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Chapter I
Learning Objectives
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The Self from Various Perspectives Chapter I
Unit 1
PHILOSOPHY
Learning Objectives
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Meaning of Philosophy
The Greek philosophers are considered as the forerunners in the study of man. In this
topic, we will attempt to understand the nature of identity of the self from the Greek
Philosophy. But what is personal identity? The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
defined personal identity as philosophical questions that arise about ourselves by virtue of
our being people (or, as lawyers and philosophers like to say, persons). There are several
problems of personal identity that are loosely connected. These are the following: Who
Am I?; Personhood; Persistence; Evidence; Population; What Am I?; and What Matters in
Identity? We will limit our discussion with the question of Who Am I? Before we can give
some answers to this question, let us first try to give answers to the activity below.
Answer the following questions regarding yourself as fully and specifically as you can:
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The Self from Various Perspectives Chapter I
The difficulties in answering these questions are an indication of the challenges posed by
the concept of the self. The responses to these questions reflect our cultural, social and
religious environment in which we were raised. According to Chaffe, J. (2013), the concept
of the “self” has been an ongoing and evolving, subject of inquiry among philosophers
since the time of Socrates. To grapple with the concept of the self is to begin to explore
what it is to know, to believe, to think, to be conscious.
Who exactly is your “self”? What are the qualifications that define it? What differentiates
your particular “self” from all others? What is the relation of your “self” to your “body”?
How does your “self” relate to the other “selves”? What happens to a “self” when the body
dies? In what ways is it possible for you to “know” your “self”? In what ways you might
never fully know your “self?
The following are the Philosophers and their philosophies about the self.
1. Socrates (469-399 B.C.). Socrates was reacting against the Sophists in his time.
Sophists believed in personal good, that which benefits an individual person. The
problem is, we have relative definition of what is good - moral relativism. Socrates
has to find a way to establish morality on common grounds, that is, a moral
standard that cannot come from the individual per se (Alejandro, R., personal
communication, July 29, 2020). Believing on rationalistic moral Philosophy, reason
or rationality, according to Socrates, is the main component in shaping moral
comportment. He thought that the self is not just mind-body aggregate but also a
moral being, thus, he argued that happiness without morality is impossible.
(Degho, S. et al., 2019). For Socrates, man must live a moral life to be happy, but
how, then, the self, be able to live a good moral life?
First, the self must focus on improving the quality of the soul or moral life
instead of indulging in the chase of material things, fame and prestige.
Second, the improvement of the soul can be achieved through the quest for
wisdom and truth. Thus, Socrates believed in the idea that knowledge equals
virtue. Consequently, wrongdoings occur because one fails to attain what is really
good for one’s life.
Third, life must be ceaselessly examined for it to be worth living. By examining
one’s life, the self will be able to know his/her true nature, what is really good for
him/her and what really matters in life that begets happiness. True happiness
comes from goodness or living out a moral life (Castell & Borchert, 1988 cited in
Degho, S. et al., 2019)
For Socrates, reality is dualistic, made up of two dichotomous realms: the
physical realm and the ideal realm. The self in the physical realm changes, is
imperfect, and it dies, whereas the self in the ideal realm, represented by the soul,
is perfect, unchanging and immortal (Chafee, J., 2013).
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2. Plato (427-3447 B.C.). The self is a rational substance consisting of body and soul,
according to Plato. Thus, he adheres to the idea of Socrates’ dualistic nature of
reality. The soul comes from the world of ideas, while the body comes from the
world of matter. He claimed that man is essentially a soul imprisoned in a body.
The individual self that exists in this world is not real since the self exists in space
and time, passes in and out of existence (Degho, S., 2019). This dualistic view of the
self posits a material substance ( physical body) and immaterial substance ( mind
or soul). These are two separate aspects of the self. For Socrates and Plato, the self
was synonymous with the soul. Every human being, they believed, possessed an
immortal soul that survived the physical body.
