Engineering Materials and Processes 2014

CANADIAN INSTITUTE FOR NDE Section 1
Engineering Materials and Processes

Table of Contents
1. Materials
1.1 Nature of Matter ………………………………………….. 2
1.2 Metals ………………………………………….. 11
1.2.1 Introduction ……………………................................ 11
1.2.2 Cast Iron ……………………................................ 19
1.2.3 Steel ……………………................................ 24
1.2.4 Aluminum ……………………................................ 39
1.2.5 Nickel ……………………................................ 44
1.2.6 Copper ……………………................................ 46
1.3 Powder Metallurgy ………………………………………….. 49
1.4 Plastics ………………………………………….. 52
1.5 Ceramics ………………………………………….. 54
1.6 Concrete ………………………………………….. 57
1.7 Composites ………………………………………….. 60
2. Mechanical Testing of Materials
3. Manufacturing Processes
3.1 Heat Treatment ………………………………………….. 79
3.2 Welding, Brazing and Soldering ……………………………. 85
3.3 Forming ………………………………………….. 123
3.4 Bulk Forming ………………………………………….. 127
3.5 Casting ………………………………………….. 137
3.6 Manufacturing of Pipe ………………………………………. 152
3.7 Machining .............................................................154
4. In Service Deterioration of Materials

4.1 Fatigue ............................................................ 161
4.2 Corrosion ............................................................ 166
4.3 Wear and Erosion ............................................................ 173
5. Other Sources of Discontinuities
6. Terminology
7. Hardness Comparison Chart
8. Index
Engineering, Materials and Components

Revision Date: 9/13/16
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MATERIALS
1.1 NATURE OF MATTER
Understanding the nature of materials plays an important role in our

understanding of the materials or components that we non-destructively test
(NDT). The discontinuities or material properties that we seek and study with
NDT methods maybe associated with the initial processing of the material,
subsequent processing or manufacturing, and/or service conditions in which they
perform. An understanding of these processes or conditions enhances our ability
to detect, measure and characterize these conditions.
Understanding the nature of materials also aids in understanding the NDT

methods. As an example, in the study of radiography why do isotopes decay and
what energy is released? This is explained at the atomic and subatomic level. In
the study of magnetic particle why can some metals be magnetized and others
not? Why is a specific light given off from fluorescent magnetic particles and dyes
when exposed to black light? Why do metals conduct electricity? Knowing the
basic concepts of the atom plays an important role in this understanding.
History
The concept of the atom dates back to ancient Greece in the 5th Century BC.
Democritus the “laughing philosopher” around 440 BC first coined the term
“atomos” meaning the smallest particle of matter. This original concept of the
atom was based in philosophy; the science of chemistry in 1661 first proposed all
matter was made of atoms rather than the classical elements of earth, fire and
water. John Dalton in 1803 was the first to propose each atom has a
characteristic mass and remains unchanged in chemical processes as well as
other additional features that have since been discarded.
JJ Thompson (Nobel Prize in Physics 1906) first revealed through his work on
cathode rays that subatomic particles (electrons) existed. Ernest Rutherford
(1871-1937) received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1908 and proposed the
concept that the mass of an atom is concentrated at the centre (nucleus) with
electrons that orbit the nucleus. Together with H.G. Moseley by bombarding
atoms with cathode rays was able to characterize atoms in such a way that each
could be assigned an atomic number.
The periodic table could then be described as one atom existing for each
element of the table. In 1913 Frederick Soddy (Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1921)
discovered that there appeared to be more than one type of atom at each

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position in the periodic table. The term isotope was introduced by Margaret Todd
(Scottish writer and doctor) for different atoms of the same element.
It was Niels Bohr (Nobel Prize in Physics 1922) in 1913 that introduced the
principles of quantum mechanics to the study of electrons and the fact that they
were confined to clearly defined orbits, could jump between orbits, and could not
freely move between the orbits or reside in the intermediate states.
Erwin Schrödinger (Nobel Prize in Physics 1933) and Louis de Broglie (Nobel
Prize in Physics 1929) proposed that the electrons behaved like waves
developing a three dimensional model in which it was impossible to determine
the position and momentum of the particles. This came to be known as the
“uncertainty principle”. Although difficult to visualize it did explain the behaviour
of atoms that previous models could not, and could predict a range of position
and momentum of the electrons. The planetary (Bohr Model) model was then
discarded.
The mass spectrometer an instrument developed to measure the exact mass of

an atom was used by Francis William Aston (Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1922) to
demonstrate that isotopes had different masses. He was able to determine that
isotopes varied by integer amounts and was called the “whole number rule”.
James Chadwick (Nobel Prize in Physics 1935) in 1932 explained isotopes as

atoms with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons within
the nucleus. In the 1950’s using particle accelerators and detectors scientists
were able to determine that neutrons and protons were made of smaller particles
called quarks.
Atoms
All matter such as solids, liquids, and gases are made up of atoms, the smallest
particle of any element (refer to the periodic table in figure 1.1a). There are
approximately 114 different atoms. This periodic table shows 102 elements and
specifies the chemical name, atomic number, chemical symbol, and atomic
weight. The metals (shown as shaded elements in the periodic table) comprise
most of the elements of the periodic table.

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Figure 1.1a

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Not all of the atoms in the periodic table will be of interest to us. Some elements’
chemical symbols appear on Mill Test Reports and may be routinely used in our
day to day activities. Mill Test Reports (see figure1.1b) are used to communicate
the actual properties of a piece of material. Among other information, is the
chemical composition of the material expressed as percentages of weight.
As an example (refer to figure 1.1b) the cast analysis of a specific piece of steel
is:
Carbon C .187%
Manganese Mn 1.100%
Phosphorus P .013%
Sulphur S .010%
Silicon Si .075%
Aluminum Al .046%
Nickel Ni .004%
the remainder will be iron (Fe)
Some of the most common elements that appear in Mill Test Reports and their
symbols are:
Al Aluminum
C Carbon
Cr Chromium
Co Cobalt
Cu Copper
Fe Iron
Pb Lead
Mg Magnesium
Mn Manganese
Mo Molybdenum
Ni Nickel
Si Silicon
S Sulphur
Sn Tin
Ti Titanium
W Tungsten
Zn Zinc

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Atoms of all elements consist of even smaller particles.

The atom has a central mass called the nucleus which
consists of protons and neutrons (except hydrogen that
has 1 proton and no neutrons). The protons (positively
charged) and the neutrons (electrically neutral) are
composed of particles called quarks of which there are 6
types. A quark is a type of fermion one of two basic
building blocks of all matter. Revolving around the
nucleus in orbits (or "shells") are the electrons which are
negatively charged. The electron is an example of the
second building block; a lepton. In an electrically neutral
atom, the number of electrons will equal the number of
protons, thereby cancelling the electrical charge of each. Figure 1.1c
Figure 1.1d
The electrons in each atom are attracted to the nucleus by an electromagnetic

force. Electrons have properties of both waves and particles and their attraction
to the nucleus is based on their distance from the nucleus. The attraction to the
nucleus is measured in electron volts (eV), the amount of energy needed to
unbind it from the nucleus. The lowest energy of a bound electron is the ground

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state and electrons at higher energy levels are in an excited state. In order for an
electron to transition from one energy level to another it must absorb or emit a
photon of energy matching the difference between the energy levels.
When an electron emits a photon it drops to a lower energy level, the energy is
proportional to its frequency and so appears as distinct bands in the
electromagnetic spectrum. This is what happens when a fluorescent material is
subjected to black light; the energy of the electron is raised to a higher level and
as it drops back to its original energy level, energy is released in the form of
visible light which our eyes see.
Atoms are bound together in one of several ways. Either with the same type of
atom to form a pure substance or with atoms of other elements to form
compounds.
The three methods of atomic bonding are:
 Ionic Bonding
o Sodium Chloride (salt) is an example of this type of bond. Chlorine
has 7 electrons in it’s third (outer, valence) shell, the capacity of
that shell is 8. Atoms like to have a full valence shell, so chlorine
will attempt to pickup one electron to fill this outer shell. Sodium
has only one electron in its third shell. If sodium gives up this one
electron, to have a full 2nd (valence) shell it will become positively
charged. If chlorine picks up this electron given up by the sodium it
will become negatively charged and they will have an attraction for
each other. The resultant material, salt has very different chemical
properties than either of the two elements that make it up. This type
of bond occurs between a metal and a non-metal atom.
Figure 1.1e, Ionic Bonding

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 Covalent Bonding
o Two hydrogen atoms bond together through the sharing of an
electron. Each atom has one electron. The first shell of an atom
has a capacity for two electrons. To achieve full outer shells the
hydrogen atoms share an electron. Covalent bonding can involve
the sharing of more than one electron and occurs between two non-
metal atoms.
Sharing Electrons
Figure 1.1f, Covalent Bonding
 Metallic Bonding
o The metal atoms will be dealt with later in 1.2.1.
States of Matter
Matter can exist in four states: solid, liquid,

gaseous or plasma. Within a given state
atoms can be in different phases. As an
example, carbon can exist as graphite or
diamond while in the solid state.
The state of the atom depends on the

pressure and temperature to which the
material is exposed. If pressure and
temperature are plotted showing the states
for a given material the point at which solid,
liquid and gas can exist in equilibrium is
called the triple point. An example is that of Figure 1.1g, Triple Point Diagram
an ice skate on ice. The pressure of a
persons’ body applied over the area of the

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skate blade increases the pressure on the ice. The increase in pressure favours
the formation of a denser phase, which in this case is water.
The film of water between the skate blade and the ice is what the person skating
glides on. This is why the blades are designed with a particular width. It is also
why people who skate on double bladed skates commonly find it more difficult as
the pressure per unit area is cut in half. A metallurgical example using this
information would be the plating of gold onto glass. To avoid damage to the glass
and achieve a uniform coating, gold is taken to the vapour state and transitioned
directly to the solid state by keeping the pressure below the triple point.
Another point shown on these diagrams is the “critical point”. That is the point
when liquids and gases cannot be distinguished. Above the critical point
condensation does not occur at any pressure. Refer to figure1.1g for an example
of a triple point diagram.
The fourth state of matter is plasma which is typically an ionized gas but is
considered a separate phase from gas because it has one or more free electrons
which are not bound to the atom and thus the material is electrically conductive.
The resulting mixture consists of neutral atoms, free electrons and charged ions.
Artificially produced plasmas are used in plasma displays including televisions
and in electric arc welding and cutting (plasma arc welding and plasma cutting).
Properties of Materials
Properties of solid materials can be divided into the following categories:

 Physical Properties include: melting point, boiling point and density.
 Mechanical properties include: elastic modulus, shear modulus, Poisson’s
Ratio, and mechanical strength properties such as yield strength, ultimate
tensile strength and elongation.
 Thermal properties include: coefficient of thermal expansion, and thermal
conductivity.
 Electric properties include: electric conductivity and electric resistivity.
 Magnetic properties include: permeability, relative permeability, and
retentivity.
 Acoustic Properties include: acoustic velocities and impedance.
References:
1. Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy (2004), http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/democritus/
2. Cardwell, D, John Dalton and the Progress of Science (1968)
3. The Nobel Foundation, http://nobelprize.org/nobelfoundation/index.html

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1.2 METALS
1.2.1 Introduction (metallic bonding)
A chemist might describe a metal as a chemical element whose atoms readily

lose electrons to form positive ions and form metallic bonds between other
metals and ionic bonds with non-metals. Metals have a few common properties:
 In the solid state they exist in the form of crystals
 They have relatively high thermal and electrical conductivity
 They have the ability to be formed plastically
 They have relatively high reflectivity of light (metallic lustre)
 Metals are on the left side of the periodic table and constitute about three-
quarters of the elements.
Unlike ionic and covalent bonds; metal to metal bonds do not share electrons
with other individual atoms, or do they depend upon the transfer of electrons and
attraction of atoms through unlike electrical charges. Metals contribute their
valence (highest energy electrons) to a negative electron cloud. The electrons
are therefore not associated with any specific atom but are free to move among
the positively charged metallic ions. The atoms are held together by their mutual
attraction for the negatively charged cloud.
The atoms tend to assume a relatively fixed position which gives rise to a
crystalline structure. The atoms oscillate about the fixed location and are said to
be in dynamic equilibrium, rather than statically fixed. The atoms are in a three
dimensional network and the imaginary lines connecting the atoms are referred
to as lattices. The three most important crystalline structures in the study of
metals are:
Body-centered Cubic
A single cell of this structure consists of 9 atoms. The corner atoms each form
the corner of the adjacent cells. Metals which crystallize in the body centered
cubic structure include:
 Chromium
 Tungsten
 Alpha Iron
 Delta Iron
 Molybdenum
 Vanadium
 Sodium
Figure 1.2a, BCC

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Face-centered Cubic
A single cell of this structure consists of 14 atoms, eight (one at each corner) plus
6 (one on each face). The external atoms each form the sides of the adjacent
cell. Metals which crystallize in the face centered cubic structure include:
 Aluminum
 Nickel
 Copper
 Gold
 Silver
 Lead
 Platinum
 Gamma iron
Figure 1.2b, FCC
Hexagonal Close-packed
A single cell of this structure consists of 17 atoms, seven on each end plus 3 in
the middle. The external atoms each form the sides of the adjacent cell. Metals
which crystallize in the hexagonal close-packed cubic structure include:
 Magnesium
 Beryllium
 Zinc
 Cadmium
 Hafnium
Figure 1.2c, HCP
Some metals (in particular iron), can exist in more than one type of lattice. This is
referred to as polymorphism. If the process is reversible (as it is with iron) it is
referred to as allotropy. The importance of this will be seen in the heat treatment
of steel.
In the liquid phase there is no orientation or crystalline structure, the atoms are
only contained by the vessel in which the molten metal is held and the surface
tension of the liquid. Crystal growth as the material freezes occurs in two stages:
 Nuclei formation
 Crystal growth

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When a pure metal freezes the nuclei (starting points/seed) tend to gather on the
mold surfaces and individual groups of atoms tend to form into their crystalline
structure. Groups of atoms may break up and continue to grow as separate
crystal formations. As the solid crystalline structures form, the energy must be
given up; this is referred to as the latent heat of fusion. In pure metals some
under cooling occurs to establish a stable situation between the solid and liquid
boundaries. Impurities such as alloy elements may tend to reduce this under-
cooling as they act as nuclei throughout the liquid to form other crystal growths.
These crystal growths are referred to as dendrites
Figure 1.2d shows a dendrite formation. The dendrites

continue to grow until they start to interfere with each
other. Each has a different orientation of growth and
where they meet tends to have the highest concentration
of impurities in the liquid. These are the last areas to
freeze and make up what is known as the “grain
boundaries”. The slower the rate of cooling the larger the
grain will grow. Crystals will not form perfectly in their
lattice structure, there maybe disturbed regions between
otherwise perfectly aligned crystals. These disturbed
regions are called dislocations. Also, defects such as
Figure 1.2d, Dendrite
shrinkage cavities and porosity which are large enough
to be seen by the naked eye may form (refer to section
3.5 on castings for a more complete description of defects that occur on freezing
of the metal).
Other items that affect the grain size besides the rate of cooling are:
 Impurities (act as nucleation points)
 Stirring of the molten metal (breaks up the formation of dendrite)
 Relative position in the casting (centre tends to cool slower and therefore
has larger grains)
In general finer grained material has better toughness and resistance to shock
and they usually are harder and stronger than coarse grained material.

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Equilibrium Diagrams
Equilibrium diagrams, also referred to as phase diagrams, are a type of graph
that illustrates the phases that exist at various temperatures of a material or
combination of materials. The simplest form is of a single simple substance e.g.
water. This also maybe referred to as a triple point diagram as it highlights the
point (triple point) where all three phases can coexist at equilibrium. As
discussed previously, another point included on these diagrams is the “critical
point”. The point when liquids and gases cannot be distinguished.
Iron-Iron Carbide Equilibrium Diagram

Iron is allotropic, that is it can exist in more than one type of lattice structure and
depending upon temperature and the condition is reversible (polymorphism).
Figure 1.2e is a cooling

curve for pure iron. As we
heat iron from room
temperature up to the
melting point, the structure
of the iron changes. From
room temperature up to
908°C the iron is in body
centered cubic structure
(BCC). From 908°C to
1400°C the iron is face
centered cubic structure
(FCC). From 1400°C up to
the melting point (1538°C)
the iron reverts back to
BCC. Each of these phase
changes is given a name
for identification purposes:
 Alpha Iron, α Iron,
(BCC) up to 908°C
 Gamma Iron, γ Iron,
(FCC) from 908°C to
1400°C Figure 1.2e, Cooling Curve, Iron
 Delta Iron, δ Iron,
(BCC) from 1400°C to 1538°C
 Liquid Iron above 1538°C
Important to NDT practitioners is the fact that at above 768°C (1444°F) the iron
becomes nonmagnetic. So that if heat treatment above this temperature is to

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take place after magnetization it may not be necessary to demagnetize the

material inspected.
The above information is for pure iron, but of the ferrous metals it is usually steel
that is of interest to us. Steel by definition is iron that has some carbon, not more
than 2%. This has a very interesting impact on the phases that are formed by
the steel as it is heated and cooled. This is best shown in an equilibrium
diagram. The choice of the name “equilibrium” is made because it displays what
happens during the heating and cooling at very slow rates of change of
temperature. Refer to figure 1.2f.
Figure 1.2f, Iron-Carbon Equilibrium Diagram
The x-axis (horizontal) represents the percentage of carbon; we are seeing a

small portion of the overall axis up to about 3% which includes the area of
interest for steel. The y-axis (vertical) represents temperature and again we are
looking at only the portion of the solid range, remembering that the melting

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temperature is about 1500°C. Consider alloy 1 shown on the diagram as it cools

from about 1100 C. It is first in the austenite phase (FCC) in this lattice structure
the iron can dissolve up to 2% carbon, in other words all of the .2% carbon in this
alloy is in solution (dissolved). As it cools it undergoes a phase change and
consist of ferrite (BCC) and austenite (FCC). The ferrite can dissolve only a
small portion of the carbon (.025%) in solution. Layers will start to form of ferrite
and pearlite. Pearlite is a mixture of ferrite and cementite. Cementite is the
phase which holds the carbon that cannot be held by the ferrite.
If the composition was .8% instead of .2% the structure would be all pearlite and
this would be referred to as the eutectic (figure 1.2i). Alloy 1 will have areas of
pearlite plus areas of ferrite, because more ferrite is present than needed to form
pure pearlite, see figure 1.2h, referred to as hypo-eutectoid steel.
Alloy 2 (1.0% carbon) at the upper temperatures all of the carbon is in solution
forming austenite as it cools a phase change to austenite and cementite occurs.
As it cools down below the lower critical temperature a final phase change to
pearlite and cementite occurs. Because .8% is the carbon content in a pearlite
structure, additional islands of cementite form to hold the excess carbon. See
figure 1.2g.
The phases of plain carbon steel are:

 Cementite, (Fe3C) iron carbide with a
maximum of 6.67% carbon. It is hard
and very brittle, very low tensile
strength but very high compressive
strength.
Figure 1.2g,
Hyper-Eutectoid Steel
 Austenite is gamma iron, that exists
between 908°C and 1400°C it is in
face centered cubic lattice and can
hold a maximum of 2.0% carbon in
solution.
 Ferrite is relatively pure iron with

carbon content up to a maximum of
.025%. It is the softest phase shown
on the equilibrium diagram and is a Figure 1.2h,
very ductile material. Hypo-Eutectoid Steel

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 Pearlite is the eutectoid mixture which

contains .8% carbon and is a lamellar
mixture of ferrite and cementite.
Figure 1.2i,
Eutectoid Steel
Phase diagrams that involve two elements such as carbon and iron are referred
to as binary. A very interesting binary phase diagram is that of copper and
nickel. Each is soluble in the other regardless of the percentages. There are
only three phases:
 Liquid
 Liquid and Solid
 Solid
Figure 1.2j, Copper-Nickel Phase Diagram

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References:
1. Sidney H Avner; Introduction to Physical Metallurgy, McGraw-Hill Book Company
2. ASM, Handbook Volume 3, Alloy Phase Diagrams
3. ASM Handbook, Volume 9, Metallography and Microstructures
4. ASM Metals Handbook, 1960

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1.2.2 Cast Iron
Cast iron is made by re-melting pig iron (the product from the blast furnace) with
scrap iron and steel in a small vessel called a cupola or alternatively in a small
electric arc furnace or coreless induction furnace.
By definition cast iron contains between 2% and 4% carbon and 1% to 3% silicon

and other elements to control specific properties. The ductility of cast iron is very
low and it cannot be rolled, drawn or worked at room temperature. Since casting
is the only suitable preliminary process that can be applied to these materials
they are known as cast iron.
There are several families of cast iron:
White Cast Iron named because it exhibits a

white crystalline fracture surface as a result of its
metastable solidification. All of the carbon is in the
form of cementite. See figure 1.2.2a which shows
the microstructure of white cast iron. The material
is hard and wear resistant but extremely brittle and
difficult to machine. White cast irons are
described in ASTM A532, Standard Specification
for Abrasion-Resistant Cast Iron. These white
cast irons have been alloyed to ensure high
resistance to abrasion for applications in mining, Figure 1.2.2a,
earth moving and heavy industry. There are three White Cast Iron
(3) classes, consisting of four (4) types in the first
two (2) classes and one (1) type in the third class. Other ASTM standards that
describe applications of white cast iron include: A667, Standard Specification for
Centrifugally Cast Dual Metal (Gray and White Cast Iron) Cylinders; A748,
Standard Specification for Statically Cast Chilled White Iron-Gray Iron Dual Metal
Rolls for Pressure Vessel Use; and A942, Standard Specification for Centrifugally
Cast White Iron/Gray Iron Dual Metal Abrasion-Resistant Roll Shells.
Gray Cast Iron is the most widely used of all cast

irons and sometimes referred to as just “cast iron”. It
contains between 2.5% and 4% carbon and 1% to
3% silicon and manganese from .1% to 1.2%.
Sulphur and phosphorus are also present as small
residual impurities. ASTM A48, Standard
Specification for Gray Iron Castings classifies gray
cast iron in terms of tensile strength from 140 MPa Figure 1.2.2b,
to 410 MPa. Some typical applications would Gray Cast Iron
include: clutch plates and brake drums. Lower

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strength gray cast iron is used in machine basics particularly because of its ability
to absorb vibration. The casting of gray iron is typically done between 1410° C to
1450° C, the fluidity of the gray iron is dependent upon the carbon content; so as
the carbon content decreases the fluidity decreases at any given temperature.
Misruns, cold shuts and rounded corners are often attributed to a lack of fluidity.
The usual microstructure of gray iron is a matrix of pearlite with graphite flakes.
The machinability of gray iron is superior to most other cast irons and steels.
Figure 1.2.2c, Gray Cast Iron Housings
Ductile Iron
Ductile Iron previously known as nodular or spheroid-graphite cast iron is a cast
iron in which the graphite is in the form of tiny spheres (nodules). Cast iron with
nodular graphite is much stronger and has greater elongation than gray or
malleable iron. Typical applications include gears, automotive crank shafts,
chain links, chain sprockets, universal joints and
dolly wheels. ASTM A897, Standard Specification
for Austempered Ductile Iron Castings describes
the properties of austempered ductile iron.
Ductile iron can be alloyed with small amounts of
nickel, molybdenum or copper to improve strength
and hardenability. Large amounts of silicon,
nickel, chromium or copper are added to improve
corrosion resistance and for high temperature
applications. The machinability of ductile iron is Figure 1.2.2d,
similar to gray iron particularly at higher hardness Ductile Iron
levels.

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Compacted Graphite Cast Iron, some times referred to as “semi ductile cast
iron”, was first inadvertently produced when making ductile iron as a result of
under treatment with magnesium or cerium and was patented in 1965. The
resultant graphite is thicker and shorter than other graphite flakes and 20% of the
graphite is in a nodular form, yielding higher strengths and ductility than gray cast
iron. It has good cast ability, good thermal conductivity and better vibration
dampening than ductile iron.
Figure 1.2.2e,
Compacted Graphite Figure 1.2.2f, Compacted Graphite Cast
Cast Iron Iron Engine Block
Malleable Iron is produced from white cast iron in a two stage annealing
process. It has irregular shaped graphite nodules as opposed to the flakes in
grey cast iron or small spheroid shaped
nodules in ductile iron. It has good ductility
and toughness due to the relatively low
carbon in the matrix. Malleable iron is
preferred for thin section castings, parts that
are to be cold formed; it has good machining
ability, good impact resistance at low
temperatures, good magnetic permeability,
low magnetic retention and good fatigue
strength. Ferritic malleable iron is specified
in ASTM A47, Standard Specification for
Ferritic Malleable Iron Castings; A197, Figure 1.2.2g,
Standard Specification for Cupola Malleable Malleable Iron
Iron and A338, Standard Specification for
Malleable Iron Flanges, Pipe Fittings, and Valve Parts for Railroad, Marine, and
Other Heavy Duty Service at Temperatures up to 650 Degrees F (345 Degrees
C); pearlitic and martensitic variations are specified in ASTM A220, Standard
Specification for Pearlitic Malleable Iron and for some automotive applications in
ASTM A602, Standard Specification for Automotive Malleable Iron Castings. See
figure1.2.2h for typical automotive applications.

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Figure 1.2.2h, Automotive

Applications of Malleable Iron
Chilled Cast Iron is a white cast iron layer at the

surface with a gray cast iron interior. The harder
outer layer is achieved by rapid cooling of the
outer surfaces and relatively slower cooling below
the surface. Chromium is used to control the
depth of the chill or hardened layer. A
photomicrograph of the outer layer is shown in
figure 1.2.2i. Chilled cast iron is used to produce
railway wheels, crushing rolls and heavy duty
machine parts that require the strength of white Figure 1.2.2i,
cast iron and the wear or abrasion resistance of Chilled Cast Iron
the hardened outer layer.
Alloy Cast Irons are cast irons that have additional alloys intentionally added to
enhance one or more of the properties. Small amounts of material (ferrosilicon,
cerium or magnesium) are added to the cast iron to control graphite shape and
distribution are not considered alloys but are termed inoculations.
The affects of various alloys:

 Carbon in chilled cast irons decreases the depth of chill but increases the
hardness. In white cast irons it tends to increase hardness and reduce
breaking strength. It is generally used to increase hardness and wear
resistance.
 Silicon is present in all cast irons, it controls the depth of chill in chilled
cast irons. In amounts of 3.5% to 7%, silicon improves the high
temperature properties.

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 Manganese and sulphur increases the depth of chill, manganese in

amounts above 1.5% tends to decrease strength and toughness.
 Chromium in higher quantities improves abrasion resistance, toughness,
and corrosion resistance and is used to improve high temperature
properties.
 Nickel of more than 12% in cast iron improves heat and corrosion
resistance; in smaller quantities it is used to produce a harder finer
structure and improve abrasion resistance.
 Copper is used to improve high temperature properties and corrosion
resistance.
References:
1. ASM Handbooks, Volume 1, Properties and Selection, Irons, Steels and High Performance Alloys
2. Sydney H Avnor; Introduction to Physical Metallurgy, McGraw Hill Book Company
3. ASM Metals Handbook, 1960
4. ASTM A897, Standard Specification for Austempered Ductile Iron Castings

- 23 -
1.2.3 Steel
All steels are alloys of iron and carbon in which the carbon percentage by weight
is less than 2%. Plain carbon steel contains small percentages of manganese
and silicon, plus small unavoidable amounts of sulphur and phosphorus. Steels
vary widely in their properties and their applications and are used in both the cast
and wrought conditions.
Classification and Designations of Steels

The term wrought implies the material has been worked (deformed as opposed
to cast) into its shape. Carbon and low (less than 5%) alloy steels are classified
in several ways. There are 8 general methods to classify steel:
1. Chemical composition
2. Manufacturing method e.g. BOF or Electric arc furnace
3. Finishing method e.g. hot rolled or cold rolled
4. Microstructure e.g. ferritic or martensitic
5. Required strength such as specified in ASTM
6. Heat treatment e.g. annealed or quench and tempered
7. Quality such as forging or structural quality
8. Product form e.g. bar, plate, strip, tubing or structural shape
These broad categories are subdivided. For example, under chemical content,
the carbon content is subdivided into low (up to .3% carbon), medium (.3% to
.6% carbon) and high (.6% to 2.0% carbon). They may also be classified as
rimmed, capped, semi-killed, or killed depending on the oxygen content (from
high to low). Alloyed steels are classified by the principle alloy such as chromium,
molybdenum, nickel, etc.
Some important terms in understanding the classification of steel are:

 Designation is the specific identifier of grade, type, or class of steel and
usually consists of a unique set of letters and numbers. Chemical
composition is the most common method of designation (see the
information related to the AISI-SAE, and the UNS systems).
 Quality does not imply that the material is better than steel from another
mill but that it is particularly well suited for a specific application. See the
information on quality descriptors.
 Specification is a written statement of the attributes of a particular steel.
It usually contains a range of values that the steel must comply with and
any restrictions on its production.
 Standard Specification is a published document that describes the
attributes of the steel for a wide variety of applications.

- 24 -
Quality Descriptors have been developed to denote the steels that are well suited
for specific applications. As an example, carbon steel plates have been grouped
into the following fundamental quality descriptors:
 Regular quality
 Structural quality
 Cold-drawing quality
 Cold-pressing quality
 Forging quality
 Pressure vessel quality
Alloy steels are also grouped by quality descriptors. As an example, alloy

speciality steel tubular goods are grouped into the following quality descriptors:
 Pressure tubing
 Mechanical tubing
 Stainless and head resisting pipe, pressure tubing and mechanical tubing
 Aircraft tubing
 Pipe
In North America Standard Specifications have been developed by these groups:

 AAR Association of American Railways
 ABS American Bureau of Ship Building
 API American Petroleum Institute
 AREA American Railway Engineering Association
 ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
 ASTM American Society for Testing Materials
 SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
 AMS Aerospace Materials Specification (of SAE)
 AISI American Iron and Steel Institute
 CSA Canadian Standards Association
SAE-AISI System
The SAE-AISI system is likely one of the most widely used systems for
designating steels. It is applied to: semi-finished forgings, hot-rolled and cold
finished bars, wire rod, seamless tubular goods, structural shapes, plates, sheet
strip and welded tubing.
The designation consists of four (4) digits, the first two (2) digits define the type
and nominal alloy content and the last two (2) digits specify the number of points
of carbon (carbon content in hundredths of a percent). Table 1.2.3a shows the
most common designations.

