDQGWKHLU
H[SRVXUHJHWVOHVVDQGOHVVDIWHUOHDYLQJVFKRRO7KHLQFRPSHWHQFHRIPDQ\
WUDQVODWRUV DQG MRXUQDOLVWV LQ SDUWLFXODU XVXDOO\ UHVXOWV LQ QRW KDYLQJ WKH
ULJKW MXGJPHQW ZKHWKHU D JLYHQ SUHSRVLWLRQ VWUXFWXUH RU FROORFDWLRQ LV
$UDELFRUDOLHQ/LWHUDOWUDQVODWLRQHVSHFLDOO\RIFRPSRXQGVDQGSKUDVHV
DQGVSHFLILFDOO\(QJOLVKFRQVWUXFWLRQVKDYHLQWURGXFHGDIRUHLJQODQJXDJH
LQ GLVJXLVH &RUSXVEDVHG HYLGHQFH VXSSRUWV WKH QRWLRQ WKDW $UDELF VW\OH
QRZDGD\V ZKHWKHU JRRG RU DZNZDUG LV WR D ODUJH H[WHQW D SURGXFW RI
WUDQVODWLRQV6SHDNHUVRI$UDELFUHF\FOHVXFKH[SUHVVLRQVDQGVWUXFWXUHV
ZLWKRXWEHLQJDZDUHWKDWWKH\YLRODWHWKHV\VWHPRI$UDELFDQGQRZWKH\
DUH ZLGHO\ XVHG DV JHQXLQH $UDELF 7UDQVODWLRQ KDV DOVR LQWURGXFHG
H[SUHVVLRQV RI DOLHQ FXOWXUDO SURILOHV VXFK DV ΞϠΜϟ΍Γήϛ˵ kurat al-thalj
VQRZEDOO DQG ΔόΒϘϟ΍ϊϓή˴ϳ yarfaҵ al-qubbaҵa WDNH RIIRQH¶V KDW ZKLFK DUH
FRPPRQLQPRGHUQ$UDELFVW\OH

,]ZDLQL

&KDSWHU7ZR

7KH$UDELFODQJXDJHWRGD\
7KHVRFLRHFRQRPLFSROLWLFDOG\QDPLFVRIWKH$UDELFODQJXDJHLQPRGHUQ
WLPHVKDYHSXWLWLQDQXQIDYRXUDEOHVLWXDWLRQ$UDELFIDFHVWKHIROORZLQJ
FKDOOHQJHV

+LJKHU HGXFDWLRQ LQVWLWXWLRQV XVH JOREDOO\ SRZHUIXO ODQJXDJHV DV
ODQJXDJHVRILQVWUXFWLRQ
2SWLQJIRUHGXFDWLRQLQVFKRROVDQGXQLYHUVLWLHVZKHUH$UDELFLVQRW
WKHODQJXDJHRILQVWUXFWLRQ
'LPLQLVKLQJFRQWDFWZLWKWKH$UDELFODQJXDJHDIWHUJUDGXDWLRQ
$ZNZDUG VW\OH LQ WKH PHGLD GXH WR LQFRUUHFW WUDQVODWLRQV WKH
LQFRPSHWHQFH RI MRXUQDOLVWV DQG UHSRUWHUV LQ $UDELF DQG WKH
VXEVHTXHQWOLQJXLVWLFUHF\FOLQJ
&XUULFXOD RI $UDELF DUH FRPSOLFDWHG DQG EDVHG RQ PHPRUL]DWLRQ
UDWKHU WKDQ WKH SUDFWLFH RI ODQJXDJH DQG JUDPPDU XVLQJ WKH
FRPPXQLFDWLYHDSSURDFKLQWHDFKLQJ
7HDFKHUVRI$UDELFLQSUHFROOHJHHGXFDWLRQDUHJHQHUDOO\QRWZHOO
TXDOLILHG
,OOLWHUDF\
*OREDOO\ SRZHUIXO ODQJXDJHV (QJOLVK LQ SDUWLFXODU GRPLQDWH WKH
ZRUOG¶VEXVLQHVVWHFKQRORJ\DQGHQWHUWDLQPHQWEXVLQHVV
7KH FRQYHQLHQFH IRXQG HYHQ E\ HGXFDWHG VSHDNHUV WR XVH WKH
FROORTXLDOYDULHW\LQFRQWH[WVZKHUHRQO\WKHVWDQGDUGODQJXDJHKDV
EHHQXVHG
7KHWHQGHQF\RIVRPHPHGLDRUJDQL]DWLRQVDQGSXEOLVKLQJKRXVHVWR
XVHFROORTXLDOYDULHWLHVLQWKHLUZULWWHQWH[WVDQGSXEOLFDWLRQV+HUH
µ$UDELFLVZULWWHQDVLIVSRNHQ¶LVXVHGRQDODUJHVFDOHIRUWKHSXEOLF
ZKLFK FDQ OHDG WR HVWDEOLVKLQJ WKH ZULWWHQ IRUP RI WKH FROORTXLDO
YDULHW\ZKLFKUHVXOWVLQDVHSDUDWHGHULYDWLYHODQJXDJH VHH9DULHWLHV
RI$UDELFDERYH
7KHSHUYDVLYHXVDJHRIIRUHLJQODQJXDJHVDQGFROORTXLDOYDULHWLHVLQ
FRPSXWHUPHGLDWHGFRPPXQLFDWLRQ HPDLOVWH[WPHVVDJLQJRQOLQH
VRFLDO QHWZRUNLQJ FKDWWLQJ IRUXPV DQG EORJV ,Q WKHVH YHQXHV
$UDELFLVZULWWHQDVLIVSRNHQDVZHOODQGWKLVFDQKDYHWKHVDPH
RXWFRPHVVWDWHGLQDERYH
5HVHDUFKSXEOLVKHGLQ$UDELFLVOLPLWHGDQGLVUHVWULFWHGWRDUHDVRI
$UDELFODQJXDJHDQGOLWHUDWXUHDQGKXPDQLWLHVLQJHQHUDO$ODQJXDJH
WKULYHVLIUHVHDUFKLVFRQGXFWHGDQGSXEOLVKHGXVLQJLWVYRFDEXODU\