In Phaedrus, Plato’s elaborated the concept of the soul, as he introduced the
idea of a three-part soul/self composed of:
a) Reason – our divine essence that enables us to think deeply, make
wise choices and achieve a true understanding of the eternal
truths.
b) Physical appetite – our basic biological needs such as hunger,
thirst, and sexual desire; and
c) Spirit or passion – our basic emotions such as love, anger.
ambition, aggressiveness and empathy.
These three elements of our soul/self are in a dynamic relationship with one
another. Plato illustrates his view of the self in a metaphor. In the Chariot Analogy, the
soul is likened to a chariot drawn by two powerful winged horse: a noble horse (Spirit)
and a wild horse (Appetite). The charioteer is the Reason. Those charioteers who are
successful in setting a true course and ensuring that the two steeds work together in
harmonious unity achieve true wisdom and banquet with the gods, while charioteers who
are unable to control their horses and keep their chariot on track are destined to
experience personal, intellectual failure. Plato believed that genuine happiness can only
be achieved by people who consistently make sure that their Reason is in control of their
Spirits and Appetites, representing his concept of Justice (Chafee, J. 2013).
The Medieval philosophy relegated the self to secondary concern as God and faith
in Him became primary. The self became secondary as the self credits its origin to God.
St. Agustine (353-430 AD) St. Agustine is one of the two thinkers of the medieval
philosophy whose works were, to some extent, influenced by Plato’s philosophy. St.
Agustine integrated the philosophical concepts of Plato with the tenets of Christianity
especially on the dualistic view of reality and the self. St. Agustine attempted to develop a
more unified perspective of the body-soul relation. Along with St. Tomas Aquinas, they
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believed that the self is a tripartite being composed of the body, soul and spirit. The body
is the outer part of the self directly in contact with the world. The soul is the inner part of
the self composed of the mind, emotions and will. The spirit is the inner most part of the
self or the core where it can commune with God (Joven (2006) cited by Degho, S. et al.
(2019)). He believed that the body is a slave to the soul and sees this relation as
contentious: “The soul makes war with the body”. However, as his thinking became
matured, St. Agustine came to believe that the body is a “spouse” to the soul. He
concludes that, “the body is united with the soul, so that man may be entire and
complete…” (Chafee, J., 201). St. Agustine emphasized the omnipotence of God and
asserted that He created man, body and soul. The soul is created by God to administer
the body. The body is subjected to mortality. The body is united with the soul so that the
body may be complet (Degho, S. et al. 2019).
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Cogito ergo sum is also the cornerstone of Descartes’ concept of the self.
The essence of existing as a human identity is the possibility of being
aware of ourselves. Being self-conscious is therefore, an integral to having
personal identity (Chafee, J., 2013).
John Locke (1632-1704). John Locke is a British philosopher and a physician who laid the
groundwork for an empiricist approach to philosophical questions. This means that the
source of knowledge of reality must pass the test of sensory experience. He continued
exploring the themes initiated by Descartes both on the nature of knowledge
(epistemology) and the nature of the self. For Descartes, our reasoning ability is the origin
of knowledge and final court of judgment in evaluating the accuracy and value of the
ideas produced. For Locke, all knowledge originates in our direct sense experience, which
acts as the final court of evaluating the accuracy and value of ideas.
For Locke, knowledge is not innate because at birth, the mind is likened to a black
slate (tabula rasa) upon which life experiences are written (Ramos, 2004 cited in Degho,
S. et al., 2019). As we grow, we experience many things, accumulate knowledge which are
then included in the blank sheet of our mind or paper. When we were toddlers or kids,
we slowly begin to learn how to use spoon and fork, how to dress up properly, how to
read and write and how to behave properly in certain situations. These and many more
experiences are accumulated as more and more knowledge are added thru time. Thus, the
existence of our knowledge of the self is based on our consciousness or memory of it.
Locke’s On Personal Identity engages in a reflective analysis on how we experience
ourselves in everyday life. Here are some of the key notes:
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Thus, the essence of the self is its conscious awareness of itself as a thinking,
reasoning, reflecting identity. The self is not tied to any particular body or substance, and
it only exists in other times and places because of our memory of those experiences. Locke
denies that the individual self necessarily exits in a single soul or substance.