- 25 -
Table 1.2.3a
Alloy Designation Nominal Alloy Content

Carbon Steel 10xx Plain carbon steel (Mn 1.00 max)
11xx Re-sulphurized steel
12xx Re-phosphorized steel
15xx Plain carbon (max Mn range 1.00 to 1.65)
Manganese Steel 13xx Mn 1.75
Nickel Steel 23xx Ni 3.50
25xx Ni 5.00
Nickel-Chromium 31xx Ni 1.25, Cr .65-.80
Steel 32xx Ni .75, Cr 1.07
33xx Ni 3.50, Cr 1.50 – 1.57
34xx NI 3.00, Cr .77
Molybdenum Steel 40xx Mo .20 - .25
44xx Mo .40 -.52
Chromium - 41xx Cr .50 - .95, Mo .12-.30
Molybdenum Steel
Nickel-Chromium- 43xx Ni 1.82, Cr .50-.80, Mo .25
Molybdenum Steel 47xx Ni 1.05, Cr .45, Mo .20-.35
Chromium steel 50xx Cr .27-.65
51xx Cr .80-1.05
50xxx Cr .50, C 1.00 min
51xxx Cr 1.02, C 1.00 min
52xxx Cr 1.45, C 1.00 min
Chromium-vanadium 61xx Cr .60-.95, V .10-.15
steel
Tungsten-chromium 72xx W 1.75, Cr .75
steel
Nickel-chromium- 81xx Ni .30, Cr .40, Mo .12
molybdenum steel 86xx Ni .55, Cr .50, Mo .20
87xx Ni .55, Cr .50, Mo .25
88xx Ni .55, Cr .50, Mo .35
Silicon-manganese 92xx Si 1.40-2.00, Mn .65-.85, Cr 0-.65
steel
Nickel-chromium- 93xx Ni 3.25, Cr 1.20, Mo .12
molybdenum steel 94xx Ni .45, Cr .40, Mo .12
97xx Ni .55, Cr .20, Mo .20
98xx Ni 1.00, Cr .80, Mo .25

- 26 -
SAE AMS System

The AMS system is published by the Society for Automotive Engineers (SAE)
most of the materials designated in this system are intended for aerospace
applications. Some of these specifications have mechanical property
requirements significantly more severe than for other applications. Some of the
acronyms used in conjunction with these specifications include:
 P Premium quality
 CVM Consumable vacuum melted
 CVAR Consumable vacuum arc remelted
 ESR Electroslag remelted
 DVM Double vacuum melted
 VAR Vacuum arc remelted
 CM Consumable electrode remelted
 VM Vacuum melted
An example of an AMS specification: 6454D, P, CM; this material is similar to

SAE-AISI 4340 and is a premium aircraft quality low-alloy steel, it comes in plate,
strip sheet, it is premium quality and it is consumable electrode remelted. The
letter D represents the 4th revision to this specification (dated 2007.02.01). To
determine the properties of the material to this specification, you would need to
consult the document AMS 6454D
UNS System
The UNS system was developed by ASTM and SAE and is a designation
consisting of a letter and five (5) numerals that indicates the chemical
composition and not the entire specification (Table 1.2.3b). It does permit easier
comparisons to other specifications from around the world and is described in
ASTM E 527 Standard Practice for Numbering Metals and Alloys in the Unified
Numbering System (UNS).

- 27 -
Table 1.2.3b
Designation Metals
A00001-A99999 aluminum and aluminum alloys
C00001-C99999 copper and copper alloys
E00001-E99999 rare earths and like materials and alloys
L00001-L99999 low melting metals and alloys
M00001-M99999 miscellaneous nonferrous alloys
N00001-N99999 nickel and nickel alloys
P00001-P99999 precious metals and alloys
R00001-R99999 reactive and refractory metals and alloys
Z00001-Z99999 zinc and zinc alloys
D00001-D99999 specified mechanical properties steels
F00001-F99999 cast iron and cast steels
G00001-G99999 AISI and SAE carbon and alloy steels
H00001-H99999 AISI H-steels
J00001-J99999 cast steels except tool steels
K00001-K99999 miscellaneous steels and ferrous alloys
S00001-S99999 heat and corrosion resistant (stainless) steels
T00001-T99999 tool steels
W00001-W99999 welding filler metals
ASTM (ASME) System

The most widely used standard in North America, published and maintained by
the American Society for Testing and Materials. These are consensus standards
developed by industry and in many cases include complete material
specifications. ASTM standards are published annually in 15 sections:
Table 1.2.3c
Section Title
01 Iron and Steel Products
02 Nonferrous Metal Products
03 Metals Test Methods and Analytical Procedures
04 Construction
05 Petroleum Products, Lubricants and Fossil Fuels
06 Paints, Related Coatings and Aromatics
07 Textiles
08 Plastic
09 Rubber
10 Electrical Insulation and Electronics
11 Water and Environmental Technology
12 Nuclear, Solar, and Geothermal Energy
13 Medical Devises and Services
14 General Methods and Instrumentation
15 General Products, Chemical Specialties and End Use Products
00 Index

- 28 -
An individual standard will have a designation such as ASTM A709/A709M-08.

The title of this standard is “Standard Specification for Structural Steel for
Bridges”. The designation is a serialized number applied to this standard; “M”
implies it has metric units as well as imperial units, “08” is the year of issue or last
revision. If a date appears in brackets it is the date of last reapproval without
revision.
This standard references nine (9) other ASTM standards related to shape,
mechanical properties, mechanical testing, chemical properties, and
manufacturing methods which make it a nearly complete specification, by
referencing other specifications that are also used for other purposes.
ASME (American Society for Mechanical Engineers), adopted standards
developed by ASTM and in doing so they inset the letter “S” in front of the ASTM
designation. For example ASTM A36 Standard Specification for Carbon
Structural Steel when adopted by ASME becomes SA36 within the ASME
system.
CSA System
CSA Canadian Standards Association has only one standard directly related to
metals and that is CSA G40.20/G40.21, The General Requirements for Rolled or
Welded Structural Quality Steel/Structural Quality Steel. G40.20 deals with
general specifications related to structural steel such as:
 Definitions
 How chemical analysis is conducted
 Permissible variations and tolerances
 Testing
 Heat treatment
 Marking
 Certification
G40.21 deals with the specific properties of individual steels. There are seven
(7) grades of structural steels in this standard
 W Weldable steel
 WT Weldable steel with notch toughness requirements
 R Atmospheric corrosion resistance steel
 A Atmospheric corrosion resistance weldable steel
 AT Atmospheric corrosion resistance weldable steel with notch
toughness requirements
 Q Quench and tempered low alloy steel
 QT Quench and tempered low alloy steel with notch toughness
requirements

- 29 -
Each of these steels is available with different nominal yield strengths. Table
1.2.3d is the Grades and Strengths table taken from CSA G40.21
Table 1.2.3d

- 30 -
AISI System for Stainless Steels

One special family of steels are stainless steels which are most frequently
identified by a three (3) digit AISI numbering system (Table 1.2.3e). Most
stainless steels contain between 10.5% and 30% chromium and not less than
50% iron. The stainless property is due to a chromium rich oxide layer which
forms on the surface and if damaged self heals in the presence of oxygen. Other
alloys included in stainless steels are: nickel, molybdenum, copper, titanium,
aluminum, silicon, niobium, nitrogen, sulphur and selenium.
There are five families of stainless steels:
Martensitic, alloys of chromium and carbon with possible additions of small

amounts of other alloying elements. They are ferromagnetic, hardenable by heat
treatment and corrosion resistant only in relatively mild environments. In the
hardened condition their structure is a distorted body-centered cubic (martensitic
crystal structure).
Ferritic, alloys of chromium (10.5% to 30%) with other minor alloys. They are
also ferromagnetic, body centered cubic, have good ductility and formability but
relatively poor strength at high temperatures and reduced toughness at low
temperatures.
Austenitic, have a face centered cubic structure because of the alloys nickel,
manganese and nitrogen. They are nonmagnetic in the annealed condition and
can be hardened only by cold working. Chromium content will be between 16%
to 26% and nickel up to about 35%.
Duplex stainless have a mixed structure of body- centered and face-centered.

The alloying is principally nickel and chromium with small amounts of nitrogen,
molybdenum, copper, silicon and tungsten. Similar corrosion resistance to
austenitic stainless steels but with improved tensile and yield strengths as well as
resistance to stress corrosion cracking.
Precipitation hardening stainless steels are alloys of chromium and nickel

with the addition of precipitation hardening elements such as copper, aluminum,
or titanium.
The original list of stainless steels was published by AISI (American Iron and
Steel Institute), but ASTM and SAE include these standards in their
specifications.

- 31 -
Table 1.2.3 e, Partial AISI Listing of Stainless Steels
Type UNS C Mn Si Cr Ni P S Other

Austenitic
201 S20100 .15 5.5- 1.00 16.0- 3.5- .06 .03 .25 N
7.5 18.0 5.5
304 S30400 .08 2.00 1.00 18.0- 8.0- .045 .03
20.0 10.5
304L S30403 .03 2.00 1.00 18.0- 8.0- .045 .03
20.0 12.0
316 S31600 .08 2.00 1.00 16.0- 10.0- .045 .03 2.0-
18.0 14.0 3.0
Mo
Ferritic
409 S40900 .08 1.00 1.00 10.5- .50 .045 .045 Ti
11.75
444 S44400 .025 1.00 1.00 17.5- 1.00 .04 .03 Mo, N,
19.5 Ti, Nb
Duplex
329 S32900 .20 1.00 .75 23.0- 2.5- .04 .03 1-2
28.0 5.0 Mo
Martensitic
403 S40300 .15 1.00 .50 11.5- .04 .03
13.0
420 S42000 .15 1.00 1.00 12.0- .04 .03
14.0
Precipitation Hardening
15-5 S15500 .07 1.00 1.00 14.0- 3.5- .04 .03 Cu,
PH 15.5 5.5 Nb
17-4 S17400 .07 1.00 1.00 15.5- 3.0- .04 .03 Cu,
PH 17.5 5.0 Nb
17-7 S17700 .09 1.00 1.00 16.0- 6.5- .04 .04 Al
PH 18.0 7.75
Other standard systems that we should be aware of include:
EN, European Committee for Standardization.

They have 30 national members as of March 2009. As an example BSI (British
Standards Institute) is the national standards body for the United Kingdom and
represents their national interests in the development of European Standards.

- 32 -
As an example of one of their standards; BS EN 10111:2008 is a European

standard adopted by the British Standards Institute, last approved or revised in
2008. “Continuously hot rolled low carbon steel sheet and strip for cold forming.
Technical delivery conditions”.
Primary Steel Making
Steel is a commercial iron that

contains no more than 2% carbon as
an alloy and is malleable. It is
distinguished from cast iron by its
lower carbon content and
malleability. “Primary steel
production” is the production of steel
from iron ore as the principle source
of the iron constituent, as opposed to
it being principally from steel scrap.
The process of primary steel

production has advanced significantly
in the past several decades and
continues to evolve.
A brief description of the current

technology:
Metallurgical coal is a combustible

rock containing more than 50%, by
weight, of carbonaceous material
formed from the compaction of
altered plant remains. Coke is
produced from coal by heating the
coal to high temperatures (1100° C)
in an oxygen deficient atmosphere.
See the figure 1.2.3a which shows
the coke oven battery. During this
process the carbon is concentrated.
The iron ore is either Fe2O3 or Fe3O4

and has an iron content of 50% to
70%, otherwise further processed
and crushed before being put into the
furnace. Sinter is produced from fine Figure 1.2.3a, Primary Steel Production
raw ore, small coke, limestone, and

- 33 -
steel plant waste and charged to the furnace.
Limestone melts in the blast furnace to become the slag which removes the
sulphur and other impurities.
The purpose of the blast furnace is to chemically reduce and convert iron oxides
into liquid iron. The inputs are charged into the top of the blast furnace. The
preheated blast air combines with the carbon to produce carbon monoxide and
heat. The carbon monoxide reacts with the iron oxide to produce molten iron and
carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide, un-reacted carbon monoxide and nitrogen
from the blast air, travel upward heating the feed material as it passes downward.
The limestone is decomposed to produce calcium oxide and carbon dioxide
which reduces the iron oxides. The calcium oxide reacts with the silica in the iron
oxide to produce slag. The product from the blast furnace, molten pig iron, has
relatively high carbon content (4% to 5%). Some of the pig iron maybe used to
produce cast iron, but the majority is sent onto the basic oxygen furnace (BOF) to
produce various grades of steel.
In the basic oxygen furnace

impurities such as sulphur and
phosphorus are removed and
alloying elements such as
manganese, nickel, chromium and
vanadium are added to produce the
grades of steel required. The basic
oxygen process was developed in
Austria and is sometimes referred
to as the LD Converter (Linz-
Donawitz). The term “basic” is
used to describe the pH of the
refractory lining of the furnace,
made from calcium oxide and
magnesium oxide. In addition to
the pig iron; alloy elements, high
purity oxygen, scrap steel, lime and
fluxes are added to the BOF. This
oxidizes the carbon and other
unwanted elements. Carbon
monoxide is produced and the rest
of the unwanted elements are
converted to acidic oxides which Figure 1.2.3b
combine with the lime and fluxes to Primary Steel Production (continued)
produce slag. BOFs range in sizes
up to 350 tons and convert iron to steel in less than 40 minutes. In the past other

- 34 -
furnaces were used to convert pig iron to steel, they included: puddling furnaces,
Bessemer converters and open hearth furnaces.
From the basic oxygen furnace the molten steel goes by ladle to any secondary
processing then onto a continuous casting process where the steel is solidified
into semi finished blooms, slabs or billets.
Recent developments continue to link the processes, in some cases the time
from liquid metal to final shape is less than two hours. This results in highly
efficient steel production.
Hot rolling of steel is conducted

above its upper critical
temperature (recrystallization
temperature). The metal is
worked before the final
crystalline structure is formed to
shape the steel rather than
change it’s mechanical
properties. It is mainly used to
produce sheet metal.
After hot rolling and before any

cold forming operations, steel is
descaled usually by a process
called pickling (either
continuous or batch process).
The process may involve
hydrochloric acid and the
objectives are; to improve die or
roll life used in subsequent
forming operations, promotes
smoother surfaces, permits
better coating adherence, and
eliminates surface irregularities.
Figure 1.2.3c, Hot Rolling
The material may go on to other
forming processes or may be
sold as hot rolled product.
Cold rolling is a metal working process that passes the steel through rolls at a
temperature below the recrystallization temperature. It increases the yield
strength and hardness by introducing microscopic defects into the crystalline
structure to prevent further slip and can reduce grain size and increase hardness.

- 35 -
As the steel absorbs significant

amounts of energy from the rolling
process its hardness and tensile
strength increase and ductility
decreases. Metals which are
subjected to cold rolling are more
sensitive to cracks and are more
prone to brittle failure. A material
hardened by cold rolling can be
tempered or annealed to relieve
stress and partially return some of
the original properties. The cold
rolling process is also used to
precisely control thickness or impart
trade symbols into the sheet.
Galvanizing is one of several

processes to coat the steel with
other metals usually to prevent
corrosion. Hot dip galvanizing
deposits a thick layer of zinc onto
the steel, which acts as a sacrificial
anode if the galvanizing is
damaged.
Zinc reacts with oxygen to form zinc

oxide, which reacts with water in
the atmosphere to form zinc
hydroxide which reacts with carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere to Figure 1.2.3d, Final Finishing
produce zinc carbonate which
provides further protection to the zinc and underlying steel in the damaged area.
Secondary Steel Production
Secondary refining is defined as any post steel making process performed in a

separate station prior to casting, figure 1.2.3b. The purpose of secondary refining
is to ensure temperature homogenization, chemical adjustment (carbon, sulphur,
phosphorus, oxygen and precise alloying), inclusion control and degassing. The
equipment and processes are varied and maybe performed at atmospheric
pressure or under vacuum, with or without heating. Nine different vacuum
processes are used throughout the world for carbon steel alone.

- 36 -
Mini-Mill Steel Production
Mini –mill production is discussed here but its principle purpose is the reclaiming
of scrap steel.
A mini-mill is traditionally a secondary steel producer which usually obtains most

of its iron from scrap steel. Iron directly reduced in a blast furnace can be used
to supplement scrap steel or control chemistry of the steel. A mini-mill usually
consists of an electric arc furnace, ladle or vacuum furnace, a continuous caster,
a reheat furnace and rolling mill.
Electric Arc Furnaces

Electric arc furnaces used in iron and steel production range from one (1)
ton to four hundred (400) ton capacities. It consists of a refractory lined
vessel, often water cooled in larger sizes, with a retractable roof and
graphite electrodes which penetrate the roof. A typical alternating current
furnace uses three electrodes. The arc forms between the electrodes and
material being melted in the furnace. The material is melted by the current
flowing through the material and the radiant heat of the arc. The furnace
control strives to maintain constant current flow by moving the electrodes up
and down as the material moves into the melting bath. Additional energy
maybe provided by injecting oxygen and carbon into the furnace.
Ladle Furnace
Ladle furnaces employ graphite electrodes to reheat the liquid steel, provide
uniformity of temperature and chemistry through inert gas stirring, it
removes inclusions and metal oxides through a slag layer and also
desulphurizes the steel.
Vacuum Tank Degassing

A VTD is used to reduce dissolved gasses (hydrogen, nitrogen, and
oxygen) in the liquid steel. The bath is stirred by percolating argon gas
through the bath from the bottom of the ladle while in the vacuum tank.
Vacuum Arc Remelting

For highly critical applications such as critical aerospace components VIM-
VAR (Vacuum induction melted, vacuum arc remelted) steels are specified.
After initial melting in an electric arc furnace and alloying in an argon-
oxygen decarburization vessel the steel is cast into ingots. The solidified
ingots are melted in a vacuum induction melting furnace to rid the steel of
inclusions and unwanted gasses and optimize the chemistry. The steel is
cast into electrode molds and remains under vacuum until solidified. The
surfaces of the electrodes are ground to remove impurities. The electrodes

- 37 -
are then placed into vacuum induction melting furnace where they melt drop
by drop in the vacuum to further remove inclusions and gases. The steel
produced is more resistant to fracture and fatigue than conventional steels
and is suitable for such demanding applications as military helicopter rotor
shafts.
References:
1. ASM Handbook, Volume 1, Properties and Selection: Irons, Steels, and High Performance Alloys
2. ASTN International, http://www.astm.org/Standard/index.shtml
3. CSA G40.20/G40.21, The General Requirements for Rolled or Welded Structural Quality Steel/Structural
Quality Steel
4. BSI British Standards Institute, http://www.bsigroup.com/en/
5. LTV Steel Corporation, All About Steel, http://www.ltvsteel.com/htmfiles/about.htm
6. American Iron and Steel Institute, Learning Center, http://www.steel.org
7. Continuous Casting of Steel, Basic Principles
http://www.energymanagertraining.com/iron_steel/cont_cast_steel.htm

- 38 -
1.2.4 Aluminum (chemical symbol “Al”)
The Canadian Oxford Dictionary prefers the spelling aluminum as it is spelled in

the USA; most other English speaking countries use the British spelling
aluminium. It is the most abundant metal in the earth’s crust. The chief source
of aluminum is bauxite ore. Aluminum (Table 1.2.4a) is soft, light weight,
malleable and its appearance is silvery to light gray. Pure aluminum has a yield
strength of 7 to 11 MPa and alloyed aluminum has a yield strength of 200 to 600
MPa. It has about one third the density of steel, it is easily cast, machined, or
extruded. It has good thermal and electrical conductivity. Aluminum has good
atmospheric corrosion resistance due to passivation by a thin aluminum oxide
layer on the surface preventing further corrosion.
Table 1.2.4a – Properties of Aluminum

Property Value
Atomic Number 13
Chemical Symbol Al
Density [gm/cm3] 2.70
Melting Point [°C] 660
Crystal structure Face centered cubic
Electrical resistivity (20°) [ nΩ/m] 28.2
Longitudinal Wave Sound Velocity [km/sec] 6.32
Transverse Wave Sound Velocity [km/sec] 3.13
Rayleigh Wave Sound Velocity [km/sec] 2.90
Acoustic Impedance [g/cm2-sec x 105] 17.10
Magnetic Ordering Paramagnetic
Aluminum Production
The stages in producing aluminum from bauxite are (figure 1.2.4a):
 Crushing and Grinding

o The bauxite is screened crushed and ground. Grinding is
conducted in rod mills where it is injected with sodium hydroxide to
produce slurry. The residue (red mud), consisting of undissolved
bauxite, iron, silicon and titanium, is allowed to settle out in tanks
and is removed.
 Digesting
o The digester is a pressure cooker (145°C @ 345 kPa) in which a
chemical reaction occurs to dissolve the alumina and remove
impurities.

- 39 -
 Settling
o Impurities settle to the bottom and the alumina liquor is recovered
from the top and filtered.
 Precipitation
o The filtered sodium aluminate is pumped into precipitators where
fine particles of alumina are added. These particles act as seeds in
the formation of alumina crystals. The crystals settle to the bottom
and are removed and filtered.
 Calcination
o The calcining process is conducted in heated kilns to drive off the
water leaving pure alumina dried crystals.
 Smelting
o Smelting takes place in graphite lined reduction pots where the
alumina powder is converted to metallic aluminium (99.7%).
Figure 1.2.4a, Aluminum Production
1. Bauxite
2. Crusher
3. Digester
4. Decantor
5. Filter Press
6. Precipitator
7. Calciner
8. Smelting Process starts
15. Aluminum Processing
starts
The Aluminum Association has developed an alloy identification system that is

used most widely in North America. The system addresses wrought and cast
compositions for pure aluminum and its alloys.
Wrought alloys are designated by a four digit system (Table 1.2.4b), the first digit
signifies the alloy group, the second digit refers to a modification of the original
alloy and the remainder are assigned in sequence.

- 40 -
Table 1.2.4b
Designation Principle Alloy(s)
1xxx Controlled unalloyed composition
2xxx Copper, and may also include other elements such as
magnesium
3xxx Manganese
4xxx Silicon
5xxx Magnesium
6xxx Magnesium and silicon
7xxx Zinc, may also include other elements such as copper,
magnesium, chromium, and zirconium
8xxx Tin and lithium
9xxx For future use
Cast compositions are designated by a three digit number followed by a decimal

and one digit (Table 1.2.4c).
Table 1.2.4c
Designation Principle Alloy(s)
1xx.x Controlled unalloyed composition
2xx.x Copper, and may also include other elements
3xx.x Silicon but may include other elements such as copper and
manganese
4xx.x Silicon
5xx.x Magnesium
6xx.x Unused
7xx.x Zinc, may also include other elements such as copper,
magnesium
8xx.x Unused
The final digit:

.0 pertains to casting alloy limits
.1 and .2 pertain to ingot compositions
A temper designation system is used for both wrought and cast aluminum and its
alloys. The basic temper designations are:
 F, As fabricated the product is shaped by hot or cold working or as cast
with no special thermal or stain hardening.

- 41 -
 O, Annealed applies to wrought products that are annealed to obtain the

lowest strength temper and cast products that are to improve ductility and
dimensional stability.
 H, Strain-hardened applies to wrought products only that have been
strengthened by working with no additional heat treatment. The H is
always followed by a digit: 1 to 9 to indicate the degree of strain
hardening.
 W, Solution heat-treated is an unstable temper that applies to alloys
whose strength changes over time.
 T, Solution heat treated applies to alloys whose strength is stable within a
few weeks. The T is followed by a digit(s) 1 to 10 which defines the
sequence of heat treatment.
Aluminum can be cast, extruded, forged, shaped by impact forming, formed by

powder metallurgy processes, or used in metal-matrix composites.
The machining properties of aluminum are excellent. Forging of aluminum is

considered generally more difficult than steels although it varies by alloy,
condition of the aluminum and the forging method.
Aluminum alloys can be joined by:

 Fusion welding
 Resistance welding
 Brazing
 Soldering
 Adhesive bonding
 Mechanical methods (bolting, riveting, etc.)
Aluminum can present challenges to welding operations because of:

 Surface oxide, if not removed, it can become entrapped in the weld and
contribute to lack of ductility, lack of fusion and possible weld cracking.
 Thermal conductivity is about four times greater than carbon steel and
therefore the rate of heat input must compensate for the thermal
conductivity.
 Coefficient of expansion is also higher than for steel, approximately twice,
and care must be taken in fit-up of the joints to be welded.
 Melting characteristics, the melting temperature of aluminum is lower than
steel and must be adjusted for.
 Electrical conductivity has an effect on resistance welding of aluminum,
because the resistance is lower more current is required than a similar
weld in steel.

- 42 -
Cast aluminum alloys have several favourable characteristics as compared to

other metals:
 Good fluidity and easily fill thin sections
 Low melting temperature
 Rapid heat transfer to the mold
 Hydrogen is the only soluble gas and it can be controlled
 Most alloys are relatively free from hot short cracks and tears
 It has good chemical stability
Aluminum can be cast by many different methods.
References:
1. “How aluminum is produced”, http://www.rocksandminerals.com/aluminum/process.htm,
2. ASM Desk Edition Metals Handbook
3. ASM Handbook, Volume 2, Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Special-Purpose Materials

- 43 -
1.2.5 Nickel
Nickel (Table 1.2.5a) is a nonferrous, silver-white with a slight gold tinge metal. It
is ferromagnetic at room temperature. Major sources of the metal are Sudbury,
Ontario, Ragiln Quebec, and Voisey’s Bay Newfoundland and Labrador in
Canada, and New Caledonia, Russia, and Australia.
Table 1.2.5a – Properties of Nickel

Property Value
Atomic Number 28
Chemical Symbol Ni
Melting Point [°C] 1455
Crystal structure Face centered cubic
Magnetic Ordering Ferro magnetic
Over 60% of nickel is used to produce stainless steels, other applications include
copper-nickel alloys, super-alloys, plating, alloying of cast iron (Figure 1.2.5a).
Figure 1.2.5a, Usage of Nickel
Nickel from sulphide ore is processed by first crushing and milling the ore. The
first separation process is by flotation were a flocculent is added to the slurry
causing the nickel and other metals to float to the surface and be skimmed off.
This concentrate is dried and fed to a flash furnace and combined with oxygen to

- 44 -
ignite the concentrate and form a molten bath to remove iron and sulphur. Slag
(iron and silica) is skimmed off and the matte is transferred in ladles to converters
where air is blown through the liquid bath, to remove the remainder of iron as
slag, and more of the sulphur as sulphur dioxide. The matte is then cast and
allowed to solidify in molds. It is then crushed and ground. Nickel is separated
from copper and other metals by magnetic separation. Further purification is
accomplished by employing carbon monoxide combined with the nickel to form
nickel carbonyl which is then decomposed on to seed pellets which form
spherical nickel pellets of 99.99% pure nickel. The other process of nickel
refining is by electro-winning to produce anodes or nickel rounds (on masked
anodes) within a tank-house.
Nickel is sold in several families:
1. Nickel used for plating

2. Nickel used for melting
3. As a part of other alloying packages
4. Specialty products (including powders and foams).
Nickel is a versatile alloy with many metals. Nickel is often employed to take
advantage of good performance in areas of high temperature, cryogenics,
corrosion resistance, corrosion fatigue and low expansion.
Super Alloys are used in high temperature applications such as gas turbines.
They are heat resisting alloys based on nickel, nickel iron or cobalt that exhibit
mechanical strength and resistance to degrading of the surface at high
temperatures. Examples of super alloys are Inconel, Incoloy, Hasteloy,
Waspaloy, and Rene Alloys. The alloy elements include: nickel, cobalt,
chromium, iron, molybdenum and others.
References:
1. ASM Handbook, Volume 1, Properties and Selection: Irons, Steels, and High Performance Alloys
2. Nickel Institute, http://www.nickelinstitute.org/
3. Inco Copper Cliff Smelter Complex Video, Sudbury, Ontario

- 45 -
1.2.6 Copper
Copper is the metal (Table 1.2.6a) which has been known the longest to man.
For more than 10,000 years man has made use of this metal. A pendant dating
8700 BC was discovered in Iraq. One of the Dead Sea Scrolls, found in Israel, is
made of copper.
Table 1.2.6a – Properties of Copper

Property Value
Atomic Number 29
Chemical Symbol Cu
Melting Point [°C] 1084.6
Crystal structure Face Centered Cubic
Magnetic Ordering Diamagnetic
For the initial stages of copper production

refer to the section on nickel. At the point
where the copper and nickel streams
separate, copper concentrate is dried and
further finished to remove the remaining
sulphur dioxide and impurities. At this stage
the copper is 98% pure and referred to as
blister copper. The copper is cast into anode
shapes, figure 1.2.6a. Final refining is by
electro-winning, the shapes are loaded into a
tank containing an acidic solution of copper
sulphate, and each anode is separated by a
cathode starter sheet of pure copper. A Figure 1.2.6a, Copper anode
direct current impressed upon the cathode
(negative) and anode (positive). As the anode dissolves, the pure copper is
deposited on the cathode and impurities and other metals fall to the bottom of the
tank.
Today many of the advantages of copper are taken in engineering use. In

addition to its heat and electrical conducting properties, copper has antimicrobial
properties and is used in the treatment of disease. It is also used as an alloy in
water intake screens to prevent Zebra mussel attachment and impede growth.

- 46 -
Copper is both ductile and malleable and can be easily drawn into wire. It has
excellent electrical properties. It has the second highest electrical conductivity
after silver.
Copper does not react with water but oxygen in the air will react slowly forming a
copper oxide layer.
Typical uses of copper include:

 Electronics:
o Copper Wire
o Electromagnets
o Printed Circuit boards
o Lead free solder
 Architecture:
o Roofing
o Statue of Liberty (81.3 tonnes)
o Used as an alloy in ship building
 Household:
o Plumbing
o Cookware
 Coinage:
o European Union
o USA
o Canada
o Australia
o United Kingdom
Alloys of Copper
There are more than 400 different alloys of copper. Alloys are specified by the
Copper Development Association, their designations are identical to the UNS
system, they begin with the letter C followed by 5 digits. ASTM also has over 200
specifications related to copper, some typical ASTM standards include:
 ASTM B1, Standard Specification for Hard-Drawn Copper Wire

 ASTM B30, Standard Specification for Copper Alloys in Ingot Form
 ASTM B49, Standard Specification for Copper Rod Drawing Stock for
Electrical Purposes
 ASTM B75, Standard Specification for Seamless Copper Tube

- 47 -
In addition to pure copper, wrought alloys can be classified as follows:

 High-copper alloys
o Contain more than 96% Cu
 Brasses (Zinc is the principle alloy)
o Leaded brasses (Cu, Zn, Pb)
o Tin Brasses (Cu, Zn, Sn, Pb)
 Bronzes (Zinc is not the principle alloy)
o Phosphorous Bronze (Cu, Sn, P)
o Aluminum Bronzes (Cu, Al, Ni, Fe, Si, Sn)
o Silicon Bronzes (Cu, Si, Sn)
 Copper Nickels
o (Cu, Ni, Fe)
 Nickel Silvers
o (Cu, Ni, Zn)
References:
1. Wikipedia
2. Canadian Copper, no. 155, pp8, 2008
3. World Wide Guide to Equivalent Nonferrous Metals and Alloys, ASM International, Second Edition.

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1.3 POWDER METALLURGY
Although powder metallurgy, the process of forming of parts from powder without
remelting, was practiced in Egypt around 3000 BC and by the Incas in South
America around 1200 AD not much continuous use was made in Europe until the
18th century. More recently it has been used for self-lubricating bearings since
the 1920’s, super alloys since 1970’s, and inter-metallics and metal-matrix
composites since the 1990’s
A much wider variation in alloys can be produced from powder metallurgy than
from conventional alloying methods. It is possible to form both metallic and
ceramic powders. The process can be made continuous such as to produce
rolled strip. Machining can be reduced or eliminated, scarp losses are
substantially reduced and good surface finishes can be achieved. Metals can be
further heat treated to improve properties and controlled porosity can be
achieved for self lubricating bearings. Recent developments include adding
ceramic fibres and inter-metallic compounds
The process can be subdivided

as follows (Figure 1.3a):
Conventional Press and Sinter

Powders are prepared by mixing
them, often a solid lubricant is
added to facilitate flow and
reduce friction entering the dies.
The pressing operation maybe
warm or cold. For cold pressing
the particles are irregular shapes
which provides “green strength”
until the sintering process occurs.
Sintering is conducted in a
furnace with a controlled
atmosphere at a temperature
below the melting point which
causes the formation of
metallurgical bonds between the
powder particles. Higher
temperatures and longer
sintering times promote more
dense materials and greater
contraction.
Figure 1.3a, Powder Metallurgy Process

- 49 -
Powder Forging
This process forms the component as in the conventional process. The
component at this stage is referred to as a “preform” as its shape is different than
the final shape. After the sintering operation the components are then hot
formed in closed dies to deform the material and eliminate all the porosity.
Metal Injection Molding

This process uses spherical shaped fine powder which is mixed with binders and
injected into a mold. After removal from the mold the binders are removed and
the part sintered. Part size is limited to parts not greater than 250 g and the
process is very similar to high pressure die casting or plastic injection molding.
Hot Isostatic Pressing

This process is more expensive than the others, is used for tool steels and super
alloys and allows much larger sizes of components than the other powder
metallurgy methods. The powders are vibrated in a container which is then
evacuated and sealed then placed in a furnace and pressurized with gas (argon
or helium). The component takes up the shape of the container. The need for
sintering is eliminated.
Powder metallurgy often eliminates the need for machining operations and
ferrous powder metallurgy products are used extensively in automotive
manufacture. Typical parts include: connecting rods, oil pump gears and rotors,
valve guides, water pump impeller, drive sprockets, ball joint bearings, brake
pistons and exhaust flanges.
Other materials used in powder metallurgy besides iron and steel include:
 Copper and copper based alloys
 Aluminum
 Molybdenum
 Tungsten
 Tungsten carbide
 Nickel
 Tin
Defects which occur in powder metallurgy parts during manufacture include:

 Ejection cracks
o During the pressing operation a residual stress is imparted into the
green part. During the ejection process some of the stress maybe
relieved and manifest itself as a crack. This can be reduced
through improved die design and powder control.
 Density variation
o Compaction density variations within the part, particularly low
density areas around changes of section can lead to cracking.