,]ZDLQL

and when its word formation mechanisms are exploited. This takes
us to the issue of terminology, which is a long-lasting problem. This
is because of the very large number of terms created in other
languages with no Arabic counterparts, as well as the multiplicity of
Arabic terms for one concept, the slow and problem-laden
coordination of translation and creation of terms.
With the domination of globally powerful languages, mainly English

and French, Arabic nowadays witnesses a triglossia with its speakers using
two varieties of Arabic (standard and colloquial) and one foreign language.
In spoken interaction and informal computer-mediated communication, the
colloquial variety and a foreign language are usually used. For convenience,
speed, and/or because of the unfamiliarly with Arabic characters, Arabic is
also written using the Latin script in emails, text messages, chatting, and
internet forums. There has been some research on and application of
computational linguistics in the Arabic language in areas such as natural
language processing (NLP) and machine translation (MT). There are
problems and challenges facing Arabic in these areas, 15 but there is a good
progress achieved so far.
Bibliography
A Dictionary of Modern Linguistic Terms. Beirut: Librairie du Liban,

1983.
ҵAbd al-AzƯz, M. “.KDৢƗ‫ގ‬iৢ al-‫ޏ‬$UDEL\ya al-mu‫ގ‬ƗৢLUD,” (Characteristics of
Contemporary Arabic) al-LisƗn al-ҵArabƯ 45 (1998): 143-163.
ҵAbd al-Rahman, A. Lughatuna wa Al-‫ۉ‬ayƗt (Our Language and Life). 2nd
edition. Cairo: 'ƗU al-Ma‫ޏ‬Ɨrif, 1971.
ҵAbd al-TawZƗb, R. Fiqh al-ҵ$rabiyya (Arabic Linguistics). Cairo:
al-KhanjƯ, 1980.
Al-AntakƯ, M. DirƗsƗt fƯ fiqh al-lugha (Studies in Arabic Linguistics).
Beirut: DƗr al-sharq al-‫ޏ‬ArabƯ, 1969.
Al-Fayৢal, S.R. al-Mushkila al-lughawiyya al-‫ޏ‬Arabiyya (The Arabic
Linguistic Problem). Tripoli: Gross Press, 1992.
Al-MubƗrak, M. Fiqh al-lugha wa-kha‫܈‬ƗҴi‫ ܈‬al-ҵ$UDEL\\D (Linguistics and
the characteristics of Arabic). Damascus: Syrian Arabic Academy,
1964.
Al-ৡDOLK, S. )Ư fiqh al-lugha (Arabic Linguistics). Beirut: 'ƗU al-ҵIlm
lil-0DOƗ\Ưn, 1983.
15 See Izwaini, 2011.