For Locked, every aspect of our physical body is integrated with our personal
identity. For him, personal identity remains the same despite the changes in the physical
substance of our body. Consequently, he argues that our personal identity is distinct from
whatever substance it finds itself associated with.
Impressions are the basic sensation of our experience, the elemental data of our minds:
pain pleasure, heat cold, happiness, grief, etc. they are lively and vivid. Whereas, ideas are
copies of impressions. This includes thoughts and images that are built up from our
primary impressions through a variety of relationships, but because they are derivative
copies of impressions, they are once removed from reality.
If we examine these basic data of our experience, we see that they form a fleeting
stream of sensations in our mind and that nowhere among them is the sensation of a
“constant and invariable” self that exists as a unified identity over the course of our lives.
And because the self is not to be found among these continually changing sensations, we
can only conclude that there is no good reason for believing that the self exists (Chaffe, J.,
2013).
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His view of the self is an antithesis to Hume’s view of the self. Though Kant started his
philosophy by admitting Hume’s point that all knowledge of the world begins with
sensations, Kant argued that Hume may have overlooked that our primary experience of
the world is not in terms of a disconnected stream of sensations, instead we perceive and
experience an organized world of objects, relations and ideas. He further notes that
organization of our world comes from our us, our minds! Our minds actively sort,
organize, relate and synthesize fragmented, fluctuating collection of sense data that our
sense organs take in. For instance, you are presented with a hundred pieces of jigsaw
puzzles in front of you. This jigsaw puzzle would appear to be a random collection of
items unrelated to one another and containing no meaning for you. However, as you
begin to assemble the fragmentary pieces, it forms a coherent image that would
consequently have significance for you. This is what Kant called the meaning-constructing
activity, which our minds are doing every time. This meaning-constructing activity is
precisely what our minds are doing all the time: taking a raw data of experience and
actively synthesizing it into familiar, orderly meaningful world in which we live. Thus, we
construct our world through these conceptual operations, and as a result, this is a world
in which we can gain insight and knowledge.
So, who is the self? Kant conceptualized two kinds of the self: the empirical and
the transcendental. The empirical self is the known self, an aspect of the self that make
the self unique, such as the physical aspect, memories, personalities, history and culture.
The transcendental self is the self that exists independently of experience. It is the
synthesizing, unifying, organizing principle that interprets, constructs and give meaning
to sensory data. The self is product of reason because the self regulates experience by
making unified experience possible.
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Sigmund Freud is an Austrian doctor who founded the
psychoanalytic school of psychology. Freud’s view of the self is multi layered divided
among the conscious, pre-conscious and unconscious. The division among the three is
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neither absolute nor permanent. What is pre conscious become conscious and what is
unconscious can be made conscious.
The concept of the unconscious forms part of the core of Freud’s theory of the
structure and dynamics of the human personality. It is the unconscious self or the id that
holds the greatest fascination for Freud and has a significant influence in our personality.
The unconscious self has the dominant influence in our personalities. It contains basic
instinctual drives that seeks immediate gratification (e.g. sexuality, aggressiveness,
traumatic memories, etc.) characterized by the most primitive level of human motivation.
It is the naked impulses that are governed by the “pleasure principle”. Our unconscious
self operates at a pre logical and pre rational level. Though this is a great influencer in our
lives, it is not directly observable and its existence can only be inferred from such
phenomena as neurotic symptoms, dreams and “slips of the tongue” (Chaffe, J., 2013).
Meanwhile, the conscious self or the ego is governed by the “reality principle” such
that behaviors are organized in ways that are rational, practical and appropriate to the
social environment. It has ultimately the task of controlling the constant pressures of the
unconscious self. The superego is the moral aspect of the self. It provides a check and
balance to the demands of the id.
Freud, just like Plato and Aristotle, wanted to restore a harmonious balance among
the parts of the mind (id, ego and superego), the individual and this world. A good balance
among the three is the secret to attaining a positive mental health and well-being of the
self.