- 50 -
 Micro-laminations
o Very small unsintered layers which develop as a result of micro-
cracks which develop during ejection from the pressing operation
remain unhealed during the sintering process.
 Improper sintering
o Poor sintering can result from insufficient time or temperature as
well as improper furnace atmosphere, improper removal of the
lubricant
Nondestructive testing can be applied to powder metallurgy parts at the green

stage (prior to sintering) and after sintering. Refer to table 1.3a for methods
applied and there purpose.
Table 1.3a
NDE Method Purpose
Gamma-ray density Density variations
Electrical resistivity Density variations, Degree of Sinter
Eddy Current Density, hardness, chemistry
Magnetic particle Surface and near surface cracks
Ultrasonics Density variation and cracks
References:
1. ASM Metals Handbook, Volume 7, Powder Metal Technologies and Applications
2. Wikipedia
3. Metals Powder Industries Federation (MPIF), http://www.pickpm.com/intropm/process.asp?locarr=1|1

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1.4 PLASTICS
The term plastic is from the Greek word “plastikos” meaning molding. The term
is used to describe a wide variety of synthetic and organic amorphous solid
materials. The first man made plastic dates back to 1862 when Alexander
Parkes a British metallurgist created Parkesine.
There are two basic types of plastic:

 Thermoplastic
Thermoplastic will change shape, and eventually melt if heated sufficiently
and retain its new shape. Examples of this type of plastic include plastic
grocery bags and some children’s toys.
 Thermosetting plastic
When heated will char and burn but not undergo shape change. During
manufacture upon formation into its shape it undergoes a chemical
reaction and retains that shape. Examples of this type of plastic include
circuit boards and bases of kitchen kettles.
Types of thermoplastics:
 Polyethylene
Used to produce plastic grocery bags and available in several categories
based on density and branching of polymers.
 Polyvinyl chloride
Abbreviated PVC, used in electrical conduit, window and door frames.
 Polypropylene
Used to produce rope, automotive components, carpets and thermal
underwear.
 Polystyrene
Dow chemical trade name: Styrofoam, used as insulation, available in
several other forms.
 Polyethylene Terephthalate
Often abbreviated as PET, used in the production of plastic bottles and
other liquid and food containers.
 Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene
Often abbreviated as ABS, used in plastic pipe
 Polymethyl Methacrylate
Known by many trade names such as Plexiglas, Perspex and Lucite, used
for aircraft wind shields, ultrasonic shear wave transducers.
 Polyamide
DuPont trade name: nylon

- 52 -
Types of Thermosetting Plastics

 Polyurethane
Used to produce rigid foam panels, elastomeric wheels and tires, gaskets
and high performance adhesives.
 Phenolics
Used in the making of appliance parts, wiring devices, and automotive
parts.
 Melamine-Formaldehyde and Urea-Formaldehyde
Strong insulator, brittle, hard and stiff, used in electrical fittings, handles
and knobs
 Unsaturated Polyester
Used to produce corrugated sheets for awnings, skylight domes, fences,
bathroom accessories, chairs, and boat hulls
 Epoxy
Known for their electrical insulation and chemical resistance, used in
adhesives and encapsulation
Manufacturing methods used to produce plastic shapes in thermoplastics

include:
 Calendaring (rolling)
 Injection molding
 Extrusion
 Thermoforming
 Blow molding
Manufacturing methods used to produce plastic shapes in thermosetting plastics

include:
 Compression Molding
 Reactive Injection Molding
 Spin Casting
Biodegradable Plastics
Plastics are now being developed and used which are biodegradable, some by
exposure to sunlight and some by dampness, bacteria enzymes and other
agents. One example is Ecoflex, developed by BASF which is a fully degradable
polyester used for food packaging. These are achieved by making the resins
with cereal crops, corn protein and pea starch.
References:
1. National Research Council Canada, Canadian Building Digest, CBD-159, Thermosetting Plastics
2. Wikipedia, Plastic

- 53 -
1.5 CERAMICS
Ceramics are inorganic, non-metallic solids that are created by heat and
subsequent cooling. Ceramics are brittle, hard materials that can withstand
chemical erosion in harsh environments and high temperatures. Ceramics are
generally formed by making the ceramic into its final shape; or by forming
powders into the final shape and sintering.
Technical or engineering ceramics have a crystalline structure and are

compounds of metallic and non-metallics such as alumina (Al2O3). In very broad
terms glass is a ceramic, glass is amorphous and we will exclude it from most of
this discussion.
Ceramics have ionic bonds between the atoms, it is these bonds that help give
the properties that are important to ceramics:
 High elastic modulus
 High hardness
 High melting points
 Low thermal expansion
 Good chemical resistance
 Dimensional stability
Ceramics can be broken down into several segments:

 Glass
 Structural Clay Products
o Bricks
o Pipes
o Tiles (floor and roofing)
 Refractories
 White ware
o Bone China
o Earthenware
o Porcelain
o Stoneware
 Technical (Engineering Ceramics)
o Oxides (alumina and zirconia)
o Non-oxides (carbides, borides, nitrides and silicides
o Composites (combinations of oxides and non-oxides)
The two areas most likely to be of interest to NDE practioners are refractories
and engineering ceramics.

- 54 -
Refractories are materials made to withstand high temperatures and maintain

their physical properties. Refractories are used in the lining of furnaces for the
production of steel and smelting of aluminum and copper and other high
temperature applications. Most are made of natural materials such as carbon,
graphite or silicon carbide. Synthetic materials such as nitrides are more
expensive but also used. Most furnace refractories are made as brick shape but
they can also be castable or mixes used for gunning and ramming. Insulating
refractories maybe in brick, fibre board or blanket form.
Refractories that contain SiO2 and ZrO2 are to be considered acidic and those
containing MgO, CaO, Al2O3, or CrO3 are considered basic. Refractories are
further subdivided into those containing clay and nonclay products.
Technical Ceramics
The most commonly used technical ceramic is Al2O3 (alumina). It is known for its
high hardness, excellent wear, corrosion resistance and low electrical
conductivity. Other technical ceramics include: aluminum titanate, silicon
carbide, silicon nitride, boron carbide, and others.
Alumina is the insulating material in spark plugs, pump seals, wear plates,
extrusion dies, and orthopaedic devices such as hip joints and knee joints.
Silicon carbides are used for crucibles, and in heating elements.
A sub family of this group of ceramics includes electro-ceramics, grouped in this

family are the polarized ceramics used in the manufacture of piezoelectric
elements used in ultrasonic transducers. Lead zirconate titanate (PZT) and
barium titanate are two examples. These ceramics find their way into fuel cells,
general electronic equipment, gas lighters, auto-focus cameras.
Typical discontinuities found in engineering ceramics include:

 Impact sites
o Ceramics being a very brittle material are susceptible to damage by
contact with other hard materials. These can act as crack starters
or locations where surface material spalls off.
 Machining Defects
o When ceramics are cut (with a diamond saw) surface and
subsurface damage can occur.
 Processing Defects
o These defects include bubbles, pores, inclusions, coarse grained
areas and micro-cracks.
Nondestructive testing of ceramics is done with ultrasonics. Two approaches are

used with ultrasonics. The detection of internal flaws requires very high

- 55 -
frequencies as critical flaw sizes are very small. Typically wavelengths of .1 mm

are required resulting in frequencies greater than 100MHz. Attenuation limits the
penetration of the ultrasonic beam. Lower frequencies are used to assess bulk
properties of the ceramics by measuring attenuation and velocity and relating to
mechanical properties of the ceramic. Radiography, x-ray micro-radiography,
tomography and neutron radiography are also employed in the testing of
ceramics. The use of liquid penetrant is restricted because of the porous nature
of the ceramics.
References:
1. The American Ceramic Society, http://www.ceramics.org/index.aspx
2. Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, Advanced Centre for Materials Science, Volume 3, No. 4
Advanced Ceramics
3. ASM, Handbook Volume 2, Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Special-Purpose Materials
4. ASM, Engineering Materials Desk Edition, Structural Applications for Advanced Ceramics

- 56 -
1.6 CONCRETE
Concrete is a mixture of cement, fly ash, slag cement and course and fine
aggregates, limestone, water and chemical additives. It is used more than any
other man made substance. Concrete can be cast into its final shape by the use
of forms which are removed after final hardening. It is durable and has good
compressive strength. Tensile properties are enhanced by the use of reinforcing
steel.
Types of concrete structures include:

 Reinforced concrete
o Steel reinforcement of concrete is accomplished using bars or
mesh sheets. Fibre reinforced plastic re-bar is used in locations
where nonmagnetic properties are required. Epoxy coated,
galvanized or stainless steel bars are used where de-icing salt may
accelerate corrosion. The reinforcement enhances the tensile and
shear strength of the concrete as well as helping to control
shrinkage and surface cracking. Reinforced concrete has several
key features that give it it’s special properties: 1. The thermal
expansion of concrete is similar to steel used for reinforcement; 2.
Concrete conforms to the corrugated surface of the re-bar allowing
it to transfer stresses to the steel; 3. Calcium carbonate in the
concrete causes a passivating film to form on the re-bar reducing
corrosion.
 Pre-stressed concrete
o Pre-stressed concrete employs high strength steel wire or rope
which is placed in tension fixed to external anchors. The concrete
is poured and after it is hardened the pre-stressing is transferred
from the external structure to the concrete.
 Fibre reinforced concrete
o Fibres of steel, glass or plastic can be used to reinforce concrete.
The fibres typically 1 mm diameter, 45 mm long are used to
increase tensile strength. Fibres other than steel are used to avoid
corrosion.
While in the plastic state concrete has workability and cohesiveness. Workability
describes the ease with which the concrete can be mixed, handled, placed,
compacted and finished.
When in the hardened state the concrete must be durable and have sufficient
compressive strength. Durability is the property of being able to resist wear and
tear without breaking up. This includes being water tight. Compressive strength

- 57 -
is a measure of its ability to support loads in compression. It has very low tensile
strength.
Some of the discontinuities seen in concrete include:

 Cracking
o Cracks which form before hardening
 Plastic shrinkage cracks caused by excessive temperatures
and wind while placing the concrete
 Plastic settlement cracks which occur as the concrete settles
and usually follow the lines of reinforcement
 Framework movement cracks
caused by movement of the
forms
 Cold seam crack due to the
interruption of the pour, while
the concrete dries waiting for
the continuation of the pour,
see figure 1.6a
o Cracks which occur after the concrete Figure 1.6a, Cold
Seam Crack
hardens
 Shrinkage
 Settlement
 Structural loading
 Spalling
o Breaking away of edges or
surfaces, see figure 1.6b
 Honey Combing
o Occurs when too much coarse
aggregate is at the surface with
cavities subsurface, caused by
poor compaction or improper
mixture.
 Dusting Figure 1.6b, Spalling
o A powdery substance on the
surface caused by finishing the concrete before the bleed water has
dried or inadequate curing.
 Crazing
o Surface layer cracking caused by minor surface shrinkage.
 Blistering
o Entrapped air caused by finishing the concrete too early and
entrapping bleed water and air below the surface.

- 58 -
 Corrosion of re-bar
o The corrosion occurs because of the ingress of water through
surface cracking causing the steel re-bar to corrode and expand
which may cause spalling of the concrete.
Two basic quality control tests that are routinely carried out on concrete:
 Slump Test
o A test to determine the workability of the concrete by measuring the
amount of slumping that occurs in a sample of the concrete
 Compression Test
o A test taken after curing on a cylindrical sample of hardened
concrete to confirm compressive strength.
Nondestructive testing is used for investigating in-situ concrete:

 Homogeneity of concrete
 Density and strength
 Location and depth of re-bar
 Size of re-bar
 Extent of corrosion
 Determine the location of inserts in the re-bar (piping etc.)
 Detect internal defects
 Determining bond of concrete to other materials
References:
1. ASTM C172, Standard Method of Sampling Freshly Mixed Concrete
2. ASTM C143, Standard Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic Cement Concrete
3. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Guide Book on Nondestructive Testing of Concrete
Structures, Training Course Series No. 17
4. ACI, American Concrete Institute, Concrete Field Technician Testing, Technician Work Book
5. Wikipedia

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1.7 COMPOSITES
Composites are a macroscopic combination of two or more distinct materials

having a recognizable interface between them. One of the earliest composite
materials was made of straw and mud. These materials by themselves are not
suitable as a building material, but bricks suitable for early construction are made
of a combination of both these materials. Plywood and reinforced concrete are
also composite materials.
Modern composite materials are used for a variety of applications:

 Structural
 Electrical
 Thermal
 Tribological
 Environmental
The properties that are achieved are greater than the individual components of
the composite.
Types of composites include:

 Organic matrix
o Polymer matrix
o Carbon matrix (carbon-carbon composites)
 Metal matrix
 Ceramic matrix
A second level of classification is used to describe the reinforcement form:

 Particulate or flakes
 Discontinuous fibres (Whiskers)
 Continuous fibres
 Woven or braided
Figure 1.7a, Particulate

Reinforcement
Figure 1.7b, Fibre Figure 1.7c, Continuous

Reinforcement Fibre Reinforcement Figure 1.7d, Woven or
Braided Reinforcement

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Organic matrix composites

were developed for the
aerospace industry during
World War 2. Glass reinforced
plastics were used in rocket
motors to overcome problems
related to corrosion and fatigue
associated with metals such as
aluminum.
Current composites take

advantage of high stiffness,
high strength, low density,
corrosion resistance, stealth
properties, and the ability to
tailor properties such as Figure 1.7e, Northrop Grumman B2
thermal expansion. (Stealth Bomber)
The B2 bomber figure 1.7e is constructed of a large amount of different

composites.
Metal Matrix Composites originated in the 1950’s and 60’s to extend the
structural efficiency of metals while still retaining their favourable properties.
Ceramic Matrix Composites were developed to increase the operating

temperatures and environmental properties of composites.
The principle purpose of the reinforcing material is to provide strength and

stiffness to the composite.
Typical Fibre materials:

 Glass fibres
 Born fibres
 Carbon fibres
 Aramid fibres (aromatic polyamide fibres)
 Silicon-carbon fibres
 Aluminum oxide fibres
The matrices bind together the fibres or particulate reinforcement and provide a
solid form to the composite.

- 61 -
Organic matrices include polyester and vinyl ester resins as well as epoxy resins.
Metal and ceramic matrices provide an important contribution to the strength and
may include cast and wrought aluminum alloys
Metallic matrices include: alloys of aluminum, titanium, iron, cobalt, copper,

silver, and beryllium. Copper, silver and beryllium are used primarily for their
thermal and electrical properties. Iron is used principally for wear resistance,
titanium in aerospace and recreation products. The most common are high
silicon aluminum alloys.
Ceramic matrices use silicon-carbon to provide wear or abrasion resistance.
The principle physical defects that occur in composites include:

 Delaminations
o Separation of the reinforcement material from the matrices
 Impact Damage
o Unlike metals that may tolerate impact, a composite sustaining the
same impact may initiate an internal delamination that can
propagate to failure
 Ply Gap
 Ply Waviness
 Porosity
o Entrapped air in the matrix
 Surface notches
 Thermal Damage
Failures may be attributable to:

 Design
 Manufacturing
 Improper use
References:
1. ASM Handbook, Volume 21, Composites
2. Wikipedia

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2.0 MECHANICAL TESTING
Hardness Tests
Considerable information can be derived from hardness numbers (refer to

appendix A for a comparison chart) which relates hardness to tensile strength.
Hardness tests can be divided into three groups:

 Elastic hardness
 Resistance to cutting and abrasion
 Resistance to penetration
Elastic Hardness Test

Elastic hardness devices measure the rebound
of a falling hammer. The scleroscope was an
early instrument of this type originating in the
early 1900’s. There are two types: a model C
uses a graduated glass tube to measure the
height of the rebound and a model D, shown in
figure 2.0a, that uses a dial to display the
rebound height. These devices are still in use
but no longer manufactured in North America.
The scleroscope (figure 2.0a) indicates the

height of rebound of a small diamond tipped
hammer after it falls by its own weight from a
definite height. The height of the rebound is a
measure of the hardness of the material. ASTM
E448 describes the Standard Practice for
Scleroscope Hardness Testing of Metallic
Materials
Figure 2.0a, Scleroscope
Other elastic hardness devices such as the
Krautkramer DynaMIC2 (Figure 2.0b) or Equotip3 (Figure 2.0c) employ the Leeb
principle. An impact device in a guide tube is forced towards the surface by a
spring. A magnet in the impact device generates a voltage in an encircling coil,
after rebound it generates a second voltage. The signals are compared to
compensate for orientation and calculate hardness. There are 6 types of impact
devices used in Leeb hardness testing: D, DC, D+15, G, C and E. Table 2.0a
gives guidelines as to the minimum weight, thickness and surface finish of the
specimen to be measured. ASTM A956 describes the Standard Method for Leeb
Hardness Testing of Steel Products.

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Figure 2.0b, Krautkramer DynaMIC2 Figure 2.0c, Equotip3
Table 2.0a
Impact Device Weight (min) Thickness (min) Surface Finish

(max)
D, DC, D+15, E 5 kg 3 mm 2 μm
G 15 kg 10 mm 7 μm
C 1.5 kg 1 mm .4 μm
Other elastic hardness methods include the Shore Hardness Method

(Durometer) used for measuring the hardness of rubber and similar materials.
Resistance to Cutting and Abrasion Methods Hardness Tests

Mohs Hardness is one measure of resistance to scratching. Friedrich Mohs
devised this method in 1812. Although the method does not have a significant
engineering use it has values from 1 to 10. Talc, the softest material, is assigned
1 and diamond, the hardest material, is assigned 10. Mohs hardness numbers of
some common materials are: pure aluminum is 3; iron is 4 to 5; titanium is 6;
hardened steel is 7 to 8.
Other scratch methods which employ a diamond stylus are also used. The
hardness is calculated using the normal force applied to the stylus and the width
of the scratch. This standard test method is described in ASTM G171 Scratch
Hardness of Materials Using a Diamond Stylus.

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Resistance to Penetration Hardness Tests

There are many “resistance to penetration” hardness measurements. Some
examples include:
 Brinell Hardness Test, ASTM E10
 Rockwell Hardness Test, ASTM E18
 Vickers, ASTM E92
 Tukon
 Knoop, ASTM C730
 Barcol, ASTM B648
Brinell Hardness Test

The Brinell hardness test method was first proposed by a Swedish engineer
Johan August Brinell in 1900 and became the first widely used standardized
hardness scale in use for engineering and metallurgical purposes.
Forcing a hard steel ball or tungsten carbide sphere of a specified diameter

under a specified load into the surface of the material and then measuring the
diameter of the indentation is used to determine Brinell hardness. The acronym
is BHN (Brinell hardness number) or HB is often used. The standard format for
specifying tests is: 350 HBW 10/3000, where 350 is the Brinell Hardness
Number, HBW means a tungsten carbide ball was used (W for the chemical
symbol for tungsten, or S for steel ball), 10 is the diameter of the ball in mm and
3000 is the load in kilogram force. The three common forces applied to the
indenter as given in ASTM E10 are 500, 1500 and 3000 kg.
Figure 2.0c, Brinell

Figure 2.0d, Brinell Hardness
Hardness Tester
Indenter

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Rockwell Hardness Test

The Rockwell Hardness test was devised by Stanley P. Rockwell in about 1919.
The Rockwell Hardness test is a hardness measurement based on the net
increase in depth of an impression as a load is applied. A minor load of 10kg is
applied and the unit is nulled, next a major load is applied. The depth of
penetration is then read directly from the testing machine. There are 14 different
scales dependant on, the material being tested, the indenter, and the major load.
There are two basic classes of Rockwell testers, the normal Rockwell and the
superficial Rockwell.
The most common Rockwell scales are B and C. HRB is used for softer
materials such as aluminum, brass and soft steels. It uses a hardened steel ball
and a 100 kg weight as the major load. HRC is used for harder materials and
employs a diamond cone (Brale) indenter and a 150 kg weight. Superficial
Rockwell is used when the material is two thin for the normal indenters or
hardened layers are being measured. Superficial Rockwell scales include: 15-N,
30-N, 45-N and 15T
Figure 2.0e, Rockwell Hardness Tester

- 66 -
ASTM E18, Standard Test Methods for Rockwell Hardness and Rockwell
Superficial Hardness of Metallic Materials and ISO 6508-1, Metallic Materials-
Rockwell Hardness Test- Part 1 describe the method in detail.
Vickers Hardness Test

The Vickers Hardness Test was developed in the 1920’s. See figure 2.0f. An
advantage is that the same indenter can be used for all materials irrespective of
the hardness of the material. Vickers hardness tests are considered a shallow
penetration (micro hardness) hardness test and employs a square based
pyramid diamond indenter. It is often used for measuring case hardness and
heat affected zones of welds. The acronym for Vickers is VHN (Vickers
Hardness Number) or HV is used. The standard format for reporting Vickers
hardness is 420HV30 where: 420 is the hardness number, HV is the Vickers
scale, and 30 indicates the load in kilograms.
Figure 2.0g
Figure 2.0f, Vickers- Tukon Hardness
Vickers Hardness Tester Tester
Tukon Hardness Tests

Tukon is also a micro hardness tester. The unit can be combined with Vickers as
depicted in figure 2.0g. The Testers are usually fully automatic and employ
either a Vickers indenter or a Tukon diamond indenter. Tukon testers can be
used to measure extremely small components, case hardening, foil and fine wire.

- 67 -
Knoop Hardness Test

The Knoop hardness test was developed by F. Knoop at the National Bureau of
Standards in 1939. It is a micro hardness method abbreviated by KHN (Knoop
Hardness Number). It employs a diamond indenter and can be combined with a
Vickers Hardness Tester. It is used typically for very brittle or thin materials. The
diamond pyramid is pressed into a polished surface of the material being tested
with a known force for a given dwell time and the indent is measured with a
microscope. The scale is in the range of 100 to 1000.
Ultrasonic Contact Impedance Hardness Test

The Ultrasonic Contact Impedance hardness tester was patented in the USA
March 3, 1992 (patent number 455412 by Krautkramer GmbH& Co.). ASTM
A1038 Standard Practice for Portable Hardness Testing by the Ultrasonic
Contact Impedance Method was issued January 1, 2005. The unit consists of
several sections: a probe containing a rod with indenter, a vibration generator, a
vibration detector and electronics with digital hardness number readout. Different
probes are used with different static loads applied by springs. Unlike
conventional hardness penetration methods in which the indent is measured
optically, in the UCI method the depth of penetration is measured by change in
resonant frequency of the measuring rod while under load which is used to
determine the hardness of the material.
There are several other types of hardness testers including: Barcol which
measures the resistance to penetration of a sharp steel point under a spring load,
often used to measure the degree of cure of plastic
(ASTM D2583 (plastic) and B648 (aluminum)) and
Monotron which employs a diamond ball (.75 mm
diameter) forced into the material to a depth of
9/5000 of an inch and the pressure required to
produce a constant impression indicates the
hardness.
Charpy Impact Test

Sometimes referred to as the Charpy V notch test is a
standard test which determines the amount of energy
absorbed by a material during fracture. The energy
absorbed is a measure of the materials toughness
and is used to determine the temperature at which
brittle-ductile transition occurs. It is widely used
throughout industry and is described in ASTM E23
Figure 2.0h, Impact Tester
Standard Test Methods for Notched Bar Impact

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Testing of Metallic Materials. The test involves a notched bar specimen which is
supported as a simple beam in a set of anvils, the specimen is impacted by a
moving mass that has sufficient energy to break the specimen. Information
gained from the test includes; the amount of energy required to break the
specimen (this is determined by knowing the amount of energy striking the
specimen and subtracting the amount of energy remaining after breaking the
specimen), and the percentage of shear fracture can be determined by
examining the failure faces.
The pendulum is raised into position and then released to strike the specimen,
the amount of initial energy and energy remaining is read from the calibrated dial.
A typical fracture is shown in figure 2.0j.
Impact testing was introduced in 1904 but was not widely used until the Second
World War when many all-welded ships were first built (approximately 3000 of
them). Of these 3000 ships, approximately 1200 suffered hull fractures, 250 of
which were considered hazardous. In fact, 19 or 20 of them broke completely in
two. These failures did not necessarily occur under unusual conditions; several
occurred while the ships were at anchor in calm waters. In addition to ship
failures, other large, rigid structures, such as pipelines and storage tanks failed in
a similar manner. All failures had similar characteristics. They were sudden, had
a brittle appearance, and occurred at stresses well below the yield strength of the
material. It was noted that they originated at notches or other areas of stress
concentration, such as sharp corners and weld defects. These failures were often
of considerable magnitude: in one case a pipeline rupture ran for 20 miles.
To determine the brittle-ductile transition temperature the specimens are tested

over a range of temperatures by cooling or heating the specimens and then
quickly (within 5 seconds) subjecting them to the impact test. The most common
Charpy specimen is the V-notch but there are a total of three types: V- notch,
keyhole and U-notch specimens are used for different materials, see figure 2.0i.
Figure 2.0i, Charpy Impact Specimens

- 69 -
An estimate of the percentage of shear fracture is

made by observing the fracture face see figure 2.0j,
the ductile fracture region includes: fracture initiation,
the two shear lips and the region of final fracture.
Figure 2.0k shows a shear fracture comparator chart to

help judge the percentage of shear fracture.
Figure 2.0j, Impact

Specimen Fracture Face
Figure 2.0k, Impact Specimen Fracture Face Comparator Chart
The results are considered a quantitative measure of toughness. Toughness is

the amount of energy per volume that a material can absorb before rupturing.
The units are joules/ m3 or pounds force / in3.
As a guideline for steels, the minimum acceptable values most commonly

specified are, respectively: 20 J (15 ft-lb), and 50% shear. As a general rule of
thumb, Charpy V-notch impact strengths of 14 J (10 ft-lb) and lower are likely to
initiate fractures. An impact strength of 27 J (20 ft-lb) is likely to propagate once

- 70 -
initiated, and values well above 27 J (20 ft-lb) are necessary to impede fracturing
once it has been initiated.
An alternate to the Charpy Impact test

is the Izod test which is conducted
with the specimen supported as a
cantilever in which case the hammer
strikes the test specimen on the same
face as the notch, see figure 2.0l.
Some of the specifications

referencing Impact tests include: Figure 2.0l, Impact Specimen Orientation
ASTM A20, Standard Specification for (Charpy on the left, Izod, on the right)
General Requirements for Steel
Plates for Pressure Vessels; ASTM
A320, Standard Specification for Alloy-Steel and Stainless Steel Bolting Materials
for Low-Temperature Service, ASTM A632, Standard Specification for Seamless
and Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel Tubing (Small-Diameter) for General
Service; ASTM F2231, Standard Test Method for Charpy Impact Test on Thin
Specimens of Polyethylene Used in Pressurized Pipes.
Fatigue Tests
Fatigue is the progressive, localized, and permanent structural damage that
occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic or fluctuating strains at nominal
stresses that have maximum
values less than the static yield
strength of the material. Fatigue
failures can be divided into five
different stages:
 Plastic deformation
 Initiation of micro cracks
 Propagation of micro
cracks to form one or
more macro cracks
 Propagation of macro
crack(s)
 Final failure
Infinite-Life Criterion is the oldest Figure 2.0m, S/N Curve

and simplest approaches to
fatigue and employs an S/N (stress versus log of number of cycles to failure)
curve. Figure 2.0m shows a typical S/N curve. This information is best applied

- 71 -
in the elastic region where there is constant amplitude loading. This help us
relate the number of cycles to failure to a given stress level.
There are several different types of fatigue testing machines:
 Axial (Direct stress) fatigue testing machines, The direct-stress fatigue

testing machine subjects a test specimen to a uniform stress or strain
through its cross section.
o Servo-hydraulic closed loop system
o Electro-mechanical system
 Bending Fatigue Machine, The most highly used type of fatigue machine.
o Cantilever Beam
Bending Machine, use flat
test specimens that
have a tapered width and
uniform thickness, the load
maybe applied by a rotating
cam, two types are used:
deflection controlled and
load controlled.
o Rotating Beam
Fatigue Machine, the
rotating specimen has a
round cross-section and is
Figure 2.0n, Rotating Beam Fatigue
subject to a dead weight Testing Machine
load.
Tensile Testing
Tensile testing is used to provide
information that will be used in the design
calculations or to confirm that a material
complies with the requirements of a
specification. The test is made by gripping
a standardized specimen at both ends and
applying a continuously increasing uni-
axial load until failure occurs. A stress /
strain curve is produced.
Figure 2.0o, Tensile Testing Machine

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Some of the terms applied to these test methods include:

 Stress is the average amount of force exerted per unit cross sectional
area. Units are psi (pounds per square inch), ksi (thousand pounds per
square inch), Pa (Pascals) or MPa (Mega Pascals).
 Strain (normal or engineering extensional strain) is the deformation per
unit length caused by the load applied. That is the change in length per
unit of the original length (∆L/L). Increase in length (resulting from
tension) is said to be positive and decrease in length (resulting from
compression) is said to be negative. Units are given as inches per inch or
expressed as a percentage.
 Engineering stress is the calculated stress based on the original area of
the specimen undergoing tensile testing as opposed to the actual area.
Plots produced in tensile machines are engineering stress vs. engineering
strain.
The stress strain curve (figure
2.0p)resulting from the tensile
test is a graphical
representation of the
relationship between stress
which is derived from the
amount of load applied to the
specimen and strain which is
measured from the deformation
(elongation) of the specimen.
Steel generally displays a very

well defined yield point (item 2,
figure 2.0p).
From this curve we can

Figure 2.0p, Stress Strain Curve determine the tensile strength of
the material, known as the
ultimate tensile strength (item 1,
figure 2.0p). This is the point at which the maximum load which the specimen
can support is reached and where necking begins to occur. If this load is
maintained the specimen will eventually fail (item 3, figure 2.0p). We can also
determine the yield point, the point where the deformation changes from elastic
to plastic. In other words, the point above which the specimen cannot return to
its original shape even if the load is entirely released. The reduction in area (at
the failure point) can be calculated by measuring the diameter of the specimen
after failure and calculating the original area and final area to calculate the
reduction in area. The percentage of elongation can be calculated by
reassembling the coupon, measuring the gauge length and expressing the