46 Chapter Two
Al-SamarrƗ’iy, I. Muҵjam wa dirƗsa fƯ al-ҵArabiyya al-muҵƗ‫܈‬ira (A Lexicon

and Study of Contemporary Arabic). Beirut: Librarie du Liban, 2000.
Al-SamarrƗ‫ޏ‬Ư, I. “0D‫ޏ‬a lughati al-ৢahƗfa” (The Language of Journalism). In
Nadwat al-izdiwajiyya fƯ al-lugha al-ҵArabiyya (Proceedings of the
Symposium on Diglossia in Arabic), 197-204. Amman: Jordan Arabic
Academy, 1988.
Al-SuyǌtƯ, J. Hamҵ al-hawƗmiҵ. Kuwait: DƗr al-buতǌth al-‫ޏ‬ilmiya, 1980.
Al-ZajjƗjy, A. A. ‫ۉ‬XUǌI al-maҵƗnƯ (Particles of Meanings). Amman:
Mu’ssasat al-risala wa-GƗU al-‫ގ‬amal, 1984.
Al-YƗzijy, I. Lughat al-jarƗҴid (Language of the Newspapers). Compiled
and edited by NazƯr Cabbǌd. Beirut: Marǌn ‫ޏ‬Abǌd Publishing, 1984.
Aziz, Y. “Existential Sentences in Arabic-English Translation,” Meta 40: 1
(1995): 47-53.
Aziz, Y. A Contrastive Grammar of English and Arabic. Mosul: University
of Mosul Press, 1989.
Badawi, E. Mustawayat al-ҵ$UDEL\\D al-muCDVLUDKIƯMisr (Levels of
Cotemprary Arabic in Egypt). 2nd HGLWLRQ&DLUR'ƗU$O-Salam, 2011.
Bakalla, M. Arabic Culture through its Language and Literature. London:
Kegan Paul, 1984.
Encyclopaedia Britannica Online:
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/104144/Chad/54925/Lan
guages#ref516639, accessed September 28, 2014.
Fehri, A. F. A Lexicon of Linguistic Terms. Beirut: 'ƗU al-kitƗb al-jadƯd,

2009.
Ferguson, C. “Diglossia,” Word 15 (1959): 325-340.
HassƗn, T. Al-Lugha al-ҵ$UDEL\\D: maҵanƗhƗ wa-mabnƗhƗ (The Arabic
Language: its Semantics and Structures). Cairo: al-+D\‫ގ‬a al-0Dৢriyya
al-‫ޏ‬Ɨmma lil-KitƗb, 1979.
Holes, C. Modern Arabic: Structures, Functions and Varieties. London:
Longman, 1995.
Ibn Manzǌr, M. LisƗn al-ҵ$UDE Dictionary. 3rd ed. Beirut: 'ƗU ,ত\Ɨ’
al-Turath al-‫ޏ‬$UDEƯ, 1999.
Izwaini, S. “Translation and Linguistic Recycling in Arabic,” Babel: revue
internationale de la traduction 60: 4 (2015): 478-513.
Izwaini, S. “Linguistic Challenges for Arabic Machine Translation,”
Turjuman 20:2 (2011): 75-107.
Khalil, A. A Contrastive Grammar of English and Arabic. 2nd edition.
Amman: Jordan Book Center, 2010.
Mustafa, I. ,‫ۊ‬yƗҴ al-na‫ۊ‬w (Reviving Arabic Grammar). Cairo: Translation
and Publishing Committee, 1951.
Nahar, H. Al-AsƗs fƯ fiqh al-lugha al-ҵ$UDEL\\D wa-arǌmƗtihƗ (The Arabic

Language and its Origins). Irbid: 'ƗU al-Amal, 2005.
Stetkevych, J. The Modern Arabic Literary Language: Lexical and Stylistic
Developments. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 2006.
Versteegh, K. The Arabic Language. New York: Columbia University
Press, 1995.
Wright, W. A Grammar of the Arabic Language. Vol. 2., 3rd edition.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
Zaghoul, M. “Diglossia in Arabic: Investigating Solutions,”
Anthropological Linguistics 22: 5 (1980): 201-217.