Gilbert Ryle (1900-1976). Ryle is an analytic philosopher and an important figure in the
field of “Linguistic Analysis” which focused on solving philosophical puzzles through an
analysis of language.
Ryle, in his book, The Concept of Mind, made rather clear that the dualism of
mind-body created a category mistake. This category mistake takes place when the self is
thought to be pure mental entity that exists apart from certain observable behavior. For
Ryle, he believes that the mind is a concept that expresses the entire system of thoughts,
emotions, actions and so on that make up the human self. The self, then, must be
understood as a pattern of behavior or the tendency of an individual to behave in a
certain way in particular situation.
The nature of the motive of the self can be described by the actions and reactions
of the self in different circumstances. The self, therefore, is the way he/she behaves.
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Patricia and Paul Churchland (1943-Present). Paul and Patricia Churchland are
Canadian-American philosophers whose work has focused on integrating the disciplines
of philosophy of mind and neuroscience. The approach is called neurophilosophy. They
are also central figures in the philosophical stance known as eliminative materialism.
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Neurophilosophers, Paul and Patricia disagreed with the behaviorism concept of the self
by Ryle, which equates the self with bodily behavior. For them, the self is the brain. They
assumed that even morality and free will are the products of the brain, such that our
physical and mental lives are influenced by the brain (Bowie et al., 1998 cited by Degho,
S., 2019). Neuroscientists believed that to understand the mind, we must understand the
brain. The mental state of the mind can have an influence to the physical conditions of
the self. It has an impact on the cognitive, affective and psychomotor of the self.
Is the self both body and soul? Or is the self a body or soul? Western philosophical
tradition does not view the human body as a subject, but simply considers the body as an
object. For Merleau-Ponty, if we see ourselves at the fundamental level of direct human
experience, we discover that the body and mind are unified, not separate. In his book,
Phenomenology of Preception, he argued that it is this basic consciousness that is the
foundation for our perception and knowledge about our world. In sum, Merlaeu-Ponty
claimed that everything we are aware of is contained within our consciousness, ‘it is our
consciousness that is primary and the space/time world that is secondary, existing
fundamentally as an object of our consciousness’ (Chaffe, J., 2013).
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LEARNING ACTIVITY
In this unit, there are two possible activities that students can undertake for them to
apply what they have learned from the unit. These activities aim to help the students refresh
their memories on the various philosophers discussed and consequently, students can
develop reflective thinking that can assist them in evaluating their own philosophies in life.
A. Individual Work
Answer the reflective question below. Write it in a paper with your name on the upper
left. Do it in 30 minutes.
Q: Choose one among the several philosophers whom you think has the same philosophy
of the self as yours and explain.
B. Group Work
Group yourselves into four. Contemplate on the question below and share with the group
your answer. A volunteer from each group will share his/her answer to the class.
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ASSESSMENT
1. On your learning journal, write a reflection paper on what are your deepest
questions in life?
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Unit 2
SOCIOLOGICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON THE SELF
Learning Objectives
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1. Analyze the different representations and conceptualizations of the self from a
sociological/anthropological point of view.
2. Compare and contrast how the self has been represented as examined by the
different sociological/anthropological constructs.
3. Understand and internalize the different sociological/anthropological
perspectives in the development of a social self.
4. Determine the concept of stigma or self-stigma and how they arise from
social/cultural biases and prejudices.
____________________________________________________________________________
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B. Defining Culture
There is no definite way to define what culture is. Perhaps, the most succinct
encapsulation of what culture is would be the working definition provided by the
anthropologist Sir Edward B. Tylor who contended that:
“that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom, and any
other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.”
CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
Culture is based on symbols. Symbols are arbitrary and the meanings attached
to specific symbols vary cross-culturally. Art, belies, language and value systems
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are all within the symbolic structure of cultures. The heterogeneity of cultures is
based on their symbolic differences.
Culture is dynamic. Although cultures are universal, they are not static. The
various aspects of culture are in constant interaction with each other and through
this, cultural change is constant. When cultures come in contact with other
cultures, ideological and symbolical exchange happens. As such, if one part of
culture changes, it is most likely that the entire cultural system must adjust to the
change.