- 73 -
change as a percentage of the original gauge length. The slope of the line
(rise/run) in the elastic region is Young’s Modulus or the Modulus of Elasticity.
Area 4 (figure 2.0p) is known as the strain hardening region and Area 5 (figure
2.0p) as the necking region.
Figure 2.0p is typical of

annealed carbon steel in which
case the yield strength is not
well defined. Alloyed or
hardened steels and less ductile
materials do not display the
same well defined yield point.
By convention it is determined
by the “.2% offset yield method”.
This is done by projecting a line
parallel to the elastic portion of
the curve which is offset by .2%
until it intersects the curve and Figure 2.0q,
this point is reported as the yield Stress Strain Curve of Annealed Carbon Steel
point (item 4, figure 2.0q).
In very brittle materials such as cast iron or carbon fibre no yield point is evident
and strain hardening does not occur, consequently the failure point (item 2, figure
2.0r) and ultimate tensile strength (item 1, figure 2.0r) are the same.
Toughness is the materials ability to absorb before failure and is area underneath
the stress strain curve.
Figure 2.0r,
Stress Strain Curve of Brittle
Material

- 74 -
Compressive Strength Testing

Compressive testing is usually conducted in the same apparatus as tensile
testing, the loading is reversed and the specimen (usually cylindrical) is
shortened by the loading. The compressive strength of the material is
determined by the compressive stress when the metal fails.
Guided Bend Tests

Bend tests are employed to confirm the acceptability of a
welding procedure specification, or a welder’s ability to
complete a specific procedure. The specification will
determine the number and style of bend tests to be
performed. The outer surface of the bend is put into
tension as a result of the bending action. If the root of the
weld is put into tension it is referred to as a root bend, if the
crown or face of the weld is put into tension then it is
referred to as a face bend, refer to figure 2.0u. On thicker
sections, particularly when the weld is made from both
faces, a cross section of the weld is taken and the bend is
against the cross section. This is referred to as a side
bend.
Ideally the base material, weld deposit and the heat

affected zones of the weld have similar deformation
properties otherwise stress is concentrated in one area of
the specimen as it is being bent.
When the weld deposit is significantly stronger than the

base metal a flat spot will occur at the centre of the weld.
Figure 2.0u,
See figure 2.0s. Weld Coupon Bend
Tests
Figure 2.0s Figure 2.0t

- 75 -
When the base material is significantly stronger than the weld material the
bending stress will concentrate in the weld and a “dog house“ occurs with the
weld failing (see figure 2.0t).
Stress raisers and notches in the specimen can cause failure and for that reason
the crown of the welds are usually removed by grinding such that the direction of
grinding is parallel to the direction of stress applied by the bending test. Defects
in the weld will also open and crack indicating a failure of the test.
Figure 2.0v, Weld Bend Test Jig Figure 2.0w, Weld Bend Test Jig
Figures 2.0v and 2.0w show two of the jigs employed. The dimension A is
governed by the tensile strength of the material which is given in the specification
as is the acceptance criteria used when visually examining the specimens.
Determining Hardenability of Steels

Hardenability is a measure of the depth to which steel will harden when
quenched from its austenitizing temperature.
ASTM A255 describes the Jominy End Quench Test for determining the
hardenability of steels with a carbon range of 0.10 to 0.70% carbon (and other
chemistry restrictions). It employs a specimen 25.4 mm in diameter by 101.6 mm
long, with a small shoulder on one end. The specimen is heated in a furnace to
its austenitizing temperature and holding it for 30 minutes. The end of the
specimen is quenched in a stream of water (5° to 30° C). Two flats 180 degrees

- 76 -
apart are ground to a depth of .38mm, along the entire length of the specimen.
Rockwell C hardness readings are taken along the length of the bar on both flats.
The hardness results are plotted against the distance from the quenched end of
the bar and calculations made to determine the depth of hardening, see figure
2.0x.
Figure 2.0x, Jominy End Quench Test Results

- 77 -
Other Mechanical Testing Methods
Adhesion Testing
This testing method is used to measure resistance to peeling, shearing,
delaminations and frictional properties of surfaces under different conditions.
There is not a lot of standardization in this type of testing and most test methods
are developed for specific applications.
Friction Testing
Measures the response of materials in certain environmental conditions,
geometries and contact pressures to reproduce relative motion between paired
materials. ASTM standards have been developed to provide guides in testing
procedures.
Wear and Surface Damage Testing

The test method is chosen based on the type of wear or surface damage being
considered. Refer to section 4.3 of this manual dealing with wear and abrasion
for a further understanding of the types of damage that can occur.
Creep and Stress-Relaxation Testing

Creep properties are important for materials that are stressed at elevated
temperatures for long periods of time. Creep strain tests measure the amount
and evaluate the deformation that occurs over time. Creep rupture tests
measure the amount of time to fracture at given stress levels and temperature.
Stress relaxation occurs when the strain is held constant and the elastic
properties cause a decrease in the stress. This type of test might be used to
evaluate the performance of materials used for high temperature bolting, where
the bolts will tend to loose their clamping force because of stress-relaxation.
References:
1. University of Maryland, Material Hardness,
www.calce.umd.edu/general/Facilities/Hardness_ad_.htm#rf05"
2. GE Sensing & Inspection Technologies, DynaMIC,
http://www.geinspectiontechnologies.com/en/products/hardness_testers/dynamic.html,
DynaMIC is a registered trademark of GE Sensing & Inspection Technologies.
3. Proceq Group. Equotip, www.corvib.com/equotip/, Equotip is a registered trademark
of Proceq SA
4. TWI, The Welding Institute, Bend Tests
5. ASTM A255-07, Standard Test Methods for Determining Hardenability of Steel
6. Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page
7. ASM Handbook, Volume 8, Mechanical Testing and Evaluation

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3.0 MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
Manufacturing processes are used to transform raw materials into finished

goods.
3.1 Heat Treatment of Steels
Stress Relief
Stress relief heat treating of steel is accomplished by heating the steel to just
below the transformation temperature, holding this temperature for a
predetermined period of time and then uniformly cooling the component. Stress
relief can be used to improve the fracture toughness of heat affected zones
(HAZ) of welds, improve resistance to corrosion and stress corrosion cracking, or
reduce the likelihood of brittle failure. Stresses may have been introduced into
the part by welding, heating, grinding, bending or physical working of the
component.
Annealing
Annealing of steel involves heating the steel and slow cooling to soften the steel.
Annealing is often employed to facilitate machining, cold working, improve
mechanical or electrical properties or improve dimensional stability. There are
several varieties of annealing:
 Full Anneal
Full Annealing is conducted by heating
hypo eutectoid steels 55o C above the
upper critical temperature and 55o C Figure 3.1a, Annealing
above the lower critical temperature Temperatures
hyper eutectoid steels (refer to the
equilibrium diagram in figure 3.1a)
holding and then slow cooling in the
furnace. Full annealing refines the
grain, softens the steel, improves
electrical and magnetic properties and in
some cases improves machinability.
 Process Anneal
Process Annealing is used for sheet and
wire steel product after cold working. It softens the steel for further
working and is very similar to subcritical annealing in that the steel is
heated to just below the lower critical temperature.
 Subcritical Annealing (stress-relief annealing)

- 79 -
Subcritical Annealing is used to remove residual stresses due to heavy

machining or cold working processes. Heating is carried out to just below
the lower critical temperature.
 Spheroidizing
Spheroidizing is performed on steels to improve the cold
formability. One way of achieving this would be heating
just below the upper critical temperature for a prolonged
period of time and then slow cooling in the furnace. The
structure that is achieved is spheroids (globules) of
carbides in a ferrite matrix. The soft ductile matrix allows
Figure 3.1b, for cold forming of the steel.
Spheroids
1130
908
Normalizing
Normalizing is used to produce a harder, stronger 723
steel (compared to full annealing). Normalizing

refines the grain, makes the steel more homogenous
and improves the machinability particularly in low
carbon steels. The steel is heated to about 55o C .8 2.0
above the upper critical temperature followed by slow Percent Carbon by Weight
cooling in still air to room temperature. The pearlite Figure 3.1c, Normalizing
structure is finer than full annealed. Temperatures
Hardening
Hardening of carbon, low alloy and tools
Temperature [°C]
steels is accomplished by heating to

eliminate all the ferrite (refer to the
equilibrium diagram in figure 3.2d). The
material is then quenched to produce
controlled amounts of martensite. The most
common materials used to quench the steel
maybe:
 Oil (with additives)
 Water
 Brine
o Water with salt addition
Figure 3.2d,
 Gases
Hardening Temperatures
o Helium, Argon, Nitrogen

- 80 -
Hardness of the steel depends on several factors including the composition of

the steel, what quenching medium and how it is used.
In using equilibrium diagrams one of the limiting factors is that the rate of
temperature change must be very slow. When considering rapid changes in
temperature, particularly when considering quenching for the purpose of
hardening, we must consider a Time Temperature Transformation Diagram.
Refer to figure 3.2e. When the steel is heated to form austenite and then rapidly
cooled martensite is formed. If the steel is cooled very slowly, as we discussed
when considering equilibrium diagrams, then the Time Temperature
Transformation Diagram shows the formation of a pearlitic structure as we saw
from the equilibrium diagram. A third option is to rapidly quench the steel to
below the knee of the Time Temperature Transformation Diagram and then hold
the temperature to avoid the formation of both pearlite and martensite. The
resulting structure is Bainite.
Martensite is not an equilibrium phase in steels. Its crystalline structure is called

body centered tetragonal, its hardness and shape depends on the carbon
content of the steel.
Figure 3.2e, Time Temperature Transformation Diagram

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Tempering
Tempering is a process that follows hardening to increase ductility and
toughness, increase grain size, and retain much of the hardness achieved in the
hardening process. Tempering variables include:
 Tempering temperature
 Time at temperature
 Cooling rate from the tempering temperature
 Composition of the steel
The process involves heating the steel to below the lower critical temperature,
holding at that temperature and then cooling at a suitable rate. Tempering
reduces the stresses setup during quenching and improves dimensional stability
of the component.
Cold Treating of Steel

The best structure is achieved if during the hardening process there is complete
transformation from austenite to martensite before tempering occurs. If
immediately after quenching the temperature of the steel is lowered to -84°C and
held 1 hour per 25mm of thickness, then greater dimensional stability, improved
wear resistance and reduced residual stress can be achieved. The component is
then tempered. In some applications particularly those alloys subject to cracking,
the component is tempered after quenching, then cold treated, and then re-
tempered to achieve the desired properties and avoid cracking. In variations of
cold treating steels cryogenic temperatures are used.
Surface Hardening
Surface hardening (case hardening) is used to improve the wear resistance of
the surface without affecting the tough interior. Often done to achieve a hard
surface with good wear resistance properties and still retain a tough interior to
resist impact. Gear teeth are often surface hardened. There are a significant
number of ways of increasing the hardness of the surface layer of steels:
 Flame Surface Hardening
Flame hardening is used when the part is too large to fit into available
furnaces or only a small segment of the surface is to be hardened.
Generally used on medium carbon steels, medium carbon alloy steels,
some cast irons and lower alloy tool steels. The outer layer is heated by
an oxy-fuel flame to the austenite range and then quenched to form an
outer martensitic layer. Typical hardened layers are from 1 to 6 mm deep.
 Induction Surface Hardening

A process similar to flame hardening except that the surface layer is
heated by electromagnetic induction. Electrical frequencies greater than
1000 Hz are used, case depths can vary from .25 mm to 6 mm.

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 Laser Surface Hardening

Case depths of .25 to 2 mm can be achieved in medium carbon steel
using lasers as the source of heat and self cooling by conduction of heat
by the mass of the component.
 Electron Beam Surface Hardening

As with laser hardening, electron beam utilizes self cooling, but generates
heat through impact of high speed electrons with the surface.
Another group of surface hardening methods are referred to as diffusion methods

and rely on changing the chemical composition of the outer layer by diffusing
carbon, nitrogen or boron into the surface. These methods include:
 Carburizing
By heating the component to a temperature of 850°C or above in a carbon
controlled gaseous atmosphere carbon is taken into the austenitic surface
layer, subsequent quenching forms a martensitic case. The source of
carbon is from methane, propane or butane. The outer layer can be
further tempered if required.
 Nitriding
A process that does not rely on carbon but instead nitrogen is introduced
into the surface by heating the component to between 495°C to 565°C in
an ammonia atmosphere. Steels to be subjected to Nitriding usually
contain .85% to 1.5% aluminum alloy, although chromium alloys can also
form nitrides. Nitriding can also be done in liquid molten salt baths usually
at a lower temperature than gaseous nitriding.
 Carbonitriding
 Boriding
 Titanium-carbon diffusion
 Toyota diffusion process

- 83 -
Stainless steels, super alloys and nonferrous metals and their alloys are routinely
heat treated to achieve desired properties. A few terms to keep in mind:
 Aging
Aging is a change in properties that occurs in some metals at ambient or
moderately elevated temperatures after hot working or heat treatment. It
usually occurs because of a phase change.
 Bright Annealing
An annealing process which is done in an atmosphere to prevent
discoloration of a surface, typically stainless steel.
 Quench Crack
A crack which forms during quenching, usually in carbon, alloy or tools
steels, originating from changes in section.
 Recrystallization
The formation of a new structure, with reduced strain from previous cold
working. Usually achieved by heating.
 Sensitization
Austenitic stainless steels when heated, where chromium carbides have
formed leaving the grain boundaries depleted of chromium and
susceptible to corrosive attack.
 Solution Heat Treatment

Heating an alloy and holding at a suitable temperature allowing one or
more constituents to go into solution.
 Strain Aging
Aging after plastic deformation.
 Toughness
Ability of a material to absorb energy and be plastically deformed.
 Transformation Temperatures
The temperature at which a change in phase occurs.
References:
1. ASM, Metals Handbook, Volume 4, Heat Treating
2. ASM, Engineering Materials Handbook

- 84 -
3.2 Welding, Brazing, and Soldering
Table 3.2a – Comparison of Welding, Brazing and Soldering

Parameter Soldering Brazing Welding
Joint Formed Mechanical Metallurgical Metallurgical
Filler metal <450° >450°C but less >450°C less than
melting than the melting or equal to the
temperature temperature of the melting
base metal temperature of the
base metal
Fluxes Required Optional Optional
Base Metal Does not melt Does not melt Melts
Residual Stresses Not likely Not likely Likely around the
weld
Brazing and Soldering

Brazing employs a higher temperature than soldering but the concepts are
similar. Brazing is accomplished by:
1. Assembling the parts and heating the joint to at least 450°C
2. The filler metal melts
3. The molten filler metal flows into the joint by capillary action and wets
the base metal surfaces.
4. The parts are cooled and the filler metal freezes by metallurgical
reaction, an atomic bonding occurs.
In comparing welding to brazing, virtually no base metal melting occurs in brazing

as it does in welding. It therefore has less thermally induced distortion because
the entire part can be brought up to the same temperature. Ceramics can be
joined to metals and dissimilar metals can be joined that cannot normally be with
welding processes. Brazing lends itself to mass production and can be less
operator dependent than some welding methods. Brazing does introduce a heat
affected zone (HAZ) in the base material. In general terms the HAZ is wider and
less sharply defined than with other fusion processes.
Capillary action of the joint is critical to draw in the molten filler material and
cause wetting of the faying surfaces of the joint. Just as in the study of liquid
penetrants the contact angle of the molten filler material to contact surfaces is
critical. At contact angles of 90° no wetting takes place as the angle decreases
the wetting improves. Other important considerations are the formation of oxide
films on the joint surfaces as well as the surface roughness.

- 85 -
Many filler metals are available for brazing. They include pure metals such as
silver and gold. Alloys of silver are often employed as well as alloys of nickel,
copper, aluminum, and magnesium.
The critical variables in producing sound brazed joints include:

1. Filler metal flow
2. Base metal characteristics
3. Filler metal characteristics
4. Surface preparation
5. Joint design and clearance
6. Temperature and time
7. Rate of heating
8. Protection from the atmosphere
Heating methods include:

1. Torch
2. Electrical resistance
3. Induction
4. Furnace with atmosphere Figure 3.2a,
5. Furnace under vacuum Induction Brazing6
6. Dip in molten brazing filler metal
7. Infrared
8. Exothermic
9. Electron beam
10. Laser
11. Microwave
The term braze welding is used to describe a process in which the filler metal
temperature must be above 450°C to achieve joints such as fillets or groove
braze welds. It is not dependent on capillary action and therefore joint spacing is
less critical. Often completed with an oxy-fuel torch, but it can also be completed
with gas tungsten gas metal arc equipment. It can be used to join materials such
as cast iron. It can achieve weld strengths that meet or exceed some base
metals.
Soldering
Soldering has been in use for over 5000 years, original filler metals consisted of
two parts lead and one part tin. Scientific studies show that at the interface of the
solder to the base metal there is metallurgical reaction but the principle bonding
is adhesive and mechanical in nature. As with brazing the ability of the filler
metal to wet the surface of the base metal is critical to the process.

- 86 -
Soldering (and brazing) processes consist of a cleaning cycle, filler metal

addition and a heating and cooling cycle.
The critical variables associated with soldering include:

 Temperature
 Time
 Vapour pressure
 Metallurgical and chemical nature of the surfaces
 Geometry of the surfaces
Some metals such as copper, gold, silver, platinum and tin are easy to solder.
Some metals such as aluminum and its alloys are very difficult to solder and
some metals such as beryllium and titanium cannot be soldered.
The base metal(s) to be joined determine the flux and filler metal to be used.
Typical examples:
Table 3.2b
Base Metal Filler Metal Flux Type
Steel 40% Sn / 60% Pb CO
Copper Sn / Pb NC / CO
Stainless Steel > 50% Sn / Pb CO
Cast Iron Sn / 20-50% Pb CO
Lead 40% Sn / 58% Pb / 2% NC
Sb
Magnesium Cd / Zn / Sb
Notes: Sn = tin, Pb = lead, Sb = antimony, Zn = zinc, CO = corrosive inorganic flux, NC =

noncorrosive inorganic flux.
Filler metals and fluxes are specified by AWS (American Welding Society).
The methods of heating that can be employed when soldering include: soldering
iron, torch, dip, induction, resistance, furnace, ultrasonic, focussed infrared
radiation, hot gas, wave soldering, vapour phase condensation and laser beam.
Fusion Welding Processes

Fusion welding encompasses a number of different processes which involves
localized melting of the base materials to be joined. The processes may involve
the addition of filler metal. For the purpose of this manual, reference is made to
the AWS (American Welding Society) electrode designations. The Canadian
Standards Association (CSA) publishes standard W48, Filler Metals and Allied
Materials for Metal Arc Welding. There are several differences in the systems:

- 87 -
AWS is a more complete system of consumables than the CSA system which is
primarily steel welding consumables, while AWS covers other materials. The
CSA system uses the SI system of units as an example AWS E7018 is
equivalent to CSA E4918. The first two numbers (70) in the AWS system
represent 70ksi (70,000 psi as deposited tensile strength) in the CSA system 49
represents 490 MPa as deposited tensile strength. The other major difference is
that CSA electrodes are certified by CWB (Canadian Welding Bureau) as
meeting the standard. The AWS designation does not mandate a certification.
Most electrodes certified to CSA W48 carry the AWS designation as well as the
CSA designation.
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Often referred to as stick or covered electrode, Shielded Metal Arc welding
involves a manual process in which an arc is created between a flux covered
consumable electrode and base metal to be welded. The flux coating provides a
variety of functions including: generating a shielding gas, providing fluxing
elements to protect the molten puddle and the droplets, provide alloying to the
joint, and control the rate of
cooling.
Figure 3.2b provides a depiction of

the process. The process can be
applied to base metals thicker than
1.6 mm and in all positions (flat,
vertical, horizontal and overhead).
The equipment used provides
voltages in the range of 15 to 35
volts during the welding process Figure 3.2b, Shielded Metal Arc Welding7
and is referred to as a constant
current power supply as it
endeavours to provide constant current under varying conditions to provide a
stable arc. The power supply will usually be either: transformer; generator or
alternator; or inverter. Welding can take place with AC, direct current electrode
negative (DCEN or “straight polarity”) or direct current electrode positive (DCEP
or “reverse polarity”).
The process is primarily used to join steels although it can be used for many
metals.

- 88 -
Several common designations for the electrodes by AWS (American Welding

Society):
1. AWS A5.1 Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes for Shielded Metal
Arc Welding.
2. AWS A5.3 Specification for Aluminum and Aluminum alloy Electrodes
for Shielded Metal Arc Welding
3. AWS A5.4 Specification for Stainless Steel Electrodes for Shielded
Metal Arc Welding
4. AWS A5.5 Specification for Low Alloy Steel Electrodes for Shielded
Metal Arc Welding
AWS 5.1
(Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding)
designation employs the letter “E” for electrode and four digits. The first two
digits indicate the nominal as deposited tensile strength of the weld, in units of ksi
(1000 pounds per square inch). The next (third) single digit indicates the position
in which they can be used:
1. All positions
2. Flat welds and horizontal fillets only
3. Not currently used
4. Used for vertical down, as well as flat, horizontal and overhead.
The last two digits (third and fourth) indicates the usability of the electrode, refer
to table 3.2c.
Table 3.2c
Classification Current Penetration Covering
Exx10 DCEP Deep Cellulose/sodium
Exx11 AC & DCEP Deep Cellulose/potassium
Exx12 AC & DCEN Medium Rutile/sodium
Exx13 Ac & DC Light Rutile/potassium
Exx14 AC & DC Light Rutile/iron powder
Exx15 DCEP Medium Low hydrogen/sodium
Exx16 AC or DCEP Medium Low
hydrogen/potassium
Exx18 AC or DCEP Medium Low hydrogen/iron
powder
Exx20 AC or DC Medium Iron oxide/sodium
Exx24 AC or DC Light Rutile/iron powder
Exx27 AC or DC Medium Iron oxide/iron powder
Exx28 AC or DCEP Medium Low hydrogen/iron
powder

- 89 -
As an example E7018 has a “as deposited weld strength” of 70,000 psi (70 ksi),
can be used in all positions; it is a low hydrogen electrode with iron powder. A
very important point to observe is that this electrode along with any others ending
in 5, 6 or 8 have the term low hydrogen. These electrodes are the ones that
must be oven stored until shortly before use. Low hydrogen electrodes were
originally developed to reduce hydrogen related cracking. The electrodes must
have a moisture level of less than 0.6% when tested at 980°C per AWS 5.1.
Hydrogen can reduce ductility in the weld but does not affect the yield strength or
ultimate tensile strength. Iron oxide is usually added to the electrode to improve
its efficiency by increasing the deposition rate because of the easy melting of the
iron powder.
Also note, Exx10 and Exx11 both have cellulose in the covering. Common
electrodes of these designations are E6010 and E6011, it is the cellulose that
provides the energy as it burns to give the deep penetration typically for root
(first) passes. These electrodes if oven stored would loose that energy and not
provide the deep penetration. They are usually stored under room ambient
conditions.
AWS 5.4
(Specification for Stainless Steel Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding)
These electrodes are used to weld stainless steel. An example of an electrode is
E316 and is followed by a suffix. The suffix may include a letter for example:
E316-xx Has a carbon content of .08%

E316H-xx Has a carbon content of .04 to .08%
E316L-xx Has a carbon content of .04%
Other letters include Cb or Mo where specific elements have percentages

different than the base alloy. As an example E308-xx has a molybdenum content
of .75% and E308Mo-xx has a molybdenum content of 2.0 to 3.0%.
The last two digits indicate the welding current and position that can be used.
Table 3.2d
AWS Classification Welding Current Welding Position
Exxx(x) – 15 DCEP All
Exxx(x) – 25 DCEP Horizontal and flat
Exxx(x) – 16 DCEP or AC All
Exxx(x) – 17 DCEP or AC All
Exxx(x) – 26 DCEP or AC Horizontal and flat

- 90 -
AWS 5.5
(Specification for Low Alloy Steel Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding)
These electrodes are used to weld higher tensile strength materials and, with one
exception - Exx10, are all low hydrogen electrodes. They include: E70xx, E
80xx, E90xx and E100xx, E110xx, E120xx. They also include a suffix which
specifies the chemical composition of the as deposited weld metal. A typical
suffix is a letter and a single digit. Low carbon deposits include an “L”, example
B2L.
For other electrodes or further information consult the appropriate AWS

specification or the equivalent standard in ASME. For example AWS 5.1 is
identical to ASME SFA-5.1; care must be taken with respect to the revision.
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

This process employs an arc between the consumable electrode (continuous
wire) and the work piece; the weld area is shielded by a gas delivered from a
cylinder to the welding torch. The process is often referred to as MIG (metal inert
gas) welding. The nomenclature gas metal arc welding is preferred particularly
since the introduction of CO2 which is not inert. The process can be automatic or
semi-automatic and can be used to weld: steels, stainless steels, aluminum,
copper, nickel alloys and can be used in all positions.
Advantages:
 Electrode length is not a restriction as in SMAW
 Welding can be done in all positions, a feature not true of submerged arc
welding (SAW).
 Welding speeds and deposition rates are higher than SMAW
 Many stops and starts can be eliminated as compared to SMAW.
 Penetration can be deeper than SMAW allowing smaller fillet weld sizes to
be used.
 Less operator skill is required than other conventional processes.
 Minimal post weld cleaning is required because of the absence of slag.
Disadvantages:
 Welding equipment is more complex and usually more costly and less
portable than SMAW.
 The gun may restrict welding in hard to reach places because of its size.
 The process must be protected from air drafts which can disperse the
shielding gas.
 Relatively high level of radiated heat and arc intensity.

- 91 -
There are three basic types of transfer of the filler material depending on the
current and the shielding gas.
Short Circuit Transfer produces a small fast freezing weld pool which is used,
to join thin materials, for out of position welding, and for bridging
large root openings. The transfer only occurs when the electrode
wire is in contact with the base metal, this can occur from 20 to
200 times per second.
Globular transfer occurs with a positive electrode when the current density is
relatively low. This results in large droplets, larger than the
diameter of the wire electrode. Because of the large droplet size
and the effect of gravity the process is limited to the flat position.
Often characterized by large amounts of spatter when the arc
length is too short. The arc length must be long enough to ensure
the globule leaves the wire before it touches the weld pool. When
higher voltages are used the results may be lack of fusion and lack of
penetration.
Spray transfer provides a very stable spatter free weld. The shielding gas is
argon or an argon rich mixture, the current is higher than that of
globular transfer above a critical value (transition current). The
droplets are small and are released with force sufficient to
overcome gravity.
A variation of spray transfer is pulsed spray transfer, the power supply pulses
between a peak and background current, allowing the weld pool
to cool slightly during the application of the background current
which allows the process to be used for out of position welding.
Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

This process involves an arc between a tubular flux cored wire and the base
metal. The flux in the core can make the process self shielding, alternatively a
shielding gas maybe used. The process employs a constant voltage power
supply adjusting the voltage to compensate for changes in arc length as is used
in GMAW.

- 92 -
Advantages:
 High deposition rates particularly for out of position welding.
 Less operator skill required than GMAW.
 Simpler and more adaptable than submerged arc welding (SAW).
 Deeper penetration than SMAW.
 More tolerant to rust and mill scale than GMAW.
Disadvantages:
 Slag must be removed.
 More smoke and fumes than other processes.
 Equipment is more complex and less portable than SMAW.
Flux cored arc welding can be used to weld mild steels, weathering steels, high
strength low alloy, chrome molybdenum steels, nickel base steels, quench and
tempered steels, medium carbon steels and some stainless steels.
The AWS classification system employs a 5 character designation:
ExxT-x
E for electrode
xx minimum tensile strength of the as deposited metal in ksi
T (tubular) indicates flux cored wire
x Usability and performance
Usability Factors:
Table 3.2e
Type Shielding Single or Transfer Polarity
Multipass
T-1 Gas Multipass Spray DCEP
T-2 Gas Single Spray DCEP
T-3 Self Single Spray DCEP
T-4 Self Multipass Globular DCEP
T-5 Gas Multipass Globular DCEP
T-7 Self Multipass Globular DCEN
For a complete listing refer to AWS A5.20 for carbon steel electrodes, AWS
A5.29 for low alloy electrodes, and AWS A5.22 for stainless steel electrodes

- 93 -
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

This process sometimes referred to as “HeliArc”, “tungsten inert gas” or “TIG”
was developed in the 1930’s originally to weld magnesium. Heat is generated
between a non-consumable tungsten alloy electrode and the base metal being
welded. Filler material if required is fed to the molten puddle independent of the
arc. The puddle is protected by a gas; normally argon, helium or a mixture of
argon and helium.
GTAW is used to weld stainless steel, aluminum, magnesium, copper, titanium

and carbon and alloy steels. Material thicknesses which can be welded, range
from a few thousandths of an inch to several inches. It is often employed for root
passes in piping and the remainder of the weld completed with a higher
deposition rate process. The filler material (as with GMAW) must match the base
metal without any alloy addition as there is no coating or core.
Advantages:
 High quality low distortion
 Free of spatter
 Can be used with or without filler wire
 Can be used with a variety of power supplies
 Welds most metals including dissimilar metals
 Precise control of welding heat
Disadvantages:
 Low deposition rate
 Requires more skill and dexterity than some of the other methods
 Less economic than other methods above 9mm thick.
 Problematic in drafty environments
The power supply is usually of a

constant current. The electrode
designations are specified in AWS
A5.12 (Specification for Tungsten
and Tungsten-Alloy Electrodes for
Arc Welding and Cutting) and the
ends of the electrodes are colour
coded.
Figure 3.2g, GTAW Torch5

- 94 -
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

The process uses a non-consumable tungsten alloy electrode, a plasma gas, a
shielding gas and a copper alloy nozzle. A pilot arc is established between the
electrode and the copper alloy nozzle, usually a high-frequency open circuit
voltage, the arc is then transferred from the electrode to the work piece through
an orifice in the nozzle.
The plasma gas is used to generate the arc and the shielding gas protects the
weld from the atmosphere. Typical gas selections:
Table 3.2f
Material Being Welded Plasma Gas Shielding Gas
Mild steel Argon Argon
Argon/2-5%Hydrogen
Low-alloy steel Argon Argon
Austenitic stainless steel Argon Argon/2-5%Hydrogen
Helium
Nickel and nickel alloys Argon Argon
Argon/2-5%Hydrogen
Titanium Argon Argon
75% Helium/ 25% Argon
Aluminum and alloys Argon Argon
Helium
Copper and alloys Argon Argon
75% Helium/25% Argon
There are three modes of operation:

 Micro plasma (melt in mode) forms a pool similar to GTAW
 Medium current plasma
 Keyhole plasma, the arc fully penetrates the work piece
Advantages:
 In the keyhole plasma greater thickness of metal can be penetrated in a
single pass
 In some materials up to 12mm square butt joint can be penetrated
 High integrity weld
 Fewer weld passes required than GTAW
 The electrode is protected by the nozzle
 More tolerant to arc length variations than GTAW
 A longer arc makes it easier to view the welding operation

- 95 -
Disadvantages
 Higher capital cost than GTAW
 Not as tolerant to misalignment of the joint as with GTAW
 More torch maintenance than GTAW
PAW can be used to weld the same materials as GTAW also zirconium and
tantalum. Single pass welding can handle material thicknesses from .025mm
(micro plasma) to 12.5mm of aluminum. Micro plasma is used to weld high
numbers of welds such as lamp filaments. Keyhole plasma is used mostly for
welding stainless steel tanks and piping. It is often used for root passes where
other methods are used to complete the weld and for making welded tube.
Submerged Arc Welding

(SAW)
SAW is a process in which an
arc is established (concealed by
a blanket of granular flux)
between a bare solid metal or
cored wire, and the work piece.
See figure 3.2h. A continuous
electrode is fed into the joint and
a layer of granular flux is
deposited in front of the arc.
The current can be AC, DCEN,
or DCEP. After welding un-
fused flux maybe screened and
reused. The solidified slag can
be re-crushed and blended with Figure 3.2h,
virgin flux and re-used. Submerged Arc Welding
Advantages:
 The arc is under the blanket of flux eliminating arc flash, spatter and
fumes
 Good penetration
 High deposition.
 Cost per length of weld relatively low
 Good mechanical properties of the deposited weld
 Shielding provides protection from drafts and thermal insulation
 Minimal welder operator training is required

- 96 -
Disadvantages:
 Initial cost of equipment is high
 Joint must be flat or horizontal
 Slag must be removed between subsequent passes
Submerged arc can be used to weld plain carbon and alloy steels, it can also be
used to weld stainless steels and nonferrous metals.
Electrode and Flux AWS classifications for Carbon Steels:
Fxxx-Exxx
F represents flux
xx represents the as deposited tensile strength in 10ksi’s
x represents the heat treat condition that the tensile tests were conducted (A = as
welded, P = post weld heat treated)
E indicates a solid electrode, EC indicates a composite electrode
xxx represents the classification of electrode
e.g. EL8 is a low manganese electrode
EM12 is a medium manganese electrode
EH11K is a high manganese electrode
Electrodes for alloy steels have additional characters (refer to the appropriate
AWS specification).
Stud Arc Welding (SW)

This process is used to join a metallic stud to a work piece, the equipment
controls the arc length and dwell time. An arc is created between the stud (or
fastener) and the work piece and after both pieces reach the correct temperature
they are brought together under pressure. There are two basic types of arc stud
welding based on the power supply used. One type uses a DC power source
similar to SMAW, the second type uses capacitors and is known as capacitor
discharge welding (CDSW). In the capacitor discharge stud welding the tip of the
stud is melted almost instantly when energy discharged from the capacitors is
released through the stud. There are three modes of operation of the CDSW
process:
1. Initial-gap
2. Initial-contact
3. Drawn-arc

- 97 -
Plasma-MIG Welding
This is a combination of plasma arc welding and gas metal arc welding
employing a plasma and shielding gas and a continuous consumable solid
electrode. The process can be used for welding high melting point metals such
as tungsten and molybdenum but is also used to weld aluminum, stainless steels
and for hard facing and cladding operations.
Figure 3.2i,
Plasma MIG Torch4
Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)

This method is most widely used for the assembly of sheet metal products, auto-
body assemblies, building products and appliances. Heat is created by the
resistance to the flow of electric current through the work pieces held together
under pressure. Variations of the process include resistance seam welding
(RSEW) where a high speed spot welding process is used to create continuous
over lapping spots between rotating electrodes to produce an air tight or liquid
tight joint.
Another variation employs projections on one of the components to be joined

which serve to concentrate the heat in the specific area of contact or projection.
The process is referred to as projection welding (PW).
Both steel and aluminum can be resistance spot welded.