A General Outline of Arabic Language (Chapter - Two)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

A General Outline of Arabic Language (Chapter - Two)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CHAPTER TWO

A GENERAL OUTLINE OF THE ARABIC

native language of many immigrant communities in North and South

1 See Bakalla, 1984 and Versteegh, 1995.

Table 1: A comparison between words from HijƗzƯ and TamƯmƯ dialects

+LMƗ]Ư Qureishi 7DPƯPƯ dialect Meaning

ϚϠΗ tilka ϙΎΗ tƗka that FEM

Ϧϳάϟ΍ al-ODGKƯna ϥϭάϠϟ΍ al-ODGKǌna who plural MASC

άϨϣ mundhu άϣ mudh since

Ϊϫ ˴ί zahada Ϊ˶˰ϫί zahida to be ascetic (verb)

ϰϘΗ· LWWDTƗ ϰϘΗ WDTƗ to fear

˯΍ήΑ EDUƗ‫ގ‬ ˯ϱήΑ EDUƯ‫ގ‬ innocent

Ϊϛ˷ ϭ wakkada Ϊϛ˷ ΃ akkada to emphasize

ΩΎμ˶˰Σ তiৢƗd ΩΎμ˴˰Σ তDৢƗd harvest

ϦϳΪϣ PDGƯn ϥϮϳΪϣ PDGL\ǌn borrower

Δϫ΍ήϛ NDUƗKD Δϴϫ΍ήϛ NDUƗhiya hatred

ήϴΑ EƯr ήΌΑ bi‫ގ‬r water well

ΏΎΒϟ΍ Ϊλϭ΃ ΏΎΒϟ΍ Ϊλ΁ he closed the door

languages such as English and French, spoken Arabic started to develop

spoken. Table 2 below provides a comparison of the features of these two

Table 2: A comparison of Standard Arabic and Colloquial Arabic

and formal computer-mediated radio shows, and informal

The vocabulary of a spoken variety is inherently linked to CA and MSA.

7 Ferguson, 1959: 325-340; and Zaghoul, 1980: 201-217.

categorized as proposed by Elsaid Badawi 8:

1. Ι΍ήΘϟ΍ ϰΤμϓ IX‫ۊ܈‬Ɨ al-WXUƗWh Classical Arabic

8 Badawi, 2011: 119.

that published scientific articles in MSA. Some reasons why Arabs, in

Phonology and graphology

9 ϙήΤΘϤΑ ϲϬΘϨΗ ϻϭ ˬϦϛΎδΑ ΃ΪΒΗ ϻ ΔϴΑήόϟ΍

Table 3: Long and short vowels of Arabic

Long Written Example Corresponding Written

Table 4: Semi vowels of Arabic

Written Form Example

patterns according to which words are built. The majority is triconsonantal

by the exceptive particle (˯ΎϨΜΘγ΍ Γ΍Ω΍) or emphasis particle (ΪϴϛϮΗ) as well as

11 Specialised dictionaries refer to it as ‘quasi infinitive’ or ‘verbal noun’.

either based on the masculine form, for example, ΔϔυϮϣ muwaܲܲafa

VSA (verb + subject + adverbial)

VSO (verb + subject + object)

VSOA (verb + subject + object+ adverbial)

VSOO (verb + subject + object1 + obeject2)

VOS (verb + object + subject)

VSOC (verb + subject + object + complement)

VSOOC (verb + subject + object1 + obeject2 +

SVO (subject + verb + object)

When the topic (΃ΪΘΒϤϟ΍) in a sentence of the pattern SC is indefinite (ΓήϜϧ),

Table 6: Nominal sentences with verb subject agreement

Δ˶ γέΪϤϟ΍ ϰϟ· ΐϫΫ

Table 7: Verbal sentences with no verb subject agreement

Δ˶ γέΪϤϟ΍ ϰϟ· ˵ΐϟΎτϟ΍ ΐϫΫ

With the domination of globally powerful languages, mainly English

A Dictionary of Modern Linguistic Terms. Beirut: Librairie du Liban,

15 See Izwaini, 2011.

Al-SamarrƗ’iy, I. Muҵjam wa dirƗsa fƯ al-ҵArabiyya al-muҵƗ‫܈‬ira (A Lexicon

Fehri, A. F. A Lexicon of Linguistic Terms. Beirut: 'ƗU al-kitƗb al-jadƯd,

Nahar, H. Al-AsƗs fƯ fiqh al-lugha al-ҵ$UDEL\\D wa-arǌmƗtihƗ (The Arabic

You might also like

9 ϙήΤΘϤΑ ϲϬΘϨΗ ϻϭ ˬϦϛΎδΑ ΃ΪΒΗ ϻ ΔϴΑήόϟ΍