COMPONENTS OF CULTURE
We have mentioned that cultures have certain aspects/dimensions that are in constant
interaction with each other. Within these dimensions are specific components that make
a culture both an integrated whole and a by-product of the relationship of its parts. In
this section, we will cover the three components of culture: the cognitive, the normative
and the material.
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PATTERNS OF CULTURE
Culture exists in multiple levels and it is experienced variably in different cultural
patterns. To further understand the variability of culture, we need to know some basic
patterns of culture that we consciously and unconsciously live with.
High Culture. A term which describes the pattern of cultural experiences and attitudes
that exist in the highest, class segments of society.
Popular Culture. Refers to the pattern of cultural experiences and attitudes that exist in
mainstream society.
Cultural Change: Culture is always evolving. Cultures change when something new
opens up new ways of living and when new ideas enter a culture. (Globalization,
Innovation, Inventions)
Cultural Lag: coined by William F. Ogburn. It refers to the time that elapses between
when a new item of material culture is introduced and when it becomes an accepted part
of nonmaterial culture.
Ethnocentrism. The practice of judging other’s culture by the standards of one’s own
culture.
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Cultural Relativism. The practice of judging a culture by its own standards; a particular
pattern of behavior is right or wrong as it is declared by the people who follow it.
Socialization is the process through which people are taught to be proficient members of
the society. It describes the ways that people come to understand societal norms and
expectations, to accept society’s beliefs, and to be aware of societal values. Socialization is
not the same as socializing (interacting with others, like family, friends, and co-workers);
to be precise, it is a sociological process that occurs through socializing.
FUNCTIONS OF SOCIALIZATION
1. Transmission of values, customs, beliefs from one generation to another.
2. Development of a person into a socially functioning person.
3. Social control mechanism.
AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
SOCIAL GROUP AGENTS: Social groups often provide the first experiences of
socialization. Families and later peer groups, communicate expectations and
reinforce norms.
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1. FAMILY: the first agent of socialization; influenced by race, social class, religion
and other factors.
2. PEER GROUPS: made up of people who are similar in age and social status and
are sharing the same interests. Peer groups provide their own opportunities for
socialization since kids usually engage in different types of activities with their
peers than they do with their families.
INSTITUTIONAL AGENTS: The social institutions of our culture also inform our
socialization. Formal institutions—like schools, workplaces, and the government—
teach people how to behave in and navigate these systems. Other institutions, like
the media, contribute to socialization by inundating us with messages about
norms and expectations.
THE LOOKING GLASS SELF THEORY by CHARLES HORTON COOLEY: People’s self-
understanding is constructed, in part, by their perception of how others view them.
Elements of the Theory:
1. The imagination of how we appear to other persons.
2. The imagination of the judgment of the appearance.
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STAGES CHARACTERIZATION
Imitation The preparatory stage; they copy the actions of people with whom they regularly
(0-1 year) interact with like their mothers and fathers.
Play Stage Role playing takes place where the child becomes gradually conscious of the role
(2-7 years
he plays but do not have a complete idea of the role; Example: acting out grownup
old) behavior, dress up and acting the mom role, talking on a toy telephone the way
they see their fathers do.
Game (8 Children learn to consider several roles at the same time and how those roles
years old interact with each other. They learn to understand interactions involving different
onwards) people with a variety of purposes.
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CULTURE: cultures are like texts and texts have meanings; meanings are also
enacted and not just pure abstractions, thus, if cultures are texts and texts have
meanings, cultures must be very material and tangible because they are enacted.
THICK DESCRIPTION: a method of analysis which provides enough context so
that a person outside the culture can make meaning of the behavior of the people
living there, helping a person transition from an outsider to an insider.
LEARNING ACTIVITY
Heritage mapping
Objectives:
With this activity, the students are expected to:
- Situate their group and personal experience of culture in their respective
hometowns.
- Contextualize how components of culture interact through heritage mapping.