- 98 -
Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW)

There are three basic types of joints:
 Lap seam weld
 Mash seam weld
 Butt seam weld
Advantages:
 Joints can be gas or liquid
tight
 High speed welds are
possible
 Coated steels are often more
weldable than with other
methods
 Not as fit-up sensitive as
other methods, e.g. laser
welding
 Hardening is not as much of
an issue as with other
methods, e.g. laser welding Figure 3.2j,
Resistance Seam Welding
Disadvantages
 Geometry restrictions related to the plane of the weld
 There cannot be obstructions along the weld to interfere with the rotating
electrodes
 Length of the seams may produce issues related to the throat length of
the equipment and changes in electrical impedance as the weld
progresses
 Crossing seams present quality issues at the intersection of the seams
Flash Welding (FW)

Flash welding is a variation of resistance
welding in which the action of joining the
materials employs a flash and pressure. The
flash occurs as the two components are
brought together with light contact or a minute
air gap and then pressure is applied. The
process can achieve strengths equal to the
parent material. Steel, aluminum, brass,
Figure 3.2k,
copper and dissimilar metals can be joined. Schematic of a Flash Welding
Operation3

- 99 -
An oxygen depleting system can be employed to eliminate oxygen that might

contribute to oxidation within the joint.
Figure 3.2l,
Flash welding being used
to join rail3
Upset Welding (UW)

Upset welding is a process involving resistance welding and deformation to form
a weld. The deformation results from the force applied to the mating components
with the softening of the metals due to the heat generated by the resistance to
the flow of current. The weld is generally a solid state (no melting occurs).
Advantages:
1. Fast process usually less than 1 second
2. Process is easy to control (current, force and time)
3. Enhanced properties of the weld equivalent to a hot worked structure
(part is not annealed by the welding process)
4. Fewer defects than other methods
5. Ability to weld difficult to weld materials, such as: super alloys,
tungsten

- 100 -
Disadvantages
1. Large parts require significant peak current
2. Lack of nondestructive testing techniques to determine the quality of
solid-state bonds
High Frequency Welds

High frequency AC resistance heating is used along with mechanical squeezing
after the components are melted which results in an upset. High frequency AC is
employed because of the skin effect which causes it to travel along the surfaces
and seeks adjacent parallel surfaces as a return path. Tube making often
employs HF welding processes. An induction coil around the partially formed
tube is used to induce the heat into the material which is formed by rolls
squeezing out residual oxides and metal forming the tube shape thus completing
the weld.
Advantages:
 Well suited for high
speed welding
 Special atmospheres not
normally required
 Some tolerance to
surface contamination
Disadvantages
 Not suited for low speed
manual welding
 Welds cannot be
produced in a stop start
sequence
Figure 3.2m,
High Frequency Welding
Besides production of pipe and tube it is employed in making structural shapes.

A wide variety of metals can be welded; the exceptions are those metals that
cannot be hot worked. Pipe diameters up to 48 inches can be welded with HF
processes.

- 101 -
Electron Beam Welding (EBW)

A high density fusion process is accomplished by a focused stream of electrons
at velocities of .3 to .7 times the speed of light (25 to 200 kV) that convert
instantaneously to heat on impact with the material. Any metal that can be arc
welded can be welded with EBW and the quality is equal to or better than GTAW.
Because the generation of heat is instantaneous the method is not limited by
thermal conduction as are other most other methods.
The electron beam is formed under high vacuum, accelerated and focussed to
reduce the diameter of the beam to produce the highest energy density of any of
the welding methods. The actual welding can occur at three vacuum levels:
 High vacuum (EBW-HV)
 Medium or partial vacuum (EBW-MV)
 Non-vacuum or atmospheric (EBW-NV)
Advantages:
 Ability to make deeper and narrower welds than arc welding processes
 Narrow heat affected zones
 High speed welding is possible
 High vacuum process can produce welds free of impurities
 Minimal distortion
 Most metals can be welded without deterioration of mechanical
properties
 Welding can occur close to heat sensitive attachments
Disadvantages:
 Higher cost than most other process
 Welding in a vacuum restricts size of components
 When welding in atmospheric conditions (EBW-NV) the standoff
distance is limited to about 35mm
Laser Beam Welding (LBW)

A coherent optical energy source is used as the source of heat. Carbon dioxide
(CO2) and Neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG) lasers are used
for welding.
Advantages:
 High processing speeds and quick start-stops are possible
 High energy density
 Can be used at room atmospheric conditions
 Difficult to join materials can be welded (e.g. titanium and quartz)
 No electrode or filler
 Narrow welds

- 102 -
 Intricate shapes and precise welds possible

 Narrow heat affected zones
Disadvantages:
 Fit-up critical
 Costly but less costly than EBW when vacuum methods used (EBW-HV
and EBW-MV)
 Depth of penetration less than EBW
Penetration in 304 SS can be up to several inches. There are two modes of

operation:
 Conduction mode welding
 Deep penetration mode welding
Electroslag (ESW) and Electrogas (EGW) Welding

These two welding methods are related,
and produce thick-section welds in a
single pass, in a vertical or nearly vertical
position. Welding is conducted between
two copper retaining shoes. Electroslag
is used for making butt welds in materials
of 50mm thick or greater and involves
relatively high energy input which results
in inferior toughness of the heat affected
zone but the deposition rate is extremely
high and the relative cost low. Electrogas
is applied to steel under 50mm thickness
and provides welds superior to Electroslag
processes.
Figure 3.2n,
Electroslag Welding
Electroslag (figure 3.2n) employs an arc to
initiate the process and a conductive
molten flux is maintained at the top of the weld and kept heated by the resistance
to the current between the filler wire and the work pieces. The molten flux melts
the wire and the edges of the plate. Solid or flux cored wire can be used as the
filler, adjusting the current controls, the electrode melt rate, and adjusting the
voltage influences the penetration and bead profile. A constant voltage power
supply is used.
Electrogas uses an arc to maintain heat and employs a shielding gas such as
CO2. The wire feed maybe solid or flux cored. When flux cored is used a thin
slag layer is developed between the filler metal and the copper shoes.

- 103 -
Thermite Welding
It is a fusion welding process that depends upon the exothermic reaction of a
metal oxide and aluminum that superheats the filler material and the two metals
to be bonded. It was discovered in 1898
and has been used commercially since
the 1920’s to join rail. There are several
trade names associated with thermite
welding, such as CADWELD (a registered
trade mark of ERICO International
Corporation) which is primarily associated
with electrical ground connections, and
Thermit welding (a registered trade mark
of Thermit Welding (GB) Ltd.) often
associated with the welding of rail.
The process is based on an alumino-

thermic reaction which occurs in a
crucible and the molten metal is allowed
to flow into the space typically 20 to 25
mm between the end surfaces of the rail.
The reaction between aluminum and iron
oxide produce heat plus aluminum oxide
and is a very violent reaction, the filler
metal ferroalloy pellets serve as a coolant
to the reaction. Balancing the process is
important to achieve sufficient filler but not
to over cool the reaction which would not
allow the slag to separate form the molten
metal.
The weld is typically 100% pearlite due to

Figure 3.2o,
Thermit Welding Process8
the slow cooling needed to avoid the
formation of martensite.
The major applications for thermite welding are continuous welded rail and
electrical grounding connections, but it can also be used to repair heavy
housings and shafts. In these cases the mold is custom built for the application.
Solid State Welding

Another family of joining processes are those that involve coalescences of faying
surfaces below the melting point of the base metal without the addition of any
filler metals. The process can be used to join similar or dissimilar materials.
They may involve the use of pressure and will involve distortion and/or diffusion.

- 104 -
Diffusion Welding
High temperature solid state welding involves cleaning the faying surfaces,
applying pressure in a suitable atmosphere and heating until welding is complete.
The process often referred to as diffusion welding is controlled by temperature,
pressure and time. Temperature is below the melting temperature but high
enough to ensure plastic flow; pressure depends on the mechanical properties of
the metals being joined typically from 1 to 20 MPa. The welding time can be
from several minutes to several days depending on the material and
temperatures applied. The welding atmosphere is usually a vacuum but
shielding gases such as argon or helium can be used. This method is primarily
employed in the aerospace and nuclear fields.
Explosion Welding (EXW)

Explosion welding, or bonding as it is sometimes referred, employs a high
velocity impact between two metals causing a hydrodynamic flow of the metals
resulting in solid state bonding.
Explosion bonding is employed to bond

corrosion resistant material to carbon steel
backing. In figure 3.2p, the base plate
would be the carbon steel and the flyer
plate the corrosion resistant lining. The
detonation velocity and energy is
determined by the explosive used. The
impact energy is a function of the
detonation energy and the gap or flyer plate
standoff.
Figure 3.2p,
Explosion Welding Sometimes an interlayer is employed when
a brittle intermetallic compound would be
formed, or to address differential thermal contraction during cooling. Figure 3.2q
shows a completed explosion weld with an interlayer.
Figure 3.2q,
Explosion Weld with Interlayer

- 105 -
Friction Stir Welding

Friction Stir Welding is a solid
state joining process, in which
a cylindrical shouldered tool
with a profiled pin is inserted
into the joint line between two
pieces of material. Frictional
heat is created between the
wear resistant pin and the two
work pieces, which are butted
together and clamped onto a
backing bar.
The heat causes the materials

to soften, without reaching
melting point, and allows the
pin to traverse along the joint.
Figure 3.2r,
Friction Stir Welding
As the tool moves along, the
material is plasticised by the
frictional heat at the front of the rotating pin and transported to the back. Here it
consolidates and cools down to form a solid state weld.
Weld Geometry Terminology
Figure 3.2s,
Weld Geometry Terminology 7

- 106 -
Welding Symbols
Welding symbols are used to describe the type of weld, its size and other
processing and finishing information. Measurements on the symbol maybe made
in Imperial or SI units.
Figure 3.2t, Welding Symbol
The horizontal line is referred to as the reference line and is the anchor to which
all other parts of the symbol are tied. An arrow connects the reference line to the
joint on the drawing. In figure 3.2t the arrow is at the right hand side of the
reference line but any of the following (figure 3.2u) are possible.
Figure 3.2u, Welding Symbol

Reference Line and Arrow

- 107 -
Note that information pertaining to the arrow

side of the weld is below the reference line. To
distinguish the side of the weld that the arrow
connects to is referred to as the “arrow side”
and the other side is simply referred to as the
“other side”.
Figure 3.2v, Welding Symbol

Arrow Side/Other Side
The small circle at the junction of the arrow and reference line (when present)
implies the weld is to go all around the joint. Without the “weld all around”
symbol the weld would terminate at the first change in direction of the weld.
Figure 3.2w, Welding Symbol

Weld All Around
Each type of weld is represented by its own symbol, some examples:
Fillet Welds
The fillet weld is represented by a right
angle triangle; by convention the vertical
side is always to the left on the symbol.
Shown on the left in figure 3.2x is a fillet
weld arrow “side and opposite side”. On the
right side of the figure is a single fillet weld
“arrow side only”.
Figure 3.2x, Welding Symbol
Fillet Weld

- 108 -
In North America the size of the fillet weld is

specified by the leg length in inches or mm,
which is written to the left of the symbol.
Shown in figure 3.2y is a fillet weld symbol
requiring a 5/16” leg fillet weld on the other
side of the joint.
Figure 3.2y, Welding Symbol
Fillet Weld Size
The length of the fillet weld and the pitch

distance between adjacent welds is written
to the right of the symbol. Figure 3.2z
shows a weld symbol requiring a ¼” fillet
weld on the other side of the joint, each 2”
in length, with a centre to centre spacing
(pitch distance) of 4 inches.
Figure 3.2z, Welding Symbol

Fillet Weld Length and Pitch
Groove Welds
Groove Welds are specified by one
of the following symbols
representing preparation of the
groove.
Groove welds are specified by

their: type (as shown in figure
3.2aa), root opening, groove angle,
depth of preparation, and depth of
penetration.
Figure 3.2aa, Welding Symbol
Groove Welds

- 109 -
Shown in figure 3.2ab is a square butt weld with a

1/8” gap. Square butt weld symbol is unique in
that it always implies a full penetration weld.
Figure 3.2ab, Welding Symbol

Square Butt Weld
Shown in figure 3.2ac (left) is a single

V butt weld, arrow side, prepared with
a 60° groove angle. Note the groove
angle is the combined angle of the two
bevels. On the right is shown a double
V butt weld with a 1/8” root opening
and 60° groove angles.
Figure 3.2ac, Welding Symbol
Single and Double V Butt Welds
When it is necessary to show the

depth of preparation, penetration
is done to the left of the symbol
and in the order required to
complete the weld (preparation
first, penetration second). Also,
penetration is always shown in
brackets. Shown figure 3.2ad the
symbol for a single V butt weld,
arrow side, 60° groove angle,
preparation 3/8” deep,
penetration ½” deep.
Figure 3.2ad, Welding Symbol

Depth of Preparation and Depth of Penetration

- 110 -
When a backing bar is to be employed it is

shown as a hollow rectangle sitting on the
reference line at the root, figure 3.2ae.
There are many other aspects to the welding

symbols. For complete descriptions refer to
CSA W59, Welded Steel Construction (Metal
Arc Welding), Appendix D.
Figure 3.2ae, Welding Symbol

Backing Bar
Weld Quality
Fitness-For-Service
It is generally accepted that all welded structures contain some physical
discontinuities. Many standards have been developed based on good
workmanship to control the size, type and orientation of discontinuities for
specific end uses. This is a very useful and practical method of evaluating welds
but does have some limitations such as repair of noncritical discontinuities or
premature retirement of components or equipment. Another more detailed
approach to evaluating discontinuities is fitness-for–service. The concept has
been adopted in several codes resulting in a more rational approach to flaw
acceptance criteria.
Welded structures can experience several different modes of failure depending

on the environment, the applied load and the nature of the structure. Failure
modes include:
Failure modes can be categorized in the following:

 Fracture (including: brittle failure, ductile failure, plastic collapse, bucking
and dynamic failure)
 Fatigue (caused by cyclic loading)
 Environmental cracking (corrosion, stress corrosion, hydrogen induced
cracking and other environmentally assisted modes)
 High temperature creep (including creep rupture and creep crack growth)

- 111 -
A detailed review of each of these failure categories employs such tools as

fracture mechanics, S/N curves, crack growth studies, destructive and
nondestructive assessments and can provide detailed evaluations of
discontinuities specific to the welds in the equipment or components being
evaluated.
Consensus Standards and Specifications

Acceptance and design standards for welding have been published by ASME,
AWS and CSA which are used in the evaluation of welds most often for different
specific end usage of the welds.
Some of the most common standards include:
CSA Z662 Oil and Gas Pipeline Systems

CSA W59 Welded Steel Construction (Metal Arc Welding)
AWS D1.1 Structural Welding Code

AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code
ASME VIII, Division 1, Rules for Construction of Pressure Vessels

ASME B31.1 Power Piping
ASME B31.3 Process Piping
Visual weld inspection is one of the first steps in determining the quality of a
finished weld. Most codes restrict the amount of crown re-enforcement, to reduce
the level of stress raiser at the edge of the crown. CSA W59 (Welded Steel
Construction) limits the amount of re-enforcement of fillet welds to .07W +
1.5mm, where W is the width of the face of the weld. Butt welds re-enforcement,
must normally not exceed 3mm. Welds must be free of overlap, and undercut is
strictly controlled as are underfill and incomplete penetration.
Figure 3.2ag,
Figure 3.2af, Weld Weld Underfill and Incomplete Penetration
Undercut and Overlap

- 112 -
Bead appearance can provide information as to whether the cap passes are
stringer or weave and information about the welders travel speed.
Travel speed
Welding travel speed can be judged by the shape of the bead, refer to figure
3.2ah.
Figure 3.2ah,
Weld Travel Speed
Welding Discontinuities
Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) is the area of

base material which has had its
microstructure and properties altered by
welding or heat intensive cutting operations.
The heat from the welding process and
subsequent re-cooling causes this change in
the area surrounding the weld. The extent
and magnitude of property changes depends
primarily on the base material, the weld filler
metal, and the amount and concentration of
heat input by the welding process.
HAZ cracks are a particular problem for the more crack sensitive alloys such as
the 6000-alloys. The cracks are caused by low melting point phases present at
the grain boundaries. Due to the thermal cycle of welding, the temperature may
be so high that these phases melt. During the cooling phase the unmelted
material shrinks, resulting in residual tensile stresses. A material deficiency at the
grain boundary may then result in voids or intergranular, crack like defects.

- 113 -
Hydrogen Induced Crack

Hydrogen induced crack (HIC, or cold crack) is primarily associated with low alloy
steels. The term cold crack or delayed crack is
often used as it can develop in the weld or heat
affected zone days or weeks after completion of
the weld. Some codes such as CSA W47.1-03,
Certification of Companies for Fusion Welding of
Steel, 11.6.1.2 requires examination not sooner
than 48 hours after completion of welding to help
ensure that cold cracking has had sufficient time
Figure 3.2ai, to occur in susceptible alloys and steels.
Hydrogen Induced Crack
The source of the hydrogen is from water and may
originate from; moisture in the air, dampness in
the electrode coatings, lubricant on the wire electrode, or contamination at or
near the joint. The hydrogen has higher solubility in molten iron than in a solid
iron (30 ppm vs. 8 ppm). As the metal freezes and cools some of the hydrogen
escapes into the air, some migrates into the HAZ, and some is trapped in the
weld deposit. It tends to find its way to dislocations or minor defects. Stresses
buildup until the material relieves itself by cracking. As little as 1 ppm of
hydrogen can cause cracking problems in high strength steels. To prevent
hydrogen induced cracking there are three approaches:
1. Reduce the hydrogen present (e.g. low hydrogen oven stored electrodes)
2. Allow more time for the hydrogen to escape (preheating of the weld to
delay cooling)
3. Relieve the stresses in the weld zone (post weld heat treatment).
Hot Crack
Hot cracking occurs during
the solidification process
and can occur in the weld
or HAZ. Hot cracking is
caused by low melting
temperature constituents
in the weld and stress on
the weld. There are
Figure 3.2aj, Hot Cracks Figure 3.2ak, Hot Cracks
several tests that can be
Crater Crack Centre Line Crack
applied to the metals to
determine the susceptibility to hot cracking.
Similar to a hot tear in a casting; as contraction occurs during cooling, the

stresses setup causing the material to crack at the location of weakness. Some

- 114 -
specific types of hot cracking include crater cracks (figure 3.2aj) and centre line
cracking (figure 3.2ak).
Some consideration when dealing with hot cracks are: high sulphur or
phosphorous content, high restraint in the joint, too rapid a cooling, welds too
small, wrong electrode, or travel speed too fast.
Lamellar Tear
Lamellar tears like hot cracks occur during the welding
process or immediately after. They are considered
very serious as they present very high stress risers in
the material. Tears will appear in the base material or
HAZ and are the result of the material not having
sufficient ductility to deal with the stresses. They
usually occur parallel to the surfaces and are often
characterized as a stepped crack in the through
section of the plate parallel to the direction of welding.
Figure 3.2al,
Lamellar Tear
Incomplete Fusion
The term incomplete fusion refers to the degree to
which the filler material has fused to the base material
or, one pass fusing to the preceding pass. Incomplete
fusion in arc welds can occur because of improper fit-
up of the joint, a joint design that does not allow the
welder to manipulate the welding torch to have proper
impingement of the droplets onto the surfaces of the
joint. Too low a welding current (insufficient heat),
improper manipulation of the torch, travel speed too Figure 3.2am,
fast, or inadequate cleaning of the joint or between Incomplete Fusion
passes can also contribute to incomplete fusion.
Figure 3.2an, Radiograph showing Incomplete Fusion

- 115 -
Incomplete Penetration
Incomplete penetration usually results from, improper fit-up where the joint does
not permit the arc to penetrate to the root, too low
welding current, improper electrode manipulation,
improper travel speed, or incorrect electrode.
Incomplete penetration is considered a serious
discontinuity because it reduces the effective cross
section of the weld and may have tips that are
stress risers. Some joint designs maybe partial
penetration in which case the design has allowed for
the joint not to have full penetration. When a double
V weld (figure 32ao) is being produced, the symbol
may have the instructions “GTSM” in the tail of the
welding symbol. This requires the welder to grind or Figure 3.2ao,
gouge to sound metal. This is done prior to the root Incomplete Penetration
pass on the second side. In doing this the welder
removes any slag entrapped and opens up the root sufficiently to ensure that the
weld will penetrate from the second side to sound metal on the first side.
Figure 3.2ap, Radiograph showing Incomplete Penetration
Undercut
Undercut is the melting away
of the base metal adjacent to
the weld at the toe or the
root and is left unfilled by the
welding process. Undercut
can occur when the welding
current is too high or the
electrode manipulation is not
correct. Excessive weaving
by the welder can also
cause undercut. Undercut Figure 3.2aq, Undercut
reduces the base metal

- 116 -
cross section and creates a stress riser which can be an initiation point for a
crack.
Figure 3.2ar, Radiograph showing Undercut
Slag Inclusion
A slag inclusion is a non-metallic solid
material that has become entrapped in
the weld. Slag inclusions occur during
the welding processes that have a
slag covering to shield the weld, and
the oxides become trapped during
solidification before they can float to
the surface of the weld. Slag
inclusions occur when the
manipulation of the electrode is
incorrect or the slag is not removed
between passes. If internal undercut Figure 3.2as, Slag Inclusion11
occurs in the side walls of the weld it
can be difficult to remove the
entrapped slag which leads to “wagon tracks”, see figure 3.2at.
Figure 3.2at, Radiograph showing Slag Inclusions

- 117 -
Porosity
Porosity is entrapped gas in the weld, usually
spherical or elongated in shape; it can be
distributed throughout the weld or clustered in
local areas. Two common causes are moisture on
the base material or improper cleaning of the joint
prior to welding. Porosity can be classified as:
 Uniformly distributed porosity
 Cluster porosity
 Linear porosity Figure 3.2au,
 Elongated porosity Elongated Porosity
 Wormhole porosity
Figure 3.2av, Radiograph showing Uniformly Distributed Porosity
Overlap
Is a protrusion of the weld beyond the face or toe
which has not fused to the base metal. The overlap
can leave a very sharp discontinuity parallel to the
face of the plate. When conducting magnetic
particle inspection it can mask incomplete fusion in
the same plane.
Figure 3.2aw, Overlap

- 118 -
Arc Strikes
Arc strikes result from an unintentional arcing of the
electrode against the base metal or finished weld
profile, which causes a remelting of the metal. Arc
strikes are considered very serious defects because
of the rapid cooling that takes place by the
quenching of the area due to the mass of the base
material. They can often result in localized
hardened zones and small crack initiations.
Figure 3.2ax, Arc Strike
Tungsten Inclusion
Tungsten inclusions are particles from the tungsten welding electrode that result
from improper manipulation of the electrode, arc starting technique, or incorrect
electrode selection. These inclusions can occur only with processes such as
GTAW and Plasma arc that employ tungsten electrodes.
Figure 3.2ay, Radiograph showing Tungsten Inclusions
Geometric Discontinuities
Geometric discontinuities are those that affect the overall shape such as
undercut, overlap dealt with above; others are generally evaluated entirely by
visual inspection.

- 119 -
Geometric Discontinuities include:

 Excess concavity
 Excess reinforcement
 Insufficient reinforcement
Figure 3.2bb,
Figure 3.2az, Figure 3.2ba, Insufficient
Excess Concavity Excess reinforcement reinforcement
In table 3.2g the likelihood for a discontinuity is given for each of the most
common welding methods (1 being most likely).
Table 3.2g
Discontinuity SMAW FCAW GMAW GTAW SAW
Slag Inclusion 1 1 2
Porosity 2 2 1 1 3
Incomplete Fusion 3 3 2 1
Incomplete Penetration 3 3 2 1
Undercut 4
Tungsten Inclusion 2
Discontinuities Associated with Other Welding Methods
Resistance Spot Welding

The discontinuities found in spot welds include:
 No weld
o No fusion between the materials being joined
 Weld to small
o Diameter of the nugget at the fusion zone is too small
 Stick weld
o Poor fusion between the metals being joined
 Expulsion
o Solidification cracking

- 120 -
Ultrasonics provides a method of examining spot welds. Employing longitudinal

ultrasonics with a transducer sized for the spot weld being inspected.
Improper electrode force can lead to porosity or cracking of the weld, and timing
of force and current can be critical to a successful weld particularly when welding
aluminum.
Electroslag and Electrogas Welding

Electroslag welding is used to produce vertical joints in thick members and is
intended to complete the weld without interruption. If the welding is interrupted
porosity, slag inclusions, cracks and undercut are possible. At each start of the
welding process an arc is visible until covered by the slag pool, during this stage
discontinuities associated with SMAW are possible. Normally this is eliminated
by starting tabs where the welding begins on pieces that will eventually be
removed when the weld is complete.
Slag inclusions along the fusion lines can be created because of laminations in
the plates or improper location of the filler wire. Porosity, is not very common,
but can occur from contamination of the flux material. Poor weld geometry or
contour can result from improper installation of the copper shoes. Because of
the high heat and slow cooling of the thick sections excess grain growth resulting
in reduced toughness can occur.
Flash Welding
Flash welding discontinuities include:
 Porosity
o Improperly prepared faces to be welded and excessive electrical
energy contribute to porosity formation.
 Incomplete fusion
o Insufficient current or improperly applied current can cause fusion
issues.
 Poor weld contours
o Usually caused by misalignment of the parts during welding.
 Hot cracks
o Some alloys have low ductility over the temperature ranges
involved and may experience hot cracks.
 Cold cracks
o Can occur in hardenable steels when there is not sufficient heat
provided by the welding process.

- 121 -
Electron Beam Welding

Electron beam welding discontinuities include:
 Porosity
o From entrapped gases in the base metal.
 Incomplete fusion
o Caused by insufficient power or misalignment of the beam.
 Poor weld contour
o Poor contours can occur at the root or face of the weld.
 Hot cracks
o May occur at the starts and stops (crater cracks) or in some alloys
that are difficult to weld.
 Bursts
o Bursts are disk shape discontinuities that
occur at the centre line of the weld near
changes of section.
 Missed seam
o Caused by misalignment or
mispositioning of the joint with respect to Figure 3.2bc,
the electron beam (figure 3.2bc). Missed seam
References:
1. Lincoln Electric, Low hydrogen electrodes;
http://www.lincolnelectric.com/knowledge/articles/content/fillermetals.asp
2. TWI World Centre for Materials Joining Technology
http://www.twi.co.uk/j32k/
3. North East Rails
http://www.northeast.railfan.net/home.html
4. Alumatter
http://aluminium.matter.org.uk/content/html/ENG/default.asp?catid=202
5. Wikimedia Commons
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:GTAW.svg
6. Australian Tungsten Coatings
http://www.atcgroup.com.au/aboutus.asp
7. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology
www.welding.org
8. Thermit Welding (GB) Limited http://www.thermitwelding.demon.co.uk/profile.html
9. American Society for Metals (ASM Handbook Volume 6, Welding Brazing and Soldering)
10. ASM Handbook, Volume 11, Failure Analysis and Prevention
11. Mayes, Michael J.; U.S. Department of Transport, Federal Highways Administration, Oakland Bay Bridge
Pile Connection Plate Welding Investigation Report

- 122 -
3.3 Forming
Forming is divided into three main categories:
 Bending
o Straight angle bending
o Corrugated bending
o Tube bending
 Conventional forming
o Sheet forming
o Matched die bending
o Rubber die bending
 Tube forming
 High energy forming

o Explosive
Related operations include:
 Shearing
o Cutting of material with dies or sharp blades
 Cutting
o Mechanical cutting
o Gas cutting
o Electric arc cutting
 Plasma arc
 Air-carbon arc
o Laser cutting
o Abrasive cutting
 Blanking
o Cutting material to a predetermined shape from sheet or strip stock.
 Piercing
o A metal stamping operation that produces tight tolerance holes by
mechanically punching the metal.

- 123 -
Bending
In a simple bending operation several things happen of interest to practioners of
NDT. See figure 3.3a. As the bend is formed by the movement of the wiping die
one side of the plate or strip is in tension and the other side is in compression.
The centre, or neutral, axis is under no stress. Refer to figure 3.3b which shows
the distribution of stress of the finished bend.
Figure 3.3b
Figure 3.3a, Bending Stress distribution in a 90°
Bend
Crack initiation is more likely to be on the tensile side of the bend. There is a
small region on either side of the neutral axis that does not reach plastic
deformation and stays in the elastic region, therefore some springing might occur
after the removal of the bending force. The neutral axis shifts towards the inside
(compression side of the bend) and material thickness maybe reduced.
Rubber Die Bending

Sometimes referred to as rubber-pad forming or
flexible die forming, this method uses one flexible
die and one rigid die to form the part. The original
flexible die process is called the Guerin Process
(figure 3.3c), an improvement to that is the Marform
process.
Some of the advantages of flexible die forging

include:
 Reduced die cost Figure 3.3c
 Radii are gentler than with conventional dies Guerin Forming Process
 Thinning of the metal at the radii is less than
with conventional dies
 Tool marks on the surface are reduced

- 124 -
The Marform process has a support system for the blank and allows deep
drawing of components such as toaster shells.
A further adaptation of flexible die forming is fluid backed forming in which a fluid
under hydraulic pressure in a bladder is used to back the rubber pad. This
allows for more complex shapes to be formed.
Water Level
Explosive Forming Detonator
Lead
Also referred to as explosive hydroforming, Explosive
this process can be used to form large parts Blank

Holder
and requires die tooling for only one side. It Blank
has been used for over 50 years. Refer to
figure 3.3d; the method employs shock Die
waves from an explosion underwater to form Vacuum

Line
the component with a vacuum in the die.
Figure 3.3d, Explosive Forming
Cutting Operations
Shearing
Shearing is normally reserved
for thin materials up to about 25
mm thick. It is accomplished by
straight knife or rotating
shearing. Straight knife (figure
3.3e) shearing is used for
straight cuts and regular
shapes. It employs a stationary
lower knife and moving upper
knife to cut plate and similar Figure 3.3e, Shearing
shapes.
Gas Cutting
Oxy-fuel gas cutting employs a fuel gas and oxygen to cut metals. Some of the
most common fuels used:
 Acetylene
 Natural gas
 MAPP (Propriety trade name for a mixture of methyl acetylene and
propadiene)

- 125 -
Stainless steels do not support oxy-fuel combustion; to cut stainless steels

requires other methods such as powder cutting, flux cutting or plasma arc cutting.
Cast iron resists the oxidation with respect to gas cutting, rough cuts can be
made using additional preheat and special manual techniques.
Hardening of the heat affected zone and other metallurgical changes may occur.
In low carbon steels the effects are usually negligible. Carbon contents above
.35% can experience cracking if preheat is not used. High carbon and alloy
steels may require preheat and annealing to avoid cracking. Deformation of
plate because of local heating is another potential discontinuity.
Electric Arc Cutting

Air-arc carbon cutting is a chemical oxidation process similar to oxy-fuel cutting
but the heat is generated by an electric arc between a carbon electrode and the
work piece. A stream of compressed air is used to blow away the molten metal.
Plasma Arc Cutting

Plasma cutting uses a high velocity jet of ionized gas to melt and make a narrow
cut; the material is blown away by the gas stream from the nozzle. The process
was originally developed for cutting nonferrous metals but has been adopted for
use with stainless and other steels. The cuts maybe rougher than with oxy-fuel
cutting but the heat affected zone is relatively narrow because of the overall heat
input in the cutting process. A variation (vacuum gouging) of the process uses a
vacuum to draw away the molten slag and capture the gases.
Electric arc cutting and gouging methods can be used on:

 Carbon steels
 Stainless steels
 Copper alloys
 Nickel alloys
 Magnesium alloys
Heat affected zones will experience hardening because of the quenching effect
of the air.
Laser Cutting
Similar to oxy-fuel cutting but heat is generated by laser and it is restricted to
thicknesses of about 4 or 5 mm. Air or an assist gas is used to blow away the
molten metal. Assist gas maybe oxygen for ferrous metals or inert gases for
other metals.
References
1. ASM Metals Handbook, Volume, 14B Metal Working: Sheet Forming

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3.4 Bulk Forming
Metals may be shaped mechanically through either “hot working” processes or

“cold working” processes. Metals subjected to either of these processes
generally have greater toughness, hardness and ductility than as-cast materials.
Deformation process can be divided into two basic classifications: bulk forming
and sheet forming (section 3.3).
Bulk forming includes a number of subgroups:

 Forging
 Extrusion
 Drawing
 Rolling
 Thread rolling
Forging
Forging involves plastic
deformation of a metal to
achieve changes in the physical
shape and mechanical
properties of the metal. Forging
operations can be sub-divided
into open die and closed
Figure 3.4a, Forged Automotive Connection
(impression die) forging. Rod
Although some metals can be
forged at room temperature (cold forging) most forging operations are conducted
at elevated temperatures (hot forging). Forging introduces flow lines into the
metal as it is plastically deformed. These flow lines are analogous to grains in
wood and can substantially enhance the performance of components.
Automotive connecting rods take advantage of these improved properties.
The forces needed to plastically

deform the metal can be achieved
in several ways:
 Hammer forge
 Drop forge
 Press forge
 Upset forge
 Roll forge
Figure 3.4b, Flow Lines

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Hammer and drop forging equipment is used with impression die forging.
Hammer forging employs steam, air or hydraulics to accelerate the hammer;
while drop forging depends upon gravity and the mass of the hammer to provide
the force and power to raise the ram for the next stroke.
Press forges employ either mechanical energy through the use of a fly wheel or
hydraulic energy to exert forces to the component. Press forges are used for
both open and closed die forging operations.
Upset forging (hot heading) is a process of increasing the diameter or cross

section of a bar or tube. Axial pressure is applied by the heading tool in single or
multiple blows. Sometimes used to prepare bar stock for further forging
operations.
Roll forging (figure 3.4c) can produce a wide variety of shapes but is usually
restricted to symmetrical parts. The dies are in the form of rolls. Components are
shaped as they pass through the rolls.
The degree to which metals can be forged varies

in the order of ease of forging:
 Aluminum
 Copper
 Magnesium
 Carbon steel
 Alloy steels
 Nickel alloys
 Super alloys
 Refractory metals
 Beryllium
Figure 3.4c, Roll Forging
Open Die Forging
Other terms used for open die forging include hammer forging and flat-die
forging. Open die forging can be considered different than other forms of forging
because the lines of material flow are not continuous. Open die forgings are often
used on very large components, too large for closed die or small quantities of
parts in which the cost of manufacturing closed dies cannot be justified. Large
marine propeller shafts or generator shafts are made with open die forging. Small
components weighing a few kilograms can also be produced by this method.
The term open die implies that the metal is not constrained laterally and is most
commonly done between flat faced dies. The final shapes often require
extensive machining to complete the component.

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Gravity drop hammers are not usually suitable for open die forging because the
length and magnitude of a stroke cannot be controlled. Usually power forging
hammers driven by air, steam or hydraulics are used in the open die process.
The component to be forged is received in a cast condition. Large ingots for
example because of their slow cooling at the centre have very different structure
through their cross section. The forging operation redistributes micro-
segregation, heals internal porosity and breaks up coarse dendritic growth. This
requires extensive working in multiple directions to achieve a fully wrought
structure.
Closed Die Forging

Closed or impression die forging is conducted with
dies that enclose the part. The cavity maybe in the
upper, lower or split between the dies. The blank used
fills the cavity and has some allowance for flash (see
figure 3.4d). Components produced in closed die
forgings can vary from a few grams to 25,000 kg, most
are less than 1 kg. Graphite in suspension with water
is often used in hot closed die forgings and zinc
phosphates in cold operations to provide lubrication
and facilitate flow of the metal in the dies and reduce
die wear.
Closed die forgings can be classified as: Figure 3.4d, Connecting

 Blocker type forgings Rod with Flash
o Uses relatively inexpensive dies to
provide the general shape of the final component.
 Conventional closed die forgings
o The most common type, made closer to the final shape than
blocker type and the parts produced usually require some
machining to complete.
 Precision die forgings
o The smallest dimensional tolerances although cost more than
conventional type but the parts produced require less machining.
Conventional closed die forging is conducted with warm dies, preferably 200°C to
300°C. This reduces die breakage.
Two variations of closed die forging developed for the aerospace industry are
hot-die forging and isothermal forging. In hot die forging the dies are maintained
in the range of 100°C to 200°C below the part temperature, while isothermal
forging employs dies at the part temperature. These methods allow forging of

- 129 -
materials that are not possible by conventional closed die forging. Super alloys
that can be forged only over a very narrow temperature range can be done using
these methods. Cracking can be eliminated and very close tolerances achieved.
Ring Rolling
In addition to open and closed die forging, ring
rolling (figure 3.4e) is considered a forging
method. It is used to create seamless rings such
as automotive ring gears and ball bearing races.
Ring forgings can produced components as small

as 75 mm up to to 9m in diameter. The ring
maybe formed horizontally or vertically by rolls
that exert forces both radially and axially to
Figure 3.4e, Ring Rolling
achieve the final forged shape. Beginning with a
donut shaped blank the rolling process continues
until the final ring shape is achieved.
Extrusion
Hot extrusion is a process in which a heated billet is forced through a die. Four
variations are used:
Die
 Direct pressure non-
lubricated (figure 3.4f)
Extrusion Billet Ram
 Indirect extrusion non-

lubricated (figure 3.4g)
Figure 3.4f, Direct Pressure,
 Direct Pressure lubricated Non-lubricated Extrusion
 Hydrostatic pressure Closure Plate
Ram
Extrusion Billet
Ram
Die
Figure 3.4g, Indirect Pressure,

Non-lubricated Extrusion

- 130 -
Hot extrusion is used to produce elongated uniform products such as bar, tubes,
wires, and strips.
Drawing
The diameter or cross-sectional area of
tube, bar, rod or wire can be reduced by
pulling it through a die or un-driven rolls.
The process is referred to as drawing.
Figure 3.4h, Wire or Rod Drawing
There are several variations of drawing
solid and hollow shapes with or without
centre mandrels.
 Wire or rod drawing (figure 3.4h)
 Tube drawing without a mandrel,

referred to as tube sinking (figure Figure 3.4i, Tube Drawing (Sinking)
3.4i)
 Tube drawing with a mandrel

(arrangement shown in figure 3.4j
is with the mandrel held in place by
a plug bar), other arrangements
have a floating plug held in place
only by friction with the ID of the Figure 3.4j, Tube Drawing with Mandrel
tube.
 Another drawing process uses a moving

mandrel and fixed die. The work piece is
drawn through the die to produce cylindrical
shaped components. When the depth of the
cylinder exceeds the diameter it is referred to
as deep drawing (figure 3.4k).
Figure 3.4k, Deep Drawing

- 131 -
Roll Forming
Roll forming (figure 3.4k) is done with a heated pre-form to produce
symmetrically shaped component. The process includes various related
processes namely: metal spinning, shear forming and axial roll forming. It is
used to produce turbine disks and automotive wheels.
Figure 3.4k, Roll Forming
Thread Rolling
Thread rolling is a process of cold forming external threads or helixes by rolling
the blank through hardened steel dies with thread impressions. No material is
removed from the blank. The resultant threads are harder and stronger than the
blank because of the cold working. The cold working imparts improved flow lines
superior to cut threads (figure 3.4m).
Figure 3.4m, Flow Lines,

Figure 3.4l, Thread Rolling Cut vs. Rolled Threads

- 132 -
Discontinuities
Discontinuities in forgings are the result of:
 Discontinuities that are inherent in the ingot and find their way into the
billets, bar stock or pre-forms used to produce the forging.
 Caused by the forging process itself.
Preliminary (open die) reduction which maybe done before final forging, is
intended to heal inherent discontinuities and provide uniform structure. Billets
and pre-forms used for closed die forging do not always under go open die
forging and if they do the healing process may not be completely successful.
Nondestructive testing of the forged component may reveal some of these
unhealed discontinuities.
Discontinuities Originating in the Ingot

 Chemical segregation
When the constituents of the steel are not uniformly
distributed through the ingot, the composition will vary
from location to location. The forging process partially
corrects this by recrystallizing and braking up the grain
structure. If this is not successful regions of the forging
will deviate from the required corrosion resistance,
mechanical properties, fatigue resistance and the
materials ability to be forged and welded. Figure 3.4n Figure 3.4n,
shows micro cross section of banding due to Micro Section
segregation and mechanical forging. showing
Segregation
 Pipe and centreline shrinkage
Common discontinuities in ingots are centreline
shrinkage and piping (figure 3.4o). As the ingot
solidifies and the metal contracts, a cavity forms
at the top of the ingot. This may extend down
the centre of the ingot and is referred to as pipe.
Several things can be done to reduce the pipe
such as providing risers at the top of the ingot to
feed additional molten metal into the ingot to
offset contraction, insulating the top of the ingot,
altering the shape of the ingot or cropping off
the top of the ingot. If the piping is not dealt with
or healed in the open die forging process
discontinuities will appear in the final forging.
Figure 3.4o, Pipe

- 133 -
 High hydrogen content

Metals react with water to produce hydrogen. At liquid
metal temperatures hydrogen goes into solution with the
metal. As the metal cools the hydrogen becomes
entrapped in the crystalline structure and can cause
flaking, or embrittlement of the metal leading to the
development of cracks and substantially affecting the
impact properties and ductility of the metal.
 Non-metallic inclusions
Inclusions may come from a variety of sources. Some Figure 3.4p
maybe trapped foreign material that finds it way into the
metal while in the liquid state or are caused by separation from the metal.
Trapped foreign material is most commonly from the preliminary melting.
Subsequent remelting such as vacuum remelting may reduce these
inclusions. Sometimes pieces of furnace electrode can break away and
be entrapped in the molten metal. Those that are caused by chemical
separation include: oxides, sulphide, etc.
Discontinuities caused by the forging operation include:

 Bursts
Bursts can occur in open and
closed die forging usually in an area
weakened by other discontinuities
where the metal tears because it
cannot withstand the tensile
stresses of the forging operation.
They often occur as a result of the
forging temperature being incorrect,
excessive working during the
forging process or high sulphur
content in steel. Bursts can be
volumetric or tight crack-like.
Figure 3.4q, Bursts
Internal bursts sometimes referred
to as Chevron cracking, most commonly associated with extrusion and
drawing, can also be caused by improper annealing of the blank before
forging, and/or insufficient forging forces to work the entire cross section of
the forging.

- 134 -
 Laps
Laps are folds of metal on the surface that are not
fully fused into the parent material. They are
found in forgings and rolled bar stock.
Figure 3.4r,
Forging Lap
 Laminations
These discontinuities result from inherent discontinuities such as pipe,
inclusions, segregation or porosity, which are flattened out in the direction
of rolling or forging. They are aligned parallel to the surface of the
material and are extremely thin. Laminations can also be very extensive.
These discontinuities are classed as sub-surface.
 Stringers
These are the result of inclusions in the original
cast material which are flattened out in the
direction of rolling, forging or extruding. These
stringers will be parallel to the grain flow,
subsurface until revealed by machining (in
general), are fairly short and often occur in
Figure 3.4s,
groups. Stringers
 Seams
Are linear surface discontinuities in forgings and bar
stock resulting from porosity, inclusions or cracks where
the material has been closed but not fused. Seams
maybe continuous or intermittent elongated
discontinuities. Sometimes described as a lap that
intersects the surface at a large angle. Often have
entrapped oxides because they are formed at high
temperatures.
 Internal cracks or tears

Internal cracks can result when the metal is heated too
Figure 3.4t,
rapidly or the temperature is not uniform throughout the Forging Seam
forging. An un-uniform temperature results in different
degrees of expansion which produce tensile stresses
within the forging. Large sections are particularly prone to this type of
thermal cracking.

- 135 -
 Flash line Tear

A tearing of the metal at the mating surface of the forging dies. The point
where the two dies meet is known as the “flash line”. This surface
discontinuity can occur when the dies separate and the metal is not at the
correct plastic temperature. The crack-like appearance will be linear and
branching.
 Surface cracking
Based on the cause, the crack can be longitudinal, transverse, or angled
because of shear. Locations particularly susceptible to surface cracking
include: at the changes of section, at the bottom of concave surfaces, and
mid height on side surfaces.
References:
1. R. Todd, D. Allen, and L. Alting; Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide, Industrial Press Inc., 1994
2. Scot Forge, Forging Facts, Ring Roll Forging
3. ASM, Metals Handbook, Volume 11, Failure Analysis and Prevention
4. ASM, Metals Handbook, Volume 14A, Metal Working, Bulk Forming
5. ASM, Metals Handbook, Volume 17, Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control

- 136 -
3.5 Casting
The earliest casting processes dates back to 9000 BC when used to make
simple beads. In the
Bronze Age (3000 BC)
alloys of copper in
particular, arsenic and
tin were cast in open and
two part molds. It is felt
that the lost wax process
may also have been
used then. Cast iron
was first employed in
China in about 600 BC.
Cast iron was introduced
into Europe in about
1500 AD. Abraham
Darby (1678-1717)
invented coke smelting
in 1709 which advanced Figure 3.5a,
Cast Iron Bridge over the Severn River
the mass production of
iron in Great Britain. The use of coke instead of charcoal played an important
economic role because of its availability. Iron bridges, such as the one over the
Severn River shown in figure 3.5a, were made of cast iron.
Although iron was discovered around 1594 in North America (South Carolina) by
Sir Walter Raleigh, it was not until 1622 that use was first made of it.
In 1642 the Saugus Iron Works was given exclusive rights for 21 years to make
iron in the USA.
Significant improvements were made during the 19th century to improve the
efficiency and quality of castings. Metallography was developed in 1863 by
Henry Clifton Sorby of England. The introduction of cyclone and Roots blowers
permitted higher temperatures and shorter melting times. Molding machines
(1837), sand slingers (1914) and synthetic sands (1920’s) all advanced the
casting of iron.
Louis Sullivan (1856-1924) was responsible for the use of cast iron in the
construction of buildings in the USA. His work was both ornamental and
structural in nature. The front of a department store in Chicago shown in figure
3.5b was an example of the grand use of cast iron.

- 137 -
Figure 3.5b, Cast Iron, Chicago Store Front
Modern casting processes can be subdivided into five categories:

 Conventional molding (green sand, shell, flaskless molding)
 Precision molding (investment casting, permanent mold, die casting)
 Special molding (vacuum molding, evaporative pattern, centrifugal
casting)
 Chemically bonded self-setting sand molding (no-bake, sodium silicate)
 Innovative molding ( rheocasting, squeeze casting, electroslag casting)
Sand Molding
Approximately 90% of all castings made in the USA are produced by this
method. Figure 3.5c shows the molding process and components. There are
several variations including:
 Bonded sand process
 Unbonded sand process
 Shell process
 Hot box process
 Oven bake
 Cold box

- 138 -
Figure 3.5c, Sand Casting
Bonded Sand Molds

Green sand molding refers to the use of water and clay as the binding medium
for the sand. The most often used sand mixture employs silica sand which is
classified in two categories: naturally bonded and synthetic sand. The naturally
bonded sands employ the clay sediments within the sand deposit to act as the
binding agent. Synthetic sands are composed of various grain distributions with
the addition of binders. The type of sand is most often silica but zircon, olivine
and chromate sands are also used.
In green sand molding when the molten metal enters the mold, steam is
generated from the moisture and binder, if the sand is not permeable enough to
allow the steam to escape pressure builds up in the mold impeding the flow of
metal, causing blow holes and in some cases causing the metal to be blown from
the mold. The mold must withstand the erosion of the flowing metal and maintain
its dimensional stability. The sand is reclaimed foreign material and binders are
removed and the sand restored for further reuse.

- 139 -
Unbonded Sand Molds

The principle difference between green sand and dry sand molding is that the
moisture is removed prior to pouring the molten metals. Dry sand molding is
preferred for medium and large castings because the molds are stronger and can
withstand the additional loads of the molten metal. Materials such as pitch,
Gilsonite, corn flour molasses or resin are used as binders. The binders
thermoset as the mold is heated to 150°C to 300°C. The base sand used is
generally coarser than in green sand molding which allows for venting and mold
drying.
The resin binder process is the most common of these methods and can be
classified into three categories:
 No bake binder systems

 Heat cured binder systems
 Cold box binder systems
The no bake process involves the combination of two or more chemical binders
that begin to cure as soon as they are combined. The process allows for the
pouring of the sand mixture into the mold and after a period of time, cure to the
point where they can be removed from the mold flask. Curing times can very
from several minutes to several hours depending on the binder system.
Shell Process
In the Shell Process, also referred to as the Corning Process, the sand grains are
coated with a dry resin. The free flowing sand is poured into the molding flask,
compressed and cured. When heated to 150°C to 280°C the resin cures by
converting from a thermoplastic to a thermosetting plastic. The heat comes from
a warmed pattern which forms a hardened shell around the pattern. Variations of
this process are used to produce cores.
Hot Box Process

In this process, used to create cores, the sand-binder mixture is wet with a liquid
thermosetting binder and acid catalyst is blown into a heated core box. The
curing occurs rapidly allowing the core to be removed in 10 to 30 seconds.
Depending on the binders used a post bake maybe required.
Oven Bake Process

Also used to produce cores or molds, it employs a linseed or vegetable binder
which is mixed with the silica sand, blown into a mold, removed and then baked.
Cold Box Process

This process is carried out at room temperature. A sand and binder mixture is
activated by a vapour or gas to harden the mold. There are several
combinations of binders and activating gases; one common method employs

- 140 -
silicate binders and C02 gas. The silicate, in liquid form, that is mixed with the
sand is odourless, non-flammable, and produces no noxious gases.
Plaster Mold Casting

Plaster mold casting is used with nonferrous materials to produce dimensionally
accurate smooth surface castings. Most castings produced by this method are
less than 9 kg but larger ones can be produced. The molding and core materials
are calcium sulphate. The calcium sulphate is mixed with water to produce a
Plaster of Paris mixture which is poured over the pattern, or into the core box.
The mold is then dried in an oven. Plaster has a low heat capacity and therefore
is generally used with low melting point metals. Cooling times of the materials
cast are four times longer than green sand methods. Several variations of the
method exist:
 Match plate process

 Antioch Process
 Foamed Plaster Molding Process
Ceramic Molding
Ceramic molding produces castings of fine detail, smooth surfaces, and
exceptional dimensional accuracy. The mold is made of fine grained zirconium
and high-alumina mullite slurry. Mullite is a porcelainite or clay which is used in
refractory materials. The process is used for castings when the patterns would
be too large to handle in the lost wax process or when wood patterns are used
particularly for low volume casting as they would require less time to produce and
be more economical than producing wax patterns. Two variations of the process
are:
 Shaw Process
 Unicast Process
Investment Casting
Ceramic slurry is applied around a disposable pattern. The pattern is destroyed
(invested) in the process of making each casting. The mold is also destroyed in
order to remove each casting. There are two variations of the process:
 Solid mold process
 Shell mold process
The process is shown in figure 3.5d. The patterns are most often made of wax
which is referred to as the lost wax process or plastic polystyrene. There are
several other variations:
 Shellvest System
 Replicast Process

- 141 -
Figure 3.5d, Investment Casting, Lost Wax Process
Rammed Graphite Casting Process

When the material being cast reacts at high temperatures with silica or other
molding materials graphite molds can be employed as an alternate molding
material. Powdered graphite mixed with water and binders is pneumatically
rammed around the pattern, the pattern is removed and the mold is dried, baked
and fired prior to pouring the metals. The method is used for titanium and
zirconium and their alloys.
Permanent Mold Casting

This method is sometimes referred to as gravity die casting (figures 3.5e and
3.5f). The liquid metal enters the permanent mold by gravity, the mold is opened,
the part ejected and the mold is closed and the process repeated. The method is
used for high production uniform wall thickness castings. Simple cores can be
employed. Compared to sand casting methods the castings produced have
better surface finish, dimensional accuracy and improved mechanical properties.
Aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys as well as gray iron can be cast by this
method.

- 142 -
Die Casting
Figure 3.5e, Gravity Die Casting

Machine Figure 3.5f, Gravity Die Casting Schematic
Die Casting
Die casting is characterized by the use of hydraulic forces exerted on the molten
metal to drive it into a permanent mold at high velocities. There are two basic
variations:
 Hot Chamber Process
 Cold Chamber Process
o Direct Injection
Aluminum, zinc, magnesium and copper alloys are routinely die cast. Ferrous
metals can also be die cast.
Hot Chamber Process
Figure 3.5g, Hot Chamber Die Casting Process

- 143 -
In the hot chamber process the hydraulic actuator is in contact with the molten
metal. The hot chamber process minimizes turbulence, contact with oxidizing air
and reduces heat loss but presents significant maintenance and production
challenges.
The cold chamber process on

the other hand separates the
hydraulic mechanisms from
the molten metal allowing for
the higher melting point
metals to be cast.
Figure 3.5h, Cold Chamber Die Casting Process
Direct Injection Process

This process is a variation of the hot chamber process in which the molten metal
is injected directly into the mold cavity through nozzles eliminating gating and
runner systems. It is limited to the lower melting point metals.
Centrifugal Casting
Centrifugal casting relies on the centrifugal force created by a cylindrical mold
which throws or forces the molten metal against the walls of the mold to form the
desired shape. There are two variations of this process
 Horizontal Centrifugal Casting
 Vertical Centrifugal Casting
Horizontal Centrifugal Casting Process

This process has been used to produce cast iron pipes since 1848. It has also
been used to manufacture: thin wall ductile iron pipe, and brass tubes. It is now
being used to produce thick wall bimetallic tubes used in many industries. Metal
is poured into one end of the horizontally rotating mold; pour rates and rotating
speed are balanced to avoid laps and porosity.

- 144 -
Vertical Centrifugal Casting Process

Castings need not be cylindrical or symmetrical to be cast by this method. The
equipment rotates the mold about a vertical axis which allows the metal to feed
uniformly into the mold producing a clean, dense casting with mechanical
properties that are usually superior to static molds. All metals that can be cast by
static methods can be cast by this method. The molds can be sand molds, semi-
permanent or permanent molds.
Continuous Casting Methods

Continuous casting methods have been in use since 1840 when continuous
casting of lead pipe was introduced. It has been used to produce copper and
brass billets. Since 1940’s continuous cast production of steel has advanced.
Counter Gravity Low Pressure Casting

Counter gravity low pressure casting is a process in which the molten metal is
drawn up into a permanent mold by vacuum. The advantages are more castings
per mold, and improved efficiency through less gating losses.
Casting Discontinuities
Some of the discontinuities found in
castings:
Hot Tear
A hot tear is a crack like discontinuity that
occurs near the solidification temperature
as the casting cools. It results from
restricted contraction of the metal. Often
occurs at a change of section particularly in
a thick to thin section juncture. A hot tear is
often large and open to the surface.
Characterized by oxide in the discontinuity
because of the relatively high temperature
at which it forms and the fact that it is open Figure 3.5i,
to the surface. This discontinuity is some Radiograph showing a Hot Tear
times referred to as hot shortness; it is an
intergranular discontinuity and can occur in most alloys. Hot tears can be
repaired by removal and welding. It is often caused by poor casting design but
other contributing factors include: alloy type, metal cleanliness, mold and core
hardness. The figure 3.5i is of a radiograph of a hot tear.

- 145 -
Hot Crack
Figure 3.5j, Hot Crack
A hot crack is less visible than a hot tear because it is less open to the surface
than a hot tear and has less oxide. It is a crack caused by internal stresses after
solidification during cooling, but at elevated temperatures. Improper mold design
is a frequent cause of hot cracking. Proper use of chills or anti-chills can prevent
hot cracks. Hot strength of the material depends on the alloy being cast. The
figure 3.5j shows a magnetic particle indication of a hot crack.
Cold Cracks
Cold cracks occur because of
thermal shock, rough handling
during shake-out or during heat
treatment. They are very tight
and difficult to see visually, but
should be detected using
magnetic particle or liquid
penetrant. Depending on the
casting material and value, cold
cracks can often be removed and
welded unless they are very
large. Magnetic particle or liquid
penetrant should be used after
removal and before welding to Figure 3.5k, Cold Crack
ensure the crack has been
entirely removed and no stress riser is left below the weld. The crack maybe
transgranular or intergranular depending on the material and cause of the crack.
Cold Shuts
Cold shuts are caused by two streams of metal that do not fully fuse. They can
occur in all types of castings and be very significant stress raisers. Cold shuts
are often caused by the molten metal being poured at too low a temperature or
over too long a distance. They are usually characterized by the rounded corners

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at the edge of the discontinuity. Figure 3.5l shows a black powder magnetic
particle indication of a cold shut, (photo provided by Magnaflux Corporation).
Figure 3.5l, Cold Shut
Porosity
Porosity may take many different forms. In
castings it may be open to the surface and
detected using dye penetrant, or subsurface
and detected by radiography. Porosity is
caused by evolution of gas during
solidification. Surface porosity is usually far
more detrimental to the casting than internal
because of the stress concentration. Figure 3.5m, Porosity (Gas
holes)
 Micro porosity
o Not discernable by the naked
eye, usually in clusters which occur along the grain boundaries or
between the dendrite arms.
 Gas Holes
o Rounded cavities formed during solidification. These form from gas
evolved from the metal and result in spherical or elongated cavities.
The figure 3.5m shows a cross section through gas holes. Gas
holes less than 1 mm in diameter are some times referred to as pin-

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hole porosity. Elongated gas hole cavities are often just below the
surface and sometimes referred to as worm hole porosity
 Blow Holes
A hole, usually larger but similar in appearance to porosity, produced
during the solidification of metal by evolved gas which, in failing to escape,
is held in the metal. Blow holes can be surface or sub-surface. This
discontinuity differs from “porosity” because the gas originates from
contaminants on the chills, chaplets or other inserts; from steam or from
the burning off of core sand binders. Adequate venting and general
cleanliness are two methods of preventing such a discontinuity.
Shrinkage
Shrinkage is voids resulting from solidification shrinkage as
the metal solidifies. The dendrite growth within the casting
may prevent complete feeding of the casting. Cavities and
depressions are the result of shrinkage porosity. Shrinkage
is some times subdivided into various types:
 Filamentary shrinkage
o Physically smaller than gas holes often
branching and interconnected, occasionally
dendritic, usually occurs along the centre line
of the casting. Figure 3.5n shows a Figure 3.5n,
radiograph of filamentary shrinkage. Filamentary Shrinkage
 Air Locks
o Air entrapped in the molten metal stream
may become entrapped in the metal as it
solidifies. The cavity or cavities often lie just
below and parallel to the surface. The
figure 3.5o shows the ultrasonic inspection
of an air lock in a casting.
 Cavity Shrinkage
o Cavity shrinkage occurs when the
solidification temperature has almost been Figure 3.5o,
reached and there is no source of molten Ultrasonic Inspection
liquid to offset the contraction. Figure 3.5p of an Air Lock
shows a radiograph of a shrinkage cavity.
Piping would be considered a shrinkage cavity.
 Micro-shrinkage
o This discontinuity is peculiar to magnesium castings but is not a
true shrinkage porosity. The voids are more definite than those due
to shrinkage porosity and tend to join up in a continuous network,
following what is known as a “dentritic” pattern.

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Inclusions
These are non-metallic materials in the casting. Typical inclusions
are pieces of refractory, slag and oxides of the metal being cast.
Several other terms referring to non-metallic inclusions are:
 Dross
o A mass of solid impurities (oxides) floating on the
surface of the molten metal, usually skimmed off prior to
pouring or chemically treated to form a slag. It is
distinguished from slag because it is solid while the slag
is liquid.
 Sand Inclusions
o Portions of the core or mold walls that have come away
from their structure and are trapped in the metal as it
solidifies.
Figure 3.5p
Cold Shot
A cold shut (figure 3.5q) is a small globule
of metal that has frozen on the surface of
the mold cavity, usually because of
turbulent flow, that becomes embedded in
the surface of the casting but not entirely
fused.
Figure 3.5q, Cold Shot
Misrun
Misrun is a casting that does not fully
form because the metal has solidified
before filling the entire mold.
Misruns can be caused by too low a

pouring temperature, gas back
pressure from inadequate venting or
inadequate gating. Figure 3.5r
shows a misrun. The figure 3.5s
shows two castings the left as it was
intended and the right a misrun,
where the material solidified before
being able to fill the entire cavity. Figure 3.5r, Misrun

- 149 -
Figure 3.5s, Misrun
Core Shift
The internal surfaces of the casting are not in
the correct location due to a shifting of the
core during pouring. The coring material is
usually less dense than the metal being
poured. If the core prints and/or chaplets do
not retain the core in the correct position it
can rise in the mold producing a casting of
improper geometry. Figure 3.5t shows the
result of a core shift. The arrow points to the
reduced wall thickness as a result of the core
shift.
Figure 3.5t, Core Shift
Un-fused Chill or Chaplet
Figure 3.5u shows an un-fused chaplet
(circular indication beside the arrow)
and crack initiating from it. The chaplet
has not fused with the molten metal
and become an integral part of the
casting.
Segregation Figure 3.5u, Un-fused Chaplet

The solute elements in the alloy being cast can segregate during solidification.
Micro-segregation can be removed by subsequent heat treatment. Macro-
segregation is the difference that can occur through the cross section of the
casting. It cannot be removed by subsequent heat treatment. Both micro and
macro segregation generally reduce physical and chemical properties of the as
cast material and should be kept to a minimum.