- Identify the significant identifiers of their hometown through group discussion.
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1. List places, objects, events and community stories which you think symbolizes
your identity as people living in one hometown. List at least two items for each
table.
2. Do this in tabular form. For reference, refer to the example below.
3. Your answers can be expressed in either English or Filipino.
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creativity and
resourcefulness of every
barangay in coming up with
ingenious products.
COMMUNITY STORIES AND CULTURAL IMPACT TO THE SELF
BELIEFS SIGNIFICANCE
THE MSYTERY OF -Growing up, kids at church
THE STAIRCASE WELL would flock in the garden
OF THE ST. ANDREW where a staircase well is at.
THE APOSTLE We would throw pebbles in
CHURCH the well and compete on
which pebble was thrown
the farthest and deepest.
But at some point, we were
told by parents and
grandparents that the
mysterious staircase well in
the garden of the St.
Andrew Church should not
be disturbed. They told us
that within it are large
treasure chests but no one
can go near it because a
monstrous alligator is
guarding it. Since then,
none of the kids at church
would dare go near the
staircase well again out of
fear that the monstrous
alligator would suddenly
get them.
Rubric:
Depth of Analysis 10
Reflective Relevance 15
Coherence and Organization of 5
Thoughts
TOTAL 30
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Instructions:
1. After the individual heritage mapping, students with the same hometowns will be
grouped together.
Note: Some students don’t have townmates in class. Ask them to proceed to
the third instruction.
2. As townmates, they have to compare and contrast their individual work. They will
be asked to fill out a new activity sheet (the same activity sheet they accomplished
individually).
3. To be able to accomplish the group activity sheet, they have to write similar entries
from their individual worksheets. For items with no similar entries, they have to
discuss and decide which among their individual entries should be written in their
group work sheet.
4. After accomplishing the group worksheet, they have to draw a new town emblem
based on their personal knowledge of the heritage of their hometown and the new
things they learned about it when they had the group discussion.
5. Have them present their emblem outputs in class.
Rubric:
Chapter I. Unit 3
THE SELF FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF PSYCHOLOGY
Learning Objectives
_____________________________________________________________________________
1. Discuss the different psychological influences, factors and forces that shape the
self.
2. Compare and contrast how the self has been represented across the different
disciplines and perspectives.
3. Demonstrate critical and reflective thought in analyzing the development of one’s
self and identity by developing a psychological theory of the self.
____________________________________________________________________________
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however, builds an accumulated sense of inefficiency that will bring about life
crises in the future.
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Source: https://www.verywellmind.com/erik-eriksons-stages-of-psychosocial-development-2795740
CARL ROGERS
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He argued that self-actualization is not just the fulfillment of the ladder of needs.
Rather, he addedthat for a person to "grow", he/she needs an environment that
will provide him/her genuineness (as exemplified in openness and self-disclosure),
acceptance (being seen with unconditional positive regard), and empathy (being
listened to and understood). According to Rogers, without these, relationships and
healthy personalities will not develop as they should.
As such, he mentions that, “the organism has one basic tendency and striving - to
actualize, maintain, and enhance the experiencing organism.”
Rogers described the self as “that whole which expresses who we really are” and
that it could be divided into three components:
Self-image How individuals see themselves; one’s ideas about self-image can
be positive or negative and impact what they experience and how
they act.
Self-worth The value individuals place on themselves. It is forged in
childhood through individuals’ interactions with their parents.
Ideal Self The person an individual wants to be. The ideal self-changes as
we grow and our priorities change.
He further asserted that for this sense of self to ensue and develop, the
following concepts are essential:
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ABRAHAM MASLOW
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http://journalpsyche.org/revisiting-carl-rogers-theory-of-personality/
Instructions:
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o Third layer: should be composed of your fears, rejections and some things
that you want to change or undo because you feel that they are weighing
you down.
o Fourth layer: should express the person you want to become, the person
you do not want to become or the characteristics, values and other things
that you do not want others to know about you.
You may refer to the following photo guides in making your mandala:
At the back of your paper, write a concise explanation revealing the following:
o the meanings behind the colors and shapes that you used per layer
o why you chose that shape or image to overall represent your sense of self
o what aspects of your self or personality were you able to uncover while
making your mandala
Activity Rubric
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Unit 4
Learning Objectives
_____________________________________________________________________________
1. To compare and contrast Western and Eastern perspectives on the Self
2. To relate these perspectives with individualistic and collectivistic cultures
3. To identify one’s own definition of Self (self-construal) in relation to the overarching
perspective and culture
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From the previous units, we have learned how the environment, such as our society and
culture, can influence our understanding of the Self. In the same way, our own biological/natural
makeup, developmental stage, and personal thought processes can influence the way we interpret
the events happening around us and the actions we do in response to these events.
In this unit, we will initially look into two major perspectives - or thoughts – that
influence the way we define the Self. By first understanding how these two broad categories of
thoughts developed, we get to recognize how these thoughts from early civilizations have
developed cultural patterns such as individualism and collectivism. These patterns show
similarities and differences in the way the Self is defined and manifested in the person’s values,
beliefs, goals, cognitive processes (way of thinking), and behavior.
These religions all assert the Self (Man) to be distinct from his creator/creators.
Man’s substance is different from God, and Man was generally created to serve God.
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By investigating also the established religions and philosophies from the East,
we can learn how the Self is conceived in the Eastern perspective.
Hinduism. The Hindu hymn Rig-Veda from the Vedas described the beginning
to be “non-existent nor existent,” no death nor immortality, and day and night to be
undivided. In the Upanishads, the Self was narrated to be the only one in the
beginning. The Self in the shape of a person (Purusha) created another person for a
wife out of himself. When they embraced, Man was created. The wife tried to hide
from Purusha by transforming herself into a cow, but Purusha followed by
transforming himself into a bull. Thus, cows were created. The wife, then,
transformed into a mare; Purusha transformed himself into a stallion. Thus, horses
were created. The hide-and-seek game consisted the rest of the creation story.
Therefore, all things created are made up of the same Self which was in the beginning.
The Self, called the Brahman, is inside everyone and everything. The creator and the
created are unified, such that worshiping one is worshiping the other (Wolter, 2013).
The Atman, which is the non-material Self/soul can be reincarnated and expressed
into another being. With these held beliefs, Hinduism values respect, tolerance,
patience, acceptance, empathy, austerity, compassion, and transience.
Taoism. Tao is believed to be the ultimate life source of the whole universe; the
pattern and substance of everything that exists. While Tao may be described in this
manner, it cannot be clearly defined but only understood as a person adopts a free-
flowing, relative, unitary and paradoxical view on all things. The concept of Yin and
Yang depict harmony and complementarity of different forces, with one being
dependent on the other. With the Self being a part of the universe, an ideal Self is the
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selfless Self – one that is in harmony and balance with the nature and others by
embracing simplicity and acceptance of things as they are.
Confucianism. Confucianism places high regard for harmony and status of the
community. The Self is closely knit with the identity/status of his/her
family/community such that one’s failure is the failure of the family and the family’s
accomplishments are considered to be one’s own. The family/community educates
the person through rituals on how to behave and understand the Self as part of the
group. Filial piety or the respect for parents and ancestors is one of the most
important virtues inculcated on the person. This involves a recognition of the
hierarchy within the family and a recognition also of the family’s status in a broader
community. Self-cultivation is regarded as a way to bring harmony within the
family/community because the accomplishment of one’s Self brings honor to the
family.
Now, how do these two broad perspectives relate with culture and the Self?
Here are the attributes that can be commonly found in individualistic and in
collectivistic cultures:
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Vertical Vertical
Collectivism Individualism
Self as part of the Self is autonomous /
collective/group independent
Believes and accepts Acknowledges that
inequality and hierarchy inequality will exist
within the collective among individuals and
accepts this inequality
Horizontal Horizontal
Collectivism Individualism
Self as part of the Self as autonomous
collective Believes that equality
Perceives all the among individuals is the
members of the ideal
collective to be equal
While Eastern and Western thoughts may seem exact opposites of each other,
similarities can still be observed. For one, there is a general understanding of the person as
the same across time and space, such as a person for the Western thought is an individual
entity whether the person lives in China or in Spain or whether the person lived 500 years
ago or at the present time in history. Similarly for the Eastern perspective such as the
Buddhist’s, a person is a combination of skandhas whether the person be in China or Spain,
or lived 500 years ago or at the present time.
Furthermore, there are aspects of Eastern thoughts that may be observed also on
Western thoughts, vice versa. Relationships also perpetuate in the Western thoughts in the
form of equality and respect for the rights of others. Recognition of a mystic/Supreme Being
or Cosmos is also present in the Western thought. Judeo-Christian and Islamic beliefs
(particularly its earlier form - Sufism), acknowledges Man to be breathed by the Spirit of
God, in that God has breathed his spirit into Man, thus making Man not distinctly different
from God. On the other hand, a recognition of individuality may also be perceived in the
Eastern perspective in the form of inner nature for Taoism, self-cultivation for
Confucianism, and Atman for Hinduism. Eastern perspective also acknowledges personal
responsibility.
Indeed, in places where a certain perspective propagates – whether it be Eastern or
Western, there still could be detected mixtures of individualistic and collectivistic
attributes. As there are similarities that may be seen between the Eastern and Western
thoughts, other aspects aside from these two broad perspectives can also impact a person’s
individualistic or collectivistic inclinations. These include ecological context (agricultural
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The Self from Various Perspectives Chapter I
LEARNING ACTIVITY
A. 20 I AM’s
Objective:
1. To reflect on one’s understanding of Self
2. To understand how Self may be defined differently and similarly by people
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The Self from Various Perspectives Chapter I
Instructions:
Step 1: With each student having a sheet of paper, instruct the students to complete 20 “I am __”
sentences. Statements may include how one may introduce him/herself, what makes one happy,
what dreams/ambitions one has, and what kind of life one envisions to have.
Step 2: Students will then be asked to form small groups where they would discuss among
themselves 3 of the 20 “I am” statements they have written that describes them the most. Let the
members of the small group consider similarities and differences in each other’s answers.
Step 3: As a class, process the individual answers by looking into the frequency of independent
self-construals compared with interdependent self-construals. Independent self-construals may
be seen in identification of one’s own ability, interests, and name. Interdependent self-construals
may be observed in the identification of one’s membership in a group/family, role in a
group/family/society, and goals directed towards the betterment of the group one belongs in.
Discuss the similarities and differences in the frequencies of their independent/interdependent
self-construal answers, and any realizations one may have upon learning one’s own and other’s
self-construals.
Instructions:
This activity explores the different age-old quotes that our culture has.
Step 1: On a piece of paper, write down a common quotation that you hear from older people. It
may be in Iluko or Tagalog. Example: “Ang lumakad nang matulin, kung matinik ay malalim.
Step 2: Students will then be asked to form small groups where they would discuss among
themselves the chosen adage and its meaning. Relate this adage with how a person is supposed to
think, feel, or behave. Analyze if the quote suggests a more individualistic or collectivistic
orientation.
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The Self from Various Perspectives Chapter I
ASSESSMENT
As an assessment, let each student answer the Individualism and Collectivism Scale of Triandis
and Gelfand (1998). This scale measures one’s level of individualism/collectivism and
vertical/horizontal orientation. After answering, the students are to write on their learning
journals reflections on the results of the scale with the following guide questions:
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The Self from Various Perspectives Chapter I
Answer from a scale of 1 to 9, with 1 = never or definitely no and 9 = always or definitely yes.
Scoring:
For Horizontal Individualism, add the following items: 1, 5, 9, 13
For Vertical Individualism, add the following items: 2, 6, 10, 14
For Horizontal Collectivism, add the following items: 3, 7, 11, 15
For Vertical Collectivism, add the following items: 4, 8, 12, 16
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The Self from Various Perspectives Chapter I
Rubric:
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