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Weld Repair Discontinuities

Casting defects are often repaired by removal and welding. During this process
weld discontinuities may be introduced into the repaired casting. When
inspecting ferrous casting with magnetic particle, indications can occur because
of the difference in magnetic properties of the casting and weld material. Some
times a buttering layer is first placed on the cavity to be welded with a different
electrode than used to fill the cavity. This is done to facilitate fusion to the cast
material and may in itself have different magnetic properties than both the
casting and the majority of the weld.
References:
1. ASM Handbooks, Volume 15, Casting
2. Atlas of some Steel Casting Flaws as shown by Non-Destructive Testing, Steel Casting Research and
Trade Association
3. ASM Handbooks, Volume 11, Failure Analysis and Prevention
4. Campbell, John; Castings, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2003
5. ASM Handbooks, Volume 17, Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control

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3.6 Manufacturing of Pipe
There are three basic families of steel pipe manufacture depending on the
process used to create the hollow cylindrical shape which is cut into lengths.
Electric Resistance Welded (ERW) or High Frequency Induction Welded

Pipe (HFI)
This type of pipe, originally thought of as a second grade pipe for low pressure
applications, involves a solid phase weld. ASTM A135, Specification for Electric-
Resistance-Welded Steel Pipe, is a current standard specification for ERW steel
pipe. The standard covers two grades: Grade A, ultimate tensile strength of 331
MPa (48 ksi) and Grade B, ultimate tensile strength 414 MPa (60 ksi) and
includes Nominal Pipe Sizes from ¾ to 30
inches (19 to 760mm), with wall thicknesses
up to .5 inches (12.7 mm). The testing of the
pipe may require hydrostatic test, ultrasonic or
eddy current testing.
ERW pipe is produced by resistance heating

along the longitudinal joint as a strip of steel is
formed into a cylindrical shape by rolls. The
welding current is imparted to the material by
copper disk electrodes. The flash (excess
material) is removed by scarfing tools. HFI is
performed in a similar manner except that the Figure 3.6a, ERW Pipe
heating is achieved by a high frequency coil. Manufacture4
See figure 3.6a.
Arc Welded Pipe

The welded seam is either longitudinal or spiral welded which allows larger
diameter pipe to be manufactured from narrower strip. The welding process is
submerged arc (SAW). A variation of this process employs at least two passes
of SAW one from the inside and one from the outside of the pipe, referred to as a
double submerged arc weld. For diameters greater than 36 inches double
longitudinal seams, spaced at 180° can be employed.
Seamless Pipe
The process is produced in a three stage process:
 Piercing
 Shaping
 Straightening

- 152 -
There are two variations, the first for large diameter (150 to 400 mm) diameter
pipe is done in a plug mill, the second variation for sizes 25 to 150 mm is done in
a mandrel mill; smaller diameters are done by an extrusion process.
Pipe Sizing
In North America it is common to express the size of pipe with two non-
dimensional numbers: National Pipe Size (NPS) and Schedule (SCH). The NPS
is loosely related to the inside diameter (ID) of the pipe in inches for sizes NPS
1/8 to NPS 12. For NPS 14 and larger, NPS is the outside diameter (OD) of the
pipe in inches. For a given NPS the OD remains constant and wall thickness
increases with increasing schedule (SCH). For a given schedule the OD
increases with increasing NPS while the wall thickness increases or remains
constant. The most common schedules are SCH 40, SCH 80 and SCH 160.
Adopted from older standards are the terms Standard Wall (STD) which is
identical to SCH 40, Extra Strong (XS) which is identical to SCH 80, and Double
Extra Strong (XXS) which is thicker than SCH 160.
Pipe Discontinuities
Two of the most common discontinuities in ERW pipe are hook cracks and
incomplete fusion (cold weld).
Hook cracks occur during the welding process when the pipe is being upset.
Discontinuities parallel to the surface of the plate end up being oriented nearly
perpendicular to the surface after completion of the weld and have resulted in
pipe failures in service.
The most common defects in submerged arc welded pipe seams are weld
cracks, toe cracks and lack of penetration. Weld cracks occur because of high
restraint during the solidification of the weld. Toe cracks originate from inclusions
in the steel at the faying surface or improperly formed edges of the plate.
References:
1. GE Energy, Pipe Manufacture,
http://www.gepower.com/prod_serv/serv/pipeline/en/about_pipelines/pipe_mfg.htm,
2. TWI, World Centre for Joining Materials, Technology file, High Frequency Welding
3. ASTM A135, Specification for Electric-Resistance-Welded Steel Pipe
4. Warren, Lew; The Fabricator.com, Skelp Edge Preparation for Manufacturing ERW Pipe, May 30, 2001
5. ASM Handbook, Volume 11, Failure Analysis and Prevention
6. Quickel, G.T.; Rollins, B.C.; Beavers, J.A.; Analysis of Seam Weld Related Pipeline Failures, Materials
Science and Technology, 2008.

- 153 -
3.7 Machining
This is a group of processes used to remove unwanted material from a work

piece. One of the ways to classify machining methods is:
 Traditional Machining Methods

o Turning
 Often done in a lathe.
Figure 3.7a, Turning Operation
o Shaping
 Involves a single point tool that reciprocates in a linear
motion while the part remains stationary.
o Milling
 Involves a multi-tooth rotating cutter, both work piece and
cutter can move.
o Drilling
 Employs a rotating end cutting tool with flutes to allow for
extraction of the chips as the drill progresses into the work
piece.
o Reaming
 Employs a rotary tool used to improve the accuracy and
surface finish of a pre-existing hole.
o Broaching
 Employs a multi tooth tool that is pushed or pulled through a
hole or across a surface to remove small amount of material
to achieve close tolerances and fine finishes.

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o Trepanning
 Employs usually a single cutter which rotates around a
centre to create a circular hole in the part for the purpose of
creating a hole or producing a disk of the material being cut.
o Counter sinking, counter boring, spot facing (figure 3.7b)
 Used to enlarge the opening of a pre-existing hole
Figure 3.7b
o Burnishing
 Method of cold working the surface using local pressure
rolling techniques to improve accuracy, finish and cold-
harden the surface.
o Tapping
 Used to produce internal threads in a pre-existing hole by
using a cylindrical or conical tool by a combination of rotating
and axial motion
o Thread milling
 Used to cut threads employing a milling cutter
o Thread grinding
 Employs abrasive removal of material to create threads,
usually used for putting threads in very hard materials or soft
materials where very good surface finish is required or for
improved accuracy.
o Thread rolling
 Forms threads by deforming the blank with a rolling
operation. It does not remove material from the blank.
Good surface finishes and significant improvements in the
fatigue life versus cut threads can be achieved.
o Die threading
 For the cutting of external threads
o Sawing
 Employs power band saws, hacksaws and circular saws for
the cutting of material.

- 155 -
 Abrasive Machining
o Grinding
 An abrasive containing wheel or belt is pressed against the
surface of the work piece to remove material.
o Honing
 Employs a slow speed rotating and reciprocating motion in
which embedded abrasive material of a honing stone
removes material from the work piece to achieve very
accurate dimensions and fine surface finishes.
o Lapping
 A very low speed low pressure abrading operation which
employs embedded or loose abrasive to achieve extreme
accuracy and refine the surface finish. Usually employed on
very hard materials or to produce very accurate dimensions.
 Non-traditional Machining Methods

o Abrasive
 Abrasive jet machining (AJM) is a process to remove
material by abrasives in a high velocity gas stream. Used for
very hard and brittle materials to cut, clean, deburr or etch.
 Abrasive flow (AFM) is the repeated passage of abrasive
slurry through a work piece to resize and refinish internal
passages.
o Ultrasonic (USM)
 Used for hard brittle material involves a vibrating tool, which
is either rotating or non-rotating and an abrasive slurry
o Electrochemical (ECM)
 Controlled removal of material from the work piece by
forming an electrolytic cell in which the work piece is the
anode and the tool is the cathode. This is done to achieve
oddly shaped holes with extreme accuracy.
o Electrical discharge (EDM)
 A process that removes material from the work piece by
electric arc. The electrode is made of copper or graphite
and is the mirror image of the cavity left in the work piece. It
is used to produce precision reference notches for ultrasonic
calibration.
o Electron beam (EBM)
 Employs a focussed beam of high speed electrons to
remove material from the work piece. One use is for
precision drilling of small holes
o Laser beam (LBM)
 Removes material by melting with a coherent
monochromatic beam of light.

- 156 -
o Chemical (CM)
 The removal of material by chemical etching. Areas not to
be etched are masked and the part is immersed in the
etchant.
Discontinuities related to machining:

 Cracks
 Chatter
 Checking
 Micro-structural damage
 Grinding burn
 Electrical discharge recast layer cracking
 Electrochemical machining intergranular attack
 Residual stress cracking (over heating)
Surface Texture
Surface finishing operations alter several characteristics of the surface including:
 Surface Finish
 Fatigue strength
 Residual stress
 Retained strength
Surface texture involves surface roughness and surface waviness that occur in
real surfaces. Roughness is the finer irregularities of the surface texture from the
inherent action of the surface processing operations. Waviness is the more
widely spaced component of surface texture due to things such as work piece
deflection during surface finishing. Lay refers to the prominent direction of the
surface pattern. Surface flaws are unintended interruptions in the surface.
Figure 3.7c, Surface Texture Terms

- 157 -
Surface roughness can be judged by comparing to known surface references, or

measured by contact or noncontact methods. Contact methods involve dragging
a stylus across the surface and include an instrument called profilometer.
One of the many parameters used to express surface texture is the arithmetical
average of the roughness height, which is the arithmetical average deviation
measured normal to the centre line. Usually expressed in micro-inches or micro
meters, the following table shows the normal (average) range of surface
roughness [in micro-inches] for various manufacturing processes.
Process Roughness Height

Flame cutting 500 to 1000
Sawing 63 to 1000
Drilling 63 to 250
Shaping 63 to 500
EDM 63 to 150
Broaching 32 to 125
Reaming 32 to 125
Honing 4 to 32
Lapping 2 to 16
Sand casting 500 to 1000
Hot rolling 500 to 1000
Permanent mold casting 63 to 125
Drawing 32 to 125
Die casting 32 to 63
References
1. ASME B46.1 -2002, Surface Texture (Surface Roughness, Waviness, and Lay)
2. Machinery’s Handbook, Seventeenth Edition

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4.0 IN SERVICE DETERIORATION OF MATERIALS
Shear
Considering a body centered cubic structure (iron,
chromium, tungsten and vanadium) the slip planes occur
diagonally across the lattice structure. This is easier to
visualize as a deck of cards slipping across each other.
The slip plane includes the centre atom. The figure 4.0a
shows the various slip plane options that can occur.
Figure 4.0a, Slip

Planes BCC Lattice
In a face centered cubic structure (aluminum, nickel,

copper, gold silver, and lead) the slip planes that can occur
are across the face of the lattice structure and are shown in
the darkened planes in the figure 4.0b.
Figure 4.0b, Slip

Planes FCC Lattice
Cleavage
This is the tendency to split along the faces of the crystalline cells. This occurs in
relatively strong hard metals. To picture this consider a brick wall where the
mortar represents the grain boundary, this failure would occur through the brick
not between. To further consider the differences between cleavage and shear
refer to the table 4.0a.

- 159 -
Table 4.0a
Shear Cleavage
Type of movement Sliding Snapping apart
Time of occurrence Gradual Sudden
Deformation Yes No
Behaviour Ductile Brittle
Visual appearance of Dull and fibrous Bright and sparkling
fracture face
Microfractography Dimpled rupture Cleavage
There are other failure modes, in addition to shear and cleavage, but their origins
are not in the basic lattice structure as are shear and cleavage. The other failure
modes are Intergranular fractures, quasi-cleavage fractures, and fatigue fracture.
Intergranular Fracture
This type of failure occurs when the grain boundaries are weaker than the grains
and the failure occurs between the
grains. This would be similar to a
brick wall failure where the cracks
occur through the mortar rather than
through the bricks. Intergranular
failures are usually caused by
environmental factors such as
hydrogen absorption, high
temperatures or certain corrosives. Figure 4.0c, Intergranular Fracture
Figure 4.0c shows an intergranular failure caused by hydrogen embrittlement.

- 160 -
Quasi-cleavage Fractures
This mechanism usually seen in quench and tempered steels is considered a
combination of shear and cleavage.
4.1 Fatigue
Fatigue is considered one of the most serious types of failure because it can
occur under normal service and operating conditions. This phenomenon is
caused by repeating or fluctuating stresses less than the tensile strength of the
material. To differentiate this from a single load under which fracture can occur it
is important to consider first what happens under a single non repeating load that
causes failure. Under these circumstances materials can fail only in one of two
ways: shear and cleavage.
A fatigue fracture on a macro-scale is a brittle fracture, however on a micro-scale

it is a ductile fracture process. The overall component may not undergo any
necking down and the damage may be a tightly closed crack caused by loading
below the net yield strength of the section of the component failing.
Fatigue damage occurs in the presence of cyclic stresses, tensile stresses and
plastic strain and all three must be present for crack propagation. Compressive
stresses will not directly contribute to crack propagation. Micro-cracks maybe
initially present due to welding, forming or heat treatment and then propagate
until final rupture occurs.
Terms used to describe fatigue and fatigue failures:
Fatigue Crack Initiation

Fatigue cracks typically initiate at the surface in an area associated with a stress
concentration; there are exceptions such as just below the surface at material
discontinuities. Cracks may initiate at multiple sights and propagate to be a
single fatigue crack. The initiation sites in steel are usually black in colour.
Ratchet Marks
When the fracture initiation sites occur on a surface in two or more closely
spaced planes and they propagate to join the two closely spaced planes, the
steps are referred to as ratchet marks.
Figure 4.1a shows the geometry of the ratchet mark, joining the two closely
spaced cracks. Figure 4.1b shows a close up of the ratchet mark in a cylindrical
section as a result of rotating bending fatigue.

- 161 -
Figure 4.1a, Ratchet Mark

Figure 4.1b, Ratchet Mark
Fatigue Propagation
There are several microscopic processes of fatigue crack growth which occur
over three stages. The initiation stage of the fatigue crack is highly influenced by
microstructure, mean stress and the environment, which play a lesser role as the
crack propagates. In the second final stages of failure, microstructure, mean
stress and thickness play the significant role and environment has little influence.
The mechanism may be transgranular or intergranular as it propagates.
Beach Marks
Represent changes in the growth rates as the crack propagates and maybe
associated with rapid changes in stress and or oxidation at the crack tip when it
is the unloaded condition. They are often seen on the surface of a fracture face if
the face has not been rubbed during the failure process. On a micro scale
striations can be seen with each striation representing a single cycle.
In the figure 4.1c there are six sets of beach

marks (black curved lines) originating from six
initiation points. This failure is of a shaft made
of AISI 4817 carburized and hardened steel,
loaded in rotating bending.
Figure 4.1c, Fracture Face

- 162 -
Fatigue life is defined as the number of stress cycles of a specified character that
a specimen sustains before failure of a specified nature occurs. Factors that
affect fatigue life include:
 Cyclic stress state
 Geometry
 Surface quality
 Material type
 Residual stress
 Size, type and distribution of internal defects
 Direction of loading
 Grain size
 Environment
 Temperature
Design considerations to prevent fatigue

 Keep stress levels below infinite life level
 Designing for a fixed life after which the component is replaced
 Periodic inspection using NDT at intervals based on crack-growth
Interpreting Fatigue Failures

Shown in figure 4.1d is a fracture
face of a 1050 steel shaft,
hardness 35 RC, which was
subject to rotating bending. It
failed at a groove in the shaft (1).
There were many initiation points
as shown by the many ratchet
marks (2) around the
circumference of the groove.
The eccentric pattern of the
beach marks (3) shows the
unbalanced loading on the shaft
as the crack propagated across
the section of the shaft. The final
failure (4) occurred at the top of
the cross section.
Figure 4.1d, Fracture Face
The following is provided as a guide to helping to understand fatigue fracture

surface marks.

- 163 -
Figure 4.1e, Fracture Faces
Infamous Fatigue Failures
Versailles, France, May 8, 1842, rail accident in which 53 died and another 40
were seriously injured.
Among the dead was
Admiral Dumont d’Urville. It
was felt at the time the front
axle of the locomotive failed
because of “crystallization”.
Failure investigation carried
out later on axles from
Figure 4.1f, May 8, 1842, Axle Failure Location British Railways by William
John Macquorn Rankine,

- 164 -
revealed the problem as fatigue. Shown in figure 4.1f is a sketch by Rankie of

the location of the fatigue crack from the 1842 railway accident. Other
contributors to the early understanding of fatigue included Sir William E Fairburn
a Scottish structural engineer, one of the first engineers to approach failure
investigation in a systematic fashion. He built an early large scale testing device
to study and characterize fatigue. Among Fairburn’s other famous studies was
that of the failure of the bridge over the river Dee, built in 1846 it collapsed in
1847. His investigation showed that the fracture did occur by crack growth from
inherent defects in the material of construction.
Alexander Kielland, a Norwegian semi-submersible drilling

rig capsized in March of 1980 killing 123 people. In winds
of 40 knots and seas of 12m, one of its six bracings failed
(figure 4.1g). Failure investigation revealed a fatigue crack
which initiated at a small fillet weld of a flange plate to the
bracing. The flange plate was used to hold a sonar
transducer during drilling. Poor weld profile and cold cracks
in the weld contributed to the initiation of the crack.
Figure 4.1g, March 1980,
Drill Rig Failure
United Airlines Flight 232 between Denver and Philadelphia
via Chicago crashed 19 July 1989. The
aircraft was a DC10 which experienced a
number 2 engine failure which destroyed all
three of the aircraft’s hydraulic systems. The
aircraft broke up during an emergency landing
on the runway at Sioux City, Iowa. One
hundred and ten of the 285 passengers and
one of the 11 crew were killed. The
investigation revealed a failure of the United
Airlines inspection process to detect an
existing crack in the engine fan disk. The Figure 4.1h, July 19, 1989, United
fracture faces showed traces of a fluorescent Airlines Flight 322, DC 10 Failure
dye used to detect fatigue cracks during maintenance inspections indicating the
crack was present and should have been detected during a prior maintenance
inspection. The crack was traced back to the Alcoa foundry where the
component was sourced. The elimination of gaseous nitrogen which caused the
formation of a hard alpha inclusion in the titanium used to manufacture the disk.
References:
1. ASM Metals Handbook, Volume 11 Failure Analysis and Prevention
2. Wikipedia
3. Donald J Wulpi; Understanding How Components Fail, American Society for Metals
Sydney H Avner; Introduction to Physical Metallurgy, McGraw Hill Book Company

- 165 -
4.2 Corrosion
Corrosion can be broken down into two areas: wet (aqueous corrosion) and dry
(gaseous corrosion). Corrosion can be very costly and technically challenging
phenomena but also it can be a constructive process as when it is used to make
very fine patterns in semiconductor surfaces, electrochemical machining and
polishing, anodes for fuel cells and batteries or in the refining of metals such as
copper and aluminium.
A system, or a part and its environment, will attempt to lower its overall energy
until it reaches a stable point.
Aqueous corrosion is an electrochemical process which occurs at the interface of

a material and an aqueous solution. A metal dissolution and metal oxide
formation and a reduction reaction generally occur simultaneously is often
referred to as anodic reaction. The aqueous corrosion process is affected by:
 The composition and metallurgical properties of the metal or alloy
 Chemical and physical properties of the environment (e.g. temperature,
pH, conductivity, velocity)
 The presence or absence of surface films
 Properties of the surface (e.g. resistivity, thickness, nature of defects)
All metals except gold have a thin corrosion protective film on their surface which
is a result of their interaction with the environment. These protective films are
referred to as passive films and the overall process is referred to as passivity.
The ability or inability of the passive film to protect the material in its environment
may determine the ability of the metal to function properly. The localized
breakdown of this film can be responsible for stress corrosion, pitting, crevice
corrosion and/or corrosion fatigue.
There are several methods employing passivity to control corrosion:

 Cathodic protection, which employs a current applied to the metal to
control the potential at values higher than potential required to maintain
passivity or required to maintain a potential above that required to cause
pitting.
 Alloys that spontaneously form a passive layer such as stainless steel,
nickel or titanium can be employed.
 A surface pre-treatment used on some alloys making them passive can be
used. Nitric acid (20% by volume) at 49°C for 30 minutes is often used for
stainless steel.
 The environment can be modified to produce a passive surface.
Chromates or concentrated nitric acid can be added to the environment to
maintain the contact surfaces passive.

- 166 -
Some specific corrosion mechanisms include:

 Galvanic Corrosion
 Stray Current Corrosion
 Pitting Corrosion
 Crevice Corrosion
 Filiform Corrosion
 Gaseous Corrosion
 Atmospheric Corrosion
 Corrosion-Wear Interactions
 Stress Corrosion Cracking
Galvanic Corrosion
Galvanic corrosion occurs when a metal or an alloy is electrically coupled to
another conducting material in the same electrolyte. For galvanic corrosion to
occur there needs to be three components
 Materials with potential differences
 A common electrolyte
 A common electrical path
When two dissimilar metals with different potentials in the same electrolyte are
electrically isolated from each other galvanic corrosion does not occur. When
they are electrically coupled the corrosion of the least corrosion resistant metal
increases and the surface becomes anodic, while the corrosion resistance of the
most corrosion resistant metal becomes more corrosion resistant and the surface
becomes cathode.
The extent of the corrosion is dependent upon the potential difference between
the two metals or alloys, the environment, polarization of the metals or alloys, the
geometric relationship of the metals or alloys.
The potential difference can be best understood by looking at relative potentials

of metals and alloys in a common electrolyte. For this reason the Galvanic
Series in Sea Water was developed.
Galvanic Series in Sea Water

Listed from the most active (least noble/anodic) to the least active. Sea water is
considered a low oxygen environment; the order may change in other
environments:
 Magnesium
 Zinc
 Zinc plating (galvanizing)
 Beryllium

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 Aluminum alloys (5052, 3004, 3003, 1100, 6053)

 Cadmium
 Aluminum alloys (2117, 2017, 2024)
 Uranium
 Low carbon steel
 Cast iron
 Stainless Steel 410 (active)
 50-50 lead-tin solder
 Lead
 Tin
 Copper alloys
 Nickel (passive)
 Stainless Steel 410 (passive)
 50-50 lead-tin solder
 Silver
 Titanium
 Graphite
 Gold
 Platinum
Passivation is a surface condition that can be applied to the surface of some

metals. Materials such as stainless steel are somewhat autopassivating, that is
they form a protective oxide layer when exposed to air or moisture. The
presence of surface contaminants can interfere with this process. Chemical
cleaning can help facilitate the auto process but is sometimes augmented with
other treatments such as chemical passivation. As an example stainless steels
maybe treated with a nitric acid solution, which removes any free iron from the
surface. Aluminum maybe made more passive by anodizing the surface which is
an electrolytic process to increase the natural oxide layer, to improve the
corrosion and wear resistance or enhance the appearance of the surface.
The separation of two metals in the Galvanic Series is a measure of the probable
magnitude of corrosion; that is the farther apart the two mating materials are
apart on the galvanic series the more quickly the more active material will
corrode.
Polarization (the ability to form the positive and negative poles) to establish the
flow of electrons within the corrosion cell can influence the rate of corrosion. If
the more noble metal is more easily polarized the potential is shifted towards the

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more active metal and therefore minimizes the amount of corrosion. If the more
noble metal is less easily polarized it shifts the potential away from the more
active metal increasing or accelerating the galvanic corrosion.
Geometry Effects such as the ratio between the areas of the two materials can
play a significant role in determining the amount of corrosion. If the area of the
more noble metal is large in comparison to that of the more active metal the
corrosion will be accelerated. The closer the two dissimilar metals or alloys are
to each other the greater the galvanic corrosion, this is of course effected by the
conductivity of the electrolyte. Current travels in the path of least resistance and
this effects corrosion particularly around corners.
Galvanic corrosion is controlled through:

 Material selection, materials closer to each other on the galvanic series
will experience less corrosion, coating used for the purpose of reducing
the separation can also be employed.
 Environmental Control, elimination of the electrolyte, corrosion inhibitors,
deaeration of water, or oxygen scavengers are often employed to reduce
galvanic corrosion.
 Electrochemical techniques:
o Electrical isolation, electrically insulating barriers between the
dissimilar metals.
o Cathodic Protection, the use of sacrificial anodes such as
magnesium or zinc which corrode preferentially protecting the
component or impressed current techniques to offset the induced
current flow.
 Design, avoiding the use of dissimilar fasteners (bolts and rivets), avoiding
crevices, or using replaceable sections.
Stray Current Corrosion

Stray Current Corrosion is caused by an externally introduced electrical current
as an example from electrified railway, pipeline systems, or electrical distribution
systems. The current follows an unintentional path and is discharged usually
very locally accelerating corrosion at the point of discharge.
The stray currents generally leave their intended path to follow a buried pipeline
or other metal structure, as they seek the path of least electrical resistance.
Stray currents have occurred on board ships where welding machines create
stray currents accelerating corrosion in the hull. By ensuring the ground keeps
the ship more negative the welding machine can function as cathodic protection
for the ship and not accelerate corrosion.

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Pitting Corrosion
Pitting Corrosion occurs when the passive
oxide layer breaks down locally resulting in
accelerated corrosion.
Pitting corrosion is influenced by the

environment, metal composition, potential,
temperature and surface conditions.
Surface active chemicals (anions) such as Figure 4.2a, Pitting Corrosion

chloride are often responsible for pitting
corrosion. A cathodic process may accelerate the pit growth. Chromium alloying
may also accelerate the pit growth as will increasing temperature, some
materials will not pit below a certain temperature. A rougher surface finish is
usually more likely to pit than finer finish. Inhibitors used for general corrosion
protection are often useful in reducing pitting corrosion.
Crevice Corrosion
Crevice Corrosion can be one of the most damaging of
the corrosions. Typical locations include: aircraft lap
joints, piping flanges and metal surfaces underneath
protective coatings. Crevice corrosion occurs at a
wetted surface in close proximity to another surface.
Typical gaps between the surfaces are .1 to 100 μm.
Figure 4.2b shows crevice corrosion on the face of a

316 SS flange. Crevice corrosion has many of the
same characteristics as pitting corrosion. It is an
electrochemical reaction affected by the geometry, Figure 4.2b, Crevice
materials and the chemical composition of the Corrosion
electrolyte.
Filiform Corrosion
Filiform Corrosion occurs on metallic surfaces coated with organic films. Typical
examples include aluminum automotive wheels coated with a clear coat lacquer.
Filiform corrosion occurs in aluminum, magnesium and plain carbon steel usually
in high humidity environments. Filiform is an electrolytic process in which the
part being corroded is both the head and tail of the corrosion cell. Separation of
the head and tail is essential, the head being the active area and the tail being
the more passive area. Voltage differences in the range of .3 to .4 volts can
exist.

- 170 -
Figure 4.2c,
Filiform Corrosion
This type of corrosion can be reduced by the use of primers, anodizing, multiple
coat systems, and powder coating or the use of less active substrate materials.
Reducing the humidity below 60% is another way of reducing this type of
corrosion.
Gaseous Corrosion
Gaseous corrosion is primarily associated with combustion systems as metals
deteriorate when exposed to high temperature environments. The surface of the
material reacts with oxygen or SO2 or other gas resulting in an oxide layer
referred to as scale. The thickening scale affords protection to the metal as the
electrons must traverse the surface scale to reach the metal. When the metal
cools the scale may flake off because of differences in expansion and contraction
characteristics. Possible oxidation resistance can be achieved by applying
protective coatings, improving the alloy, altering the composition of the gas
phase.
Atmospheric Corrosion
Atmospheric corrosion is the interaction of metals with their climate (air
temperature, humidity, chemistry etc.). This form of corrosion is different than
that which occurs in a combustion chamber; it can be slowed, prevented and
controlled but never fully stopped. Metals are usually found as ores (oxides of
metals) which is their most stable state to which they will eventually return.
Metals such as potassium, magnesium, beryllium and aluminum have relatively
high excess free energy as compared to metals such as lead, copper, silver
platinum and gold and therefore are more likely to oxidize than those with less
free energy potential.

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Corrosion-Wear Interactions
In aqueous environments two types of corrosive wear occur:
 Differential abrasion in which the freshly abraded surface becomes an
anode and the unabraded surface becomes the cathode in the same
component.
 Galvanic interaction occurs between the abraded surface and another
metallic object.
In gaseous environments at elevated temperatures oxidation occurs, the

elevated temperature softens the material accelerating the wear and making it
easier to penetrate.
Stress Corrosion Cracking

Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) results in service related failures in which crack
propagation is the result of mechanical stresses and corrosion reactions. SCC
involves the simultaneous effects of mechanical stress and environmental
exposure to generate crack growth. The stresses need not be large and are
often residual stresses in the material. The environments causing SCC are
usually aqueous and contain a specific chemical which affects the alloy being
attacked. For example SCC of copper alloys always occurs in the presence of
ammonia, stainless steel and aluminum in the presence of chloride ions. Some
alloys are immune to SCC when in specific heat treat conditions.
SCC is a very slow process until the stresses finally exceed the fracture strength.
References:
1. Shoesmith D.W.; Kinetics of Aqueous Corrosion, University of Western Ontario
2. ASM Metals Handbook, Volume 13A, Corrosion
3. ASTM A967, Standard Specification for Chemical Treatment for Stainless Steel Parts.

- 172 -
4.3 Wear and Erosion
ASTM G40, Standard Terminology Relating to Wear and Erosion, defines wear
as damage to a solid surface usually involving progressive loss or displacement
of material, due to relative motion between that surface and a contacting
substance or substances; and erosion as progressive loss of original material
from a solid surface due to mechanical interaction between that surface and a
fluid, a multi-component fluid or impinging liquid or solid particles.
There are a number of different types of wear experienced by materials in

operating environments:
 Abrasive Wear
 Polishing Wear
 Solid Particle Erosion
 Cavitation Erosion
 Liquid Impingement Erosion
 Slurry Erosion
 Fretting Wear
 Rolling Contact Wear
Abrasive Wear
This type of wear is due to hard particles forced against and along a solid
surface. There are five processes that occur in abrasive wear:
Ploughing is the process of displacing material

from a groove to the sides by plastic deformation
of the material being abraded.
Figure 4.3a, Ploughing
Wedge formation is the material being forced

ahead of the abrading particle.
Figure 4.3b, Wedge

Formation

- 173 -
Cutting is the most severe form of wear for

ductile materials. A chip of material is removed
with very little displacement. This type of wear is
usually associated with very sharp particles.
Micro-fatigue and Micro-cracking are usually

associated with brittle materials and occurs
when the fracture toughness of the material is
Figure 4.3c, Cutting exceeded. This type of abrasion is associated
with ceramics and white cast iron.
Polishing Wear
This type of wear is the interaction of two solids that remove material while
producing a polished finish on at least one of the two surfaces.
Solid Particle Erosion

This is the loss of material from repeated impacts of small solid particles. Sand
blasting is a form of this type of erosion. It can be a serious problem in steam
and jet turbines. This can be extenuated by a corrosion process.
Erosion/corrosion can be a significant issue at elevated temperatures in
applications such as steam turbines, jet turbines, and coal gasification. The
oxidation works in synergy with abrasion mechanisms to remove material.
Cavitation Erosion
Cavitation is the repeated growth and violent collapse of
bubbles in a liquid. Bubbles form when the liquid is under high
tensile stress. Gaseous, liquid and solid impurities act as
nucleation sites for the bubbles. When the bubbles are put
into compression (hydrostatic pressure) the bubbles collapse.
This collapse on the surface is responsible for the erosion that
takes place. Cavitation can occur in any liquid in which
Figure Error! No
pressure fluctuates. These fluctuations can be caused by flow
text of specified
patterns or vibration within the system. The collapse of the
style in
bubble is very localized and involves significant energy. The
figure 4.3d shows an aluminum surface subjected to vibratory document.4.3d
cavitation. Figure 4.3e shows the results of an iron surface
exposed to vibratory cavitation. Cavitation erosion can also be
combined with corrosion increasing the rate of material Figure 4.3e
removal. Figure 4.3f shows the results of cavitation erosion on
a ships impeller.

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Figure 4.3f, Cavitation Erosion of an Impeller
Liquid Impingement Erosion

This is defined as the progressive loss of original
material from a solid surface due to continued
impacts by liquid droplets or jets. This is a significant
issue for low pressure steam turbine blades operating
with wet steam, rain erosion on aircraft and missile
surfaces as well as rotor blades on helicopters. Most
often the problem is in combination with corrosion
Figure 4.3g shows the affect of rain erosion on the

dome of a Maverick missile exposed at 210 m/sec.
Figure 4.3g, Liquid

Impingement Erosion
Slurry Erosion
Slurry erosion occurs when a mixture of solid particles in a liquid impinges on a
surface at a high velocity. This is seen in pumps and the impingement sides of
elbows in slurry pipeline service.

- 175 -
Adhesive Wear
Figure 4.3h, Adhesive Wear
Often referred to as galling or scuffing, adhesive wear is the result of adhesion of

particle of mating surfaces. As movement continues the forces cause a shearing
away of the adhered particles from their parent surfaces. This causes a series of
wear particles now free from their parent surfaces to be trapped and cause
further wearing of the surfaces.
Fretting Wear
The term fretting wear is defined by ASTM G40,
Standard Terminology Relating to Wear and Erosion, as
the wear arising from fretting. Fretting is small
amplitude oscillating motion, usually tangential between
two solid surfaces. The small amplitude vibratory
motion between the two surfaces causes adhesion. It is
often seen between surfaces that are not intended to Figure 4.3i,
move with respect to each other such as in a press fit. Fretting Wear
Fretting often acts in concert with corrosion (fretting
corrosion) in which case, oxides from the surface result
in a lapping of the surfaces. This is characterized by red-brown patches on the
otherwise shiny surfaces.

- 176 -
Rolling Contact Wear

Rolling contact wear or
rolling contact fatigue
involves several steps:
Repeated stresses by
rolling contact cause
dislocations within the
crystalline structure which
lead to micro cracks which
propagate into the
material surface, the
cracks link up, causing
flakes, pits and/or spalls to
occur. The damage
continues to spread, often
initiating major fatigue
cracks in the material.
This is seen in rolling
element bearings and on Figure 4.3j,
the surface of gear teeth. Rolling Contact Wear
Figure 4.3j shows rolling
contact fatigue on the tooth of a spiral bevel gear.
References:
1. ASTM G40-05, Standard Terminology Relating to Wear and Erosion.
2. Olds Engineering, Maryborough, Australia, http://www.olds.com.au/
3. ASM Handbook, Volume 18, Friction, Lubrication, and Wear Technology
4. Materials Laboratory, Wright Research and Development Center, Department of the US Air Force
5. Bhushan, Bharat and Gupta, B. K.; Handbook of Tribology, McGraw-Hill Inc.,

- 177 -
5. 0 OTHER SOURCES OF DISCONTINUITIES
Discontinuities can arise from a variety of sources related to:

 Design deficiencies
 Material defects
 Manufacturing and installation defects
 Service related defects
Others that need to be considered are:

 Inspection techniques
o Arc burn from the use of prods during magnetic particle inspection
o Intergranular attack or embrittlement from macro-etching
o Fatigue cracks arising from stress raisers such as steel
identification stamp marks
o Chemical damage using penetrants and cleaners on nickel alloys
and plastics
o Damage by ultrasonic couplants usually related to plastics
 Improper maintenance
o Misalignment causing undo stress on components
o Improper weld repairs resulting in failure through subsequent
fatigue
 Inappropriate modifications
o Unintentionally weakening components or structure by improperly
designed repairs/modifications
Specific Application Defects
Gear-tooth Defects
Gear teeth may experience wear and pitting or fatigue
cracking. Teeth may crack as a result of bending fatigue, see
figure 5.0a. The repeated stresses have exceeded the
endurance limit of the material and a fatigue crack initiates
and progresses until the tooth or part of the tooth breaks
away. Fatigue cracks will often initiate at stress risers such as
nicks or small heat treat cracks near the base of the tooth.
Rim and web cracks can cause gear failure. They usually
initiate at the root of the tooth and progress through the rim
and into the web. See figure 5.0b. Figure 5.0a,
Crack in Gear Tooth

- 178 -
Figure 5.0b, Gear Rim and Web

Crack
Sulphuric Acid Tanks

Sulphuric acid storage tanks experience a number of problems of interest to NDT
practioners in particular:
Hydrogen Grooving
Hydrogen grooving is a localized attack that
occurs on vertical or inclined surfaces
caused by hydrogen that is evolved from
the sulphuric acid. It is characterized by
vertical channels cut into the walls of the
tanks by hydrogen bubbles. As the bubbles
of hydrogen rise up in the liquid acid they
take a preferred path along the edge of the
Figure 5.0c, Hydrogen Grooving
vertical surface. The bubbles disturb the
formation of the iron sulphate film that
forms on the surface of the steel. The bubbles will continue to channel their way
through the walls of the tank. They are common in the vertical walls, the upper
half of horizontal cylindrical storage tanks and in the upper half of horizontal man-
ways. See figure 5.0c.

- 179 -
Horizontal Grooving
Carbon steel tanks can be successfully used to store sulphuric acid at
concentration of 100%. As the concentration of the acid falls the rate of
corrosion increases. At 96% acid concentration the corrosion rate is
considerably higher. If 100% sulphuric acid is stored in a tank that has an
opening to the environment, condensation can form on the walls above the liquid
level of the acid. The moisture from the air lowers the surface concentration
causing localized corrosion (horizontal grooving) at the liquid level. This can be
particularly severe when the liquid level remains stationary.
Hydrogen Blistering
Hydrogen blisters form within the steel vessel, usually in the floor of the vessel, at
lamination sites within the plate material. Molecular hydrogen from the acid
migrates to the site forming gas filled blisters. The blisters will continue to
expand until arrested.
The above examples are provided to highlight the importance of knowing the
failure mechanisms when designing an inspection system.
References:
1. Shipley, Eugene E., Machine Design, December 7, 1967, Gear Failures
2. Tiivel M., McGlynn F.; CIL Inc, Design, Fabrication and Inspection of Sulphuric Acid Tanks
3. ASM Metals Handbook, Volume 13C, Corrosion, Environments and Industries

- 180 -
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Alloy Steel: an iron based mixture which is considered to be alloyed steel when the
carbon content is less than 1.7% and manganese is greater than 1.65%, silicon is over
.5%, copper is above .6% or other minimum quantities of other alloying elements such
as chromium, nickel, molybdenum, or tungsten are present.
Amorphous: a solid in which there is no long range order to the position of atoms, not
crystalline.
Annealing: A heat treatment process that involves heating the metal to above the
recrystallization temperature and then slow cooling, to improve its ductility.
Atom: Is the smallest particle of a chemical element, consisting of a dense central

nucleus and surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons.
Atomic Mass: The total mass of the neutrons, protons and electrons in a single atom
when the atom is motionless.
Atomic Number: The number of protons in the nucleus of the atom.
Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF): a pear shaped, refractory lined vessel which can refine
steel in less than an hour, it replaced the open hearth process in the 1950’s a process
that would take upwards of 6 hours.
Blast Furnace: tall cylindrical, refractory lined furnace used to smelt iron from iron ore.
Hot blast air is forced up through the iron ore, coke and limestone that is loaded in the
furnace from the top.
Billets are semi-finished steel: used to produce products of length such as bars,
channels and other structural shapes. They are usually continuously cast and have a
dimension of 50 to 200 mm square.
Blooms: Semi-finished steel with a rectangular cross section greater than 200 mm
used to produce wide flange and I beams or high quality bars.
Carbonaceous: term defining a substance rich in carbon.
Cogging: The forging process of reducing an ingot into a billet.
Coining: A subsequent forging operation to change an existing radius.
Cold Rolling: a milling operation that follows hot rolling and pickling to reduce thickness
in the range from .6 mm to 3.0 mm. The result is a thinner sheet, smoother with
improved surface finish and mechanical properties and resultant increase in length.
Discontinuity: a change, break or interruption in the normal physical structure of a

material (see inherent discontinuities, processing discontinuities, service discontinuities).

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Defect: A discontinuity that because of its size, shape, orientation or location renders
the part unsuitable for service.
Draft: The amount of taper on the side walls of the dies to permit removal of the forging
from the dies.
Electric Arc Furnace: a furnace where scrap steel usually makes up all of the charge.
Heat is supplied from the arc between graphite electrodes and the metal bath.
Electrical conductivity (σ): A measure of a materials ability to conduct electric current

between two points sometimes referred to as specific conductance.
Electron Volt (eV): The amount of energy gained when a single electron is accelerated
through a potential of one volt.
Electrowinning: An electroplating process used to remove metal ions from

concentrated solutions.
Eutectic: In the iron-carbon equilibrium diagram it is the lowest temperature at which the
pure phase austenite can exist. At this composition (.8% C) the transformation is directly
from austenite to pearlite as the steel cools.
Explosive forming: The shaping of metal where the force is generated by an explosive
charge.
Extrusion pipe: A discontinuity that occurs in the last portion of an extruded bar when
oxide on the surface of the bar flows around the end and is entrapped at the centre of
the bar.
Faying surfaces: Surfaces in contact with each other about to be joined together.
Fermion: A particle, such as an electron, proton, or neutron, having half-integral spin

and obeying statistical rules requiring that not more than one in a set of identical
particles may occupy a particular quantum state.
Flash: A thin protrusion at the line where the upper and lower dies meet. It represents
material in excess of that needed for the body of forging. See figure 3.4d
Grain size: A grain is a domain within the metal that has the structure of a single crystal.
Grain size is the dimension of the individual crystal. In some nonferrous metals such as
alpha brasses it is expressed in mm and in others such as steels is expressed as a grain
size number based on the number of grains in a given area of cross section.
Graphite: The most stable form of carbon.
Hot Rolling: a milling operation that reduces the hot slab into a rolled coil at red hot
temperatures.

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Hot shortness: A condition that causes some alloys to separate along grain boundaries
when deformed near the melting temperature.
Hyper-Eutectoid: In steel is an ultra high carbon steel, one that has carbon content
greater than the eutectoid composition of .8% and islands of cementite will be present.
Hypo-Eutectoid: In steel is a carbon content less than .8% in which island of excess
ferrite will be present.
IACS (International Annealed Copper Standard): A measure of electrical conductivity

expressed as a percent of the resistance of annealed copper wire.
Indication: The inspection systems response to a discontinuity.
Ingots are semi-finished steel: where liquid steel has been poured into a mold which
is allowed to slow cool. Typically 25 to 30 ton ingots are produced
Inherent discontinuity: introduced during the initial production from the molten state
and can occur during various casting processes or during the casting of the original
ingot.
Ion: An atom that has lost or gained one or more electrons.
Isotope: Any of the different atoms of the same element that have nuclei with the same
number of protons but different number of neutrons.
Killed steel: deoxidized steel in which no reaction will occur between the carbon and
oxygen as solidification occurs.
ksi: (Thousand pounds per square inch) a unit measure of stress in the imperial
system.
Metal: A chemical element whose atoms readily loose electrons to form positive ions
and form metallic bonds between other metal atoms and ionic bonds with non-metal
atoms. It can be considered as a lattice of positive ions surrounded by a cloud of
electrons.
Metastable phase: A phase that is in quasi equilibrium, it will not change with time but
will change with only slight interaction.
MPa: (Mega Pascals) a unit measure of stress in the SI system.
Nucleation Points: In the solidification of metals these are the first solid particle to form
around which the solidification process takes place.
Nucleus: All of the bound protons and neutrons that make up the tiny, dense centre of
the atom. The radius of the nucleus is much smaller than the radius of the atom on the

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order of 105. The protons and neutron are held together by a short range force called
the residual strong force.
Parting: A line along the forging where the dies meet. The location where flash forms.
pH: a relative measure of acidity or basicity. Pure water is neutral and at 25°C it has pH
of 7.0. A pH of less than 7.0 is acidic and above 7.0 basic (or alkaline).
Phase: Is a physically homogenous portion of the metal, e.g. ferrite, cementite and
austenite.
Pickling: a process of cleaning a steel coil of rust, dirt and oil to make it ready for further
rolling.
Plate: a sheet steel with a width more than 200 mm and a thickness ranging form 6 to
300 mm.
Poisson’s Ratio: The ratio of transverse strain to longitudinal extension. The ratio of
the reduction in size (perpendicular to the axis) to the lengthening in the axial direction
as a specimen is pulled in tension along its axis.
Processing discontinuity: caused by further processing from the cast state, including
any fabrication and/or finishing.
Quark: A quark is an elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter.

Quarks combine to form composite particles called hadrons.
Radioactive Decay: Every element has one or more isotopes that have unstable nuclei
and are subject to radioactive decay causing the nucleus to emit particles
or electromagnetic radiation. Radioactive decay occurs when the radius of the nucleus
is large compared to the radius of the strong force. There are three principle forms of
radioactive decay: Alpha, Beta and Gamma.
Rod: A cylindrical section of a diameter greater than 9.5 mm and significant length.
Service discontinuity: arise in the use of the end product due either to environment,
load, or perhaps both.
Slabs: the most common type of semi-finished steel shapes. Traditional slabs are 250
mm thick and 750 to 2200 mm wide and about 6 m long.
Solution heat treatment: is the process of heating to a suitable temperature, holding at

that temperature until one or more of the constituents enter into a solid solution and then
rapidly cooling to hold them in solution.
Strip: thin flat steel similar to hot rolled steel but with a maximum width of 300 mm

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Temper Mill Rolling: a type of cold mill rolling consisting of one or two stands that is
used to cold finish annealed steel sheet to achieve the final mechanical properties.
Thermal conductivity: The property of a material that indicates its ability to conduct
heat.
Vacuum Degassing: an advanced steel process that removes oxygen, hydrogen and
nitrogen under low pressure (vacuum) to produce ultra-low-carbon steel for demanding
applications.
Vacuum Oxygen Degassing: a process to reduce carbon content in stainless steels, it

follows the electric arc furnace and is done in a vessel that has oxygen injection, stirring
and removal of gases by vacuum.
Wrought: a process of changing shape of solidified metal through plastic deformation.
Temper: in aluminum and other nonferrous alloys is the degree of hardness achieved
by mechanical and/or thermal treatment.
ZrO2 (zirconium oxide): an extreme refractory material, it can be used up to

temperatures of 2400°C, high density, low thermal conductivity and chemically inert.

- 185 -
Abrasive Machining .................. 162 Cast Iron....................................... 20

Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene. 53 Alloy ........................................... 23
Adhesion Testing ........................ 80 Carbon Content ......................... 20
Aging............................................ 87 Chilled ........................................ 23
Allotropy ...................................... 13 Compacted Graphite.................. 22
Alloys Ductile ........................................ 21
Affects Of .................................. 23 Ductility ...................................... 20
Aluminum .................................... 40 Gray ........................................... 20
Properties Of ............................. 40 Malleable ................................... 22
Aluminum Production ................ 40 Semi Ductile .............................. 22
Annealing .................................... 81 White ......................................... 20
Arc Strikes ................................. 123 Casting ....................................... 142
Atom............................................... 2 Casting Discontinuities ............ 150
Atomic Bonding ............................ 8 Casting, Bonded Sand Molds ... 144
Atoms ............................................. 3 Casting, Centrifugal Casting .... 149
Structure ...................................... 7 Casting, Ceramic Molding ........ 146
Austenite ..................................... 17 Casting, Cold Box Process ...... 145
Austenitic .................................... 32 Casting, Continuous ................. 150
AWS 5.1 ....................................... 92 Casting, Counter Gravity Low
AWS 5.4 ....................................... 93 Pressure ................................. 150
AWS 5.5 ....................................... 94 Casting, Die Casting ................. 148
Basic Oxygen Furnace ............... 35 Casting, Direct Injection Process
Bauxite Ore .................................. 40 ................................................. 149
Bauxite Ore .................................. 40 Casting, Horizontal Centrifugal 149
Bending ..................................... 128 Casting, Hot Box Process ........ 145
Bessemer Converters ................. 36 Casting, Hot Chamber Process 148
Binary........................................... 18 Casting, Investment Casting .... 146
Biodegradable Plastics .............. 55 Casting, Oven Bake Process .... 145
Black Light .................................... 8 Casting, Permanent Mold Casting
Blast Furnace ........................ 20, 35 ................................................. 147
Blister Copper ............................. 47 Casting, Plaster Mold Casting .. 146
Blistering ..................................... 60 Casting, Rammed Graphite
Body-Centered Cubic ................. 12 Casting Process..................... 147
Boriding ....................................... 86 Casting, Sand Molding.............. 143
Brazing ......................................... 88 Casting, Shell Process.............. 145
Bright Annealing ......................... 87 Casting, Unbonded Sand Molds
Brinell Hardness Test ................. 67 ................................................. 145
Broaching .................................. 160 Casting, Vertical Centrifugal .... 150
Bulk Forming ............................. 131 Cementite ..................................... 17
Burnishing ................................. 161 Ceramics ...................................... 56
Calcination .................................. 41 Charpy Impact Test ..................... 70
Carbonitriding ............................. 86 Cold Rolling ................................. 36
Carburizing .................................. 86 Cold Treating Of Steel................. 85

- 194 -
Composites ................................. 62 Discontinuity

Compounds ................................... 8 Other Sources ......................... 185
Compression Test....................... 61 Gear Tooth .............................. 185
Compressive Strength Testing .. 77 Bursts ...................................... 139
Concrete ...................................... 59 Chemical Segregation ............. 138
Conventional Press .................... 50 Cold Cracks ............................. 152
Copper ......................................... 47 Cold Shot ................................. 155
Alloys Of .................................... 48 Cold Shuts ............................... 153
Properties Of ............................. 47 Core Shift ................................. 156
Copper Concentrate ................... 47 Flash Line Tear ........................ 141
Coreless Induction Furnace ....... 20 High Hydrogen Content ........... 139
Corrosion ............................. 61, 173 Hot Crack ................................. 152
Atmospheric ............................ 178 Hot Tear ................................... 150
Crevice .................................... 177 In Pipe ..................................... 159
Filiform .................................... 177 Inclusions ................................. 155
Galvanic .................................. 174 Internal Cracks ........................ 140
Gaseous .................................. 178 Laminations ............................. 140
Pitting ...................................... 177 Laps ......................................... 140
Stray Current ........................... 176 Misrun ...................................... 155
Stress Cracking ....................... 179 Non-Metallic Inclusions ............ 139
Wear Interactions .................... 179 Porosity .................................... 153
Counter Sinking ........................ 161 Seams ..................................... 140
Covalent Bonding ......................... 9 Segregation ............................. 156
Cracking ...................................... 60 Shrinkage ........................ 138, 154
Crazing ......................................... 60 Stringers .................................. 140
Creep And Stress-Relaxation Surface Cracking ..................... 141
Testing ..................................... 80 Un-Fused Chill ....................... 156
Critical Point ................................ 10 Weld Repair ............................... 157
Crushing ...................................... 40 Dislocations ................................. 14
Crystal Growth ............................ 13 Drawing ...................................... 136
Cupola .......................................... 20 Drilling ........................................ 160
Cutting Operations ................... 129 Duplex Stainless.......................... 32
Delaminations ............................. 64 Dusting ......................................... 60
Dendrite ....................................... 14 Ejection Cracks ........................... 51
Density Variation......................... 52 Elastic Hardness Test ................. 65
Descaling ..................................... 36 Electric Arc Cutting ................... 130
Determining Hardenability Of Electric Arc Furnace ................... 20
Steels ........................................ 78 Electric Arc Furnaces ................. 38
Die Threading ............................ 161 Electrogas Welding ................... 107
Diffusion Welding ..................... 109 Electromagnetic Force.................. 7
Digesting ..................................... 40 Electromagnetic Spectrum ........... 8
Discontinuities Electron Beam Surface Hardening
Related To Machining ............. 163 ................................................... 86
Electron Beam Welding ............ 106

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Electrons ....................................... 7 Full Anneal ................................... 81

Electroslag Welding.................. 107 Fusion Welding ........................... 90
Electro-Winning .......................... 47 Gas Cutting ................................ 129
Elements ........................................ 7 Gas Metal Arc Welding ............... 94
Engineering Stress ..................... 75 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding ........ 97
Epoxy ........................................... 55 Glass ............................................ 56
Equilibrium Diagrams ................. 15 Grain Boundaries ........................ 14
Erosion Green Strength ............................ 50
Cavitation ................................ 181 Grinding ............................... 40, 162
Liquid Impingement ................. 182 Groove Welds ............................ 113
Slurry ....................................... 182 Guided Bend Tests...................... 77
Solid Particle ........................... 181 Hardening .................................... 82
Excess Concavity ..................... 124 Hardness Tests ........................... 65
Excess Reinforcement ............. 124 Heat Affected Zone.................... 117
Explosion Welding .................... 109 Heat Treatment Of Steels ............ 81
Explosive Forming .................... 129 Hexagonal Close-Packed............ 13
Extrusion ................................... 135 High Frequency Welds.............. 105
Face-Centered Cubic .................. 13 History ............................................ 2
Fatigue ....................................... 168 Honey Combing ........................... 60
Beach Marks ........................... 169 Honing ........................................ 162
Crack Initiation......................... 168 Hook Cracks .............................. 159
Interpreting .............................. 170 Horizontal Grooving .................. 187
Propagation ............................. 169 Hot Crack ................................... 118
Ratchet Marks ......................... 168 Hot Isostatic Pressing................. 51
Fatigue Tests ............................... 73 Hot Rolling ................................... 36
Fermion .......................................... 7 Hydrogen Blistering .................. 187
Ferrite........................................... 17 Hydrogen Grooving................... 186
Ferritic.......................................... 32 Hydrogen Induced Crack .......... 118
Fibre Reinforced Concrete ......... 59 Impact Damage ............................ 64
Fillet Welds ................................ 112 Impact Sites ................................. 57
Flame Surface Hardening ........... 85 Improper Sintering ...................... 52
Flash Welding............................ 102 In Service Deterioration Of
Fluorescent ................................... 8 Materials
Flux Cored Arc Welding ............. 95 Shear ....................................... 166
Forging ...................................... 131 Incomplete Fusion..................... 119
Forging, Closed Die .................. 133 Incomplete Penetration............. 120
Forging, Hammer And Drop ..... 132 Induction Surface Hardening ..... 85
Forging, Open Die ..................... 132 Insufficient Reinforcement ....... 124
Forging, Press ........................... 132 Intergranular Fracture ............... 167
Forging, Roll .............................. 132 Ionic Bonding ................................ 8
Forging, Upset........................... 132 Knoop Hardness Test ................. 70
Forming ..................................... 127 Ladle Furnace .............................. 38
Friction Stir Welding ................. 110 Lamellar Tear ............................. 119
Friction Testing ........................... 80 Lapping ...................................... 162

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Laser Beam Welding................. 106 Polyamide .................................... 53

Laser Cutting ............................. 130 Polyethylene ................................ 53
Laser Surface Hardening ........... 86 Polyethylene Terephthalate ........ 53
Lattice .......................................... 12 Polymethyl Methacrylate ............ 53
Machining .................................. 160 Polymorphism ............................. 13
Suface Texture ........................ 163 Polypropylene ............................. 53
Machining Defects ...................... 57 Polystyrene .................................. 53
Manufacturing Of Pipe .............. 158 Polyurethane ............................... 55
Manufacturing Processes .......... 81 Polyvinyl Chloride ....................... 53
Martensitic ................................... 32 Porosity ................................ 64, 122
Matter Powder Forging ........................... 51
Solid; Liquid; Gaseous ................ 9 Powder Metallurgy ...................... 50
Mechanical Testing ..................... 65 Precipitation ................................ 41
Melamine-Formaldehyde ............ 55 Precipitation Hardening Stainless
Metal Injection Molding .............. 51 Steels ........................................ 32
Metallic Bonding ......................... 12 Preform ........................................ 51
Metallic Bonding ........................... 9 Pre-Stressed Concrete................ 59
Micro-Laminations ...................... 52 Primary Steel Making .................. 34
Mill Test Reports ........................... 5 Process Anneal ........................... 81
Milling ........................................ 160 Processing Defects ..................... 57
Modulus Of Elasticity ................. 76 Properties Of Materials ............... 10
Mohs Hardness ........................... 66 Protons........................................... 7
Molten Steel ................................. 36 Puddling Furnaces ...................... 35
Nature Of Matter ............................ 2 Quarks ............................................ 7
Neutrons ........................................ 7 Quasi-Cleavage Fractures ........ 168
Nickel ........................................... 45 Quench Crack .............................. 87
Properties Of ............................. 45 Ratchet Marks ............................ 168
Nitriding ....................................... 86 Reaming ..................................... 160
Nitrocarburizing .......................... 86 Recrystallization .......................... 87
Normalizing ................................. 82 Recrystallization Temperature ... 36
Nucleus .......................................... 7 Refractories ................................. 56
Open Hearth Furnaces ............... 36 Reinforced Concrete ................... 59
Overlap ...................................... 122 Resistance Seam Welding ........ 102
Pearlite ......................................... 17 Resistance Spot Welding ......... 101
Periodic Table ............................... 2 Ring Rolling ............................... 135
Phase Diagrams .......................... 15 Rockwell Hardness Test ............. 68
Phenolics ..................................... 55 Roll Forming .............................. 137
Photon ........................................... 8 Rubber Die Bending .................. 128
Pig Iron ........................................ 20 S/N Curve ..................................... 73
Pipe Sizing ................................. 159 Sawing........................................ 161
Plasma Arc Cutting ................... 130 Scleroscope ................................. 65
Plasma Arc Welding ................... 98 Secondary Steel Production ...... 37
Plasma-MIG Welding ................ 101 Sensitization ................................ 87
Plastics ........................................ 53 Settling ......................................... 41

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Shaping ...................................... 160 Thread Milling ............................ 161

Shearing .................................... 129 Thread Rolling ........................... 161
Shells ............................................. 7 Thread Rolling ........................... 137
Shielded Metal Arc Welding ....... 91 Time Temperature Transformation
Sinter............................................ 50 Diagram .................................... 83
Slag Inclusion............................ 121 Titanium-Carbon Diffusion ......... 86
Slump Test .................................. 61 Toughness ................................... 87
Smelting ....................................... 41 Toyota Diffusion Process ........... 86
Soldering ..................................... 88 Transformation Temperatures ... 87
Solid State Welding .................. 108 Trepanning................................. 161
Solution Heat Treatment ............ 87 Triple Point .................................... 9
Spalling ........................................ 60 Tukon Hardness Tests ................ 69
Spheroidizing .............................. 82 Tungsten Inclusion ................... 123
Steel ............................................. 25 Turning ....................................... 160
Steels Ultrasonic Contact Impedance
Carbon Content ......................... 25 Hardness Test .......................... 70
Chemical Content ...................... 25 Undercut .................................... 120
Classification And Designation .. 25 Unsaturated Polyester ................ 55
Rimmed; Capped; Semi-Killed .. 25 Upset Welding ........................... 103
Strain............................................ 75 Vacuum Arc Remelting ............... 38
Strain Aging................................. 87 Vacuum Tank Degassing ............ 38
Stress ........................................... 75 Vickers Hardness Test ................ 69
Stress Relief ................................ 81 Wear
Stress Strain Curve..................... 75 Abrasive ................................... 180
Stress Strain Curve..................... 75 Adhesive .................................. 183
Stress-Relief Annealing .............. 81 Fretting .................................... 183
Structural Clay Products ............ 56 Polishing .................................. 181
Stud Arc Welding ...................... 100 Rolling Contact ........................ 184
Subcritical Annealing ................. 81 Wear And Erosion ..................... 180
Submerged Arc Welding ............ 99 Wear And Surface Damage
Sulphuric Acid Tanks ............... 186 Testing ...................................... 80
Surface Hardening ...................... 85 Weld Fitness-For-Service ......... 115
Tapping ...................................... 161 Weld Geometry Terminology ... 110
Technical ..................................... 56 Weld Quality .............................. 115
Technical Ceramics .................... 57 Welding ........................................ 88
Tempering ................................... 85 Welding Processes ..................... 90
Tensile Testing ............................ 74 Welding Symbols ...................... 111
Thermite Welding ...................... 108 Welding, Discontinuities........... 117
Thermoplastic ............................. 53 Welding, Travel Speed .............. 117
Thermosetting Plastic ................ 53 White Ware ................................... 56
Thread Grinding ........................ 161 Young’s Modulus ........................ 76

- 198 -

Engineering Materials and Processes 2014

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Engineering Materials and Processes 2014

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CANADIAN INSTITUTE FOR NDE Section 1

Engineering Materials and Processes

2. Mechanical Testing of Materials

4. In Service Deterioration of Materials

5. Other Sources of Discontinuities

7. Hardness Comparison Chart

Engineering, Materials and Components

1.1 NATURE OF MATTER

Understanding the nature of materials plays an important role in our

Understanding the nature of materials also aids in understanding the NDT

Engineering, Materials and Components

The mass spectrometer an instrument developed to measure the exact mass of

James Chadwick (Nobel Prize in Physics 1935) in 1932 explained isotopes as

Engineering, Materials and Components

Engineering, Materials and Components

Engineering, Materials and Components

Engineering, Materials and Components

Atoms of all elements consist of even smaller particles.

The electrons in each atom are attracted to the nucleus by an electromagnetic

Engineering, Materials and Components

The three methods of atomic bonding are:

Figure 1.1e, Ionic Bonding

Engineering, Materials and Components

Matter can exist in four states: solid, liquid,

The state of the atom depends on the

Engineering, Materials and Components

Properties of solid materials can be divided into the following categories:

Engineering, Materials and Components

1.2.1 Introduction (metallic bonding)

A chemist might describe a metal as a chemical element whose atoms readily

Engineering, Materials and Components

Figure 1.2c, HCP

Engineering, Materials and Components

Figure 1.2d shows a dendrite formation. The dendrites

Engineering, Materials and Components

Iron-Iron Carbide Equilibrium Diagram

Figure 1.2e is a cooling

Engineering, Materials and Components

take place after magnetization it may not be necessary to demagnetize the

Figure 1.2f, Iron-Carbon Equilibrium Diagram

The x-axis (horizontal) represents the percentage of carbon; we are seeing a

Engineering, Materials and Components

temperature is about 1500°C. Consider alloy 1 shown on the diagram as it cools

The phases of plain carbon steel are:

 Ferrite is relatively pure iron with

Engineering, Materials and Components

 Pearlite is the eutectoid mixture which

Figure 1.2j, Copper-Nickel Phase Diagram

Engineering, Materials and Components

Engineering, Materials and Components

1.2.2 Cast Iron

By definition cast iron contains between 2% and 4% carbon and 1% to 3% silicon

There are several families of cast iron:

White Cast Iron named because it exhibits a

Gray Cast Iron is the most widely used of all cast

Engineering, Materials and Components

Figure 1.2.2c, Gray Cast Iron Housings

Engineering, Materials and Components

Engineering, Materials and Components

Figure 1.2.2h, Automotive

Chilled Cast Iron is a white cast iron layer at the

The affects of various alloys:

Engineering, Materials and